1.

2 Complex Numbers 21

1 Complex Numbers

1.1 Notation

Let R denote the set of real numbers. The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”. Thus we
write
x∈R
√
to mean x is an element of R. That is, x is a real number. Eg 2 ∈ R, π ∈ R, − 3 ∈ R
etc.

1.2 Complex Numbers

Complex numbers were introduced in the 16th century to obtain roots of polynomial
equations. A complex number is of the form

z = x + iy

where x, y ∈ R and i is (formally) a symbol satisfying i2 = −1. The quantity x is called

the real part of z and y is called the imaginary part of z.
The set of all complex numbers is denoted C. Eg 3 − 2i ∈ C.

1.2.1 Example

The real part of 3 − 2i is 3 and the imaginary part is −2 (not −2i).

Complex numbers can be added and multiplied by replacing i2 everywhere with −1. For
example (2i)2 = 4i2 = −4.

1.2.2 Example

Simplify (3 − 2i)(1 + i).

(3 − 2i)(1 + i) = 3 + 3i − 2i − 2i2
= 3+i+2=5+i

2
(3 − 2i)(1 + i) = 3 + 3i − 2i − 2i
= 3+i+2=5+i

1.2.3 Example

Suppose a, b ∈ R. Simplify (a + bi)(a − bi).

1.2 Complex Numbers 22

(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − abi + abi − b2 i2

= a2 + b 2

2 2 2
(a + bi)(a − bi) = a − abi + abi − b i
2 2
= a +b

If z = a + bi is a complex number, the number a − bi is called the complex conjugate of

z, denoted z. Eg the complex conjugate of 3 + 2i is 3 + 2i = 3 − 2i.
The previous example shows that z z is always a real number.

1.2.4 Example

3 − 2i
Simplify .
1−i
We multiply top and bottom by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This does
not change the value of the fraction, but the new denominator is a real number.

3 − 2i 3 − 2i (1 + i)
= ×
1−i 1−i (1 + i)
(3 − 2i)(1 + i)
=
12 + 12
1
= (3 − 2i)(1 + i)
2
1
= (5 + i)
2
5 1
= + i
2 2
We multiply top and bottom by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This does not change the value of the fraction, but the new
denominator is a real number.

3 − 2i 3 − 2i (1 + i)
= ×
1−i 1−i (1 + i)
(3 − 2i)(1 + i)
=
12 + 1 2
1
= (3 − 2i)(1 + i)
2
1
= (5 + i)
2
5 1
= + i
2 2

It is a fact that if we consider complex roots of polynomials (and count them with their
correct multiplicity), then a polynomial of degree n always has n roots. For example,
every quadratic has two roots.

1.2.5 Example

Find the roots of x2 + 2x + 2 = 0.

1.3 Polar form 23

Use the quadratic formula:

1 √ 1
x = (−2 ± 4 − 8) = (−2 ± 2i)
2 2
= −1 ± i.

Alternatively, complete the square. Take half the coefficient of the linear term 2x, namely
1. So consider (x + 1)2 :

x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 1 = 0
⇐⇒ (x + 1)2 = −1 = i2
⇐⇒ x + 1 = ±i
∴x = −1 ± i are the roots.
Use the quadratic formula:

1 √ 1
x = (−2 ± 4 − 8) = (−2 ± 2i)
2 2
= −1 ± i.

Alternatively, complete the square. Take half the coefficient of the linear term 2x, namely 1. So consider (x + 1)2 :

2 2
x + 2x + 2 = (x + 1) + 1 = 0
2 2
⇐⇒ (x + 1) = −1 = i
⇐⇒ x + 1 = ±i
∴ x = −1 ± i are the roots.

1.3 Polar form

Real numbers are often represented on the real line. A complex number z = x + iy may
be represented by a point in the complex plane, where the horizontal axis is the real axis
and the vertical axis is the imaginary axis.
We can also specify z by giving the length r and the angle θ in figure 1. The quantity r
is called the modulus of z, denoted |z|. It measures the distance of z from the origin. The
angle θ is called the argument of z. We have:
1.3 Polar form 24

y Imaginary

z=x+iy

r
θ x

Real

Figure 1: A complex number can be represented in rectangular or polar form.

x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
⇒ z = x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

p
Also r = |z| = x2 + y 2
y
tan θ = if x 6= 0.
x

x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
⇒ z = x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

q
Also r = |z| = x2 + y 2
y
tan θ = if x 6= 0.
x

1.3.1 Example

Write z = 1 + i in polar form.

1.4 Euler’s formula 25

First find the modulus: √ √

|z| = 1 + 1 = 2.
y
We have for the argument tan θ = , so we can take
x
y
θ = arctan
x
= arctan 1
π
=
4
√  π π
∴ z = 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
First find the modulus: √ √
|z| = 1 + 1 = 2.
y
We have for the argument tan θ = , so we can take
x

y
θ = arctan
x
= arctan 1
π
=
4

√ π π
 
∴ z = 2 cos + i sin .
4 4

1.4 Euler’s formula

Euler’s formula states for any real number θ:

cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ .

(To make sense of this, one has to define the exponential function for complex arguments.
This may be done using a series.)
Thus every complex number z = x + iy can be represented in polar form

z = reiθ .
1.4 Euler’s formula 26

Notes