HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT•

Human behaviour refers to the range of activities exhibited by humans and which are
influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport and genetic
factors.
Behaviour can be defined as a response/s which is observed directly/indirectly. Direct
observation is possible by studying the responses of people to a work environment.
Indirect observations are decision
Definition:• Human behaviour, in general is the potential and expressed capacity for
physical, mental, and social activity during the phases of human life.

MODELS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR:

• Psychoanalytic Model
• Existential Model
• Internal vs. External Determinants of Behaviour
• Personality vs. the Environment
• Cognition vs. the Environment
1) Psychoanalytic Model (Freud): behaviour is not always consciously explained.
"Unconscious" is the major factor which guides the individuals behaviour. Behaviour
depends on three factors: id, Ego and Super ego.
• Id:
1.) Childhood 2.) Pleasure principle 3.) Unconscious 4.) Can be constructive and
destructive (aggressiveness, fighting, destroying) 5.) Controlled with maturity
• Ego:
1.) Conscious stage of behaving 2.) Maintain balance between id and superego
• Superego:
1.) Represents conscience of the individual• 2.)Based on perfection principles. • 3.)
Depend upon cultural values and morals
2) Existential Model: • the depersonalizing effects of environment forces individuals
to make their own destiny. So the individuals shape their own identity and make their
"existence" meaningful and worthwhile to themselves. (Survival for the fittest)
3) Internal vs. External Determinants of Behaviour• Internal: genetic endowment•
External: environment
4) Personality vs. the Environment• both personality and situational variables must
be taken into account in order to explain an individual’s behaviour
5) Cognition vs. the Environment• Depends upon individuals past responses
(Stimulus and response)

Personality
• Acc. To Munn N.L : “Personality may be defined as the most characteristic, an
integration of individual structures, mode of behaviour, interests, attitudes, capacities,
abilities and aptitude”.
Personality development Different on different stages
• Childhood• Adolescence• Adulthood• Old age
1) First six years:
• starts with the pregnancy or pre-natal period• Formed by the end of three years ,after
that only further development of these qualities takes place.• activities like feeding,
weaning, loving, scolding, beating and developing the habits of cleanliness• Proper
love and care -- emotional stability• Excessive love and pampering --- unstable and
stubborn
• 2-3 years: friendship, determination and influencing others• of 4-5 years:
competitiveness develops.
2) Pre-adolescence or Pre-pubertal childhood• pre-pubertal childhood
1.) School environment affects the child.
2.) Child learns equality, freedom and independent.
3.) Success and failure during adjustment in the group teaches good and bad
habits in the child.
4.) Leans leadership quality.

3)  Puberty and adolescence :• maturing of sex organs

• More independent
• If child is restricted in this stage then personality development may stops•
4)  Adulthood: • requires more adjustment
• do job, gets married and gives birth to children. If these are satisfactory, then
personality remains balanced and if unsatisfactory then maintaining balance of
personality becomes difficult. •
5)  Old age:• No significant changes

 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:

• Psycho-analytical theory:
• Psychosocial theory:
• Abraham Maslow Theory:
• Social Cognitive Theory:
• Trait theory (Gordon All port’s Trait Theory):
1) Psycho-analytical theory: by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Id (pleasure principle)
. Ego (reality principle)
Superego
  Five psychosexual stages:
1.) The oral stage
2.) The anal stage
3.) The phallic or oedipal stage
4.) A latency stage
5.) The genital stage
 2) Psychosocial theory: by Eric H. Erikson (1902-1994)
• Age development task 0-18month trust vs. mistrust
18-3yr autonomy vs. shame and doubt
3-5 yr. initiative vs. guilt
5-12 yrs. industry vs. inferiority
 13-19yrs identity vs. role confusion
20-40 yrs. intimacy vs. isolation
40-65 yrs. generatively vs. stagnation
65-death ego integrity vs. Despairs
 3) Abraham Maslow Theory: • Two things: our capacity for growth or self-
actualization our desire to satisfy a variety of needs.
4) Social Cognitive Theory• personality development is primarily shaped by three
factors: Environmental Cognitive- personal factors Behaviour
Environment: social, cultural• Cognitive: perception and interpretation
Cognitive-personal: beliefs, values, expectations, genetic influences
Trait theory (Gordon All port’s Trait Theory):• A trait are stable characteristic that
causes individuals to behave in certain ways.
Types of traits
 Central traits (general characteristics, intelligent, honest, shy and anxious
 Secondary traits (These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or
preferences) often appear only in certain situations or under specific
circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a
group or impatient while waiting in line.

Growth and Development

 Growth

• It is the process of physical maturation resulting an increase in size of the body

and various organs. It occurs by multiplication of cells and an increase in in
intracellular substance. It is quantitative changes of the body.

  Development
• It is the process of functional and physiological maturation of the individual.
It is progressive increase in skill and capacity to function. It is related to
maturation and myelination of the nervous system. It includes psychological,
emotional and social changes. It is qualitative aspects.
   Principle of Growth and Development
• Cephalic-caudal direction
• Proximal-distal direction
• General to Specific

  Cephalic-caudal direction • the process of cephalocaudal direction from head

down to tail. This means that improvement in structure and function come first
in the head region, then in the trunk, and last in the leg region.

  Proximodorsal direction; - The process in proximodorsal from centre or

midline to periphery direction. development proceeds from near to far - outward
from central axis of the body toward the extremities

  General to Specific • Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason
and solve problems. • Children at first are able hold the big things by using both
arms, In the next part able to hold things in a single hand, then only able to pick
small objects like peas, cereals etc. • Children when able to hold pencil, first
starts draw circles then squares then only letters after that the words.

  Factor influencing Growth and Development

• Genetic factors
• Prenatal factors
• Postnatal factors
  Genetic factors • Genetic predisposition is the importance factors which
influence the growth and development of children. • Sex • Race and Nationality
  Prenatal factors • Intrauterine environment is an important predominant factor
of growth and development. Various conditions influence the fatal growth in
utero.
Maternal malnutrition • Maternal infection • Maternal substance abuse •
Maternal illness • Hormones • Miscellaneous
  Postnatal factors • Growth potential • Nutrition • Childhood illness • Physical
environment • Psychological environment • Cultural influence • Socio economic
status • Climate and season • Play and exercise • Birth order of the child •
Intelligence • Hormonal influence

  GROWTH AND &DEVELOPMENTAL AGE PERIODS

 Infancy –Neonate
•Birth to 1 month –Infancy
•1 month to 1 year
• Early Childhood –Toddler
•1-3 years –Preschool •3-6 years 18
• Middle Childhood – School age – 6 to 12 years
• Late Childhood
• Adolescent – 13 years to approximately 18 years

Growth and Development Monitoring

  Assessment of growth
• Assessment of physical growth can be done by anthropometric measurement and
the study of velocity of physical growth. • Measurement of different growth
parameters is the importance nursing responsibility in child care.

  Weight
• Weight is one of the best criteria for assessment of growth and a good
indicator of health and nutritional status of child. • Among Indian children,
weight of the full terms neonate at birth is approximately 2.5 kg to 3.5kg. •
There is about 10% loss of weight first week of life, which regains by 10 days
of age.

• Then, weight gain is about 25- 30 gm per day for 1st 3 month and 400gm/
month till one year of age. • The infants double weight gain their birth weight
by 5month of age, trebled by one year, fourth time by two years, five times by
three year, six times by five year, seven times by seven year and ten times by
ten year. • Then weight increases rapidly during puberty followed by weight
increase to adult size.
  Length and height
• Increase in height indicates skeletal growth. Yearly increments in height
gradually diminished from birth to maturity. • At birth average length of a
healthy Indian new-born baby is 50 cm. • it increases to 60 cm at 3 months, 70
cm of 9 month and 75 cm at one year of age. 25
• In second year, there is 12 cm increase, third year it is 9 cm, fourth year it is 7
cm and in fifth year it is 6 cm. • so the child double the birth by 4 to 4.5 years of
age afterwards there is about 5 cm increase in every year till onset of puberty.
26

  Body Mass index (BMI) • It is an important criteria which helps to assess the
normal growth or its deviations i.e. malnutrition or obesity. Weight in Kg BMI =
-------------------------------- (Height in meter) 2 • BMI remains content up to the
age of 5 years. If the BMI is more than 30 kg/m2, it indicates obesity and if it is
less than 15Kg/m2, it indicates malnutrition.
  BMI Categories:- –Underweight = <18.5 –Normal weight = 18.5–24.9 –
Overweight = 25–29.9 –Obesity = BMI of 30 or greater
  Head circumference • It is related to brain growth and development of
intracranial volume. Average head circumference measured about 35 cm at birth.
• At 3 months it is about 40 cm, at 6 month 43 cm, at one year 45cm, at 2 years
48 cm, at 7 year 50 cm and at 12 years of age it is about 52 cm, almost same an
adult.
• If head circumference increase more than 1 cm in two weeks during the first 3
month of age then hydrocephalus should be suspected. • Head circumference is
measured by ordinal tap, placing it over the occipital protuberance at the back,
above the ear on the side and just over the supraorbital ridges in front measuring
the point of height circumference.

  Chest circumference • chest circumference or thoracic diameters is an

importance parameter of assessment of growth and nutrition status. • At birth it
is 2-3cm less than head circumference. At 6 to 12 months of age both become
equal. • After first year of age, chest circumference is greater than head
circumference by 2.5 cm and by the age of 5 year, it is about 5 cm larger than
head circumference.
• Chest circumference is measured by placing the tape measure around the chest
at level by placing the tape measure around the chest at the level of the nipple,
in between inspiration and expiration.

  Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) • this measurement helps to assess

the nutritional status of younger children. • There is growth due to inadequate
nutritional, which can be this simple particle and useful measurement.
• The average MUAC at birth is 11 to 12 cm, at one year of age it is 12 to 16
cm, at 1 to 5 years it is 16 to 17 cm, at 12 years it is 17 to 18 cm and at 15 years
it is 20 to 21cm.
 
  Assessment of Development
• Normal development is a complex process & has a multitude of facets. However,
it is convenient to understand & assess development under the following domains.
–Gross motor development –Fine motor skill development –Personal & social
development –Language –Vision & hearing.
  Gross motor development • Motor development progress in an orderly
sequence to ultimate attainment of locomotion & more complex motor tasks
thereafter. In an infant it is assessed & observed as follows:
 Key gross motor development milestones Age Milestone 3m Neck holding 5m
Rolls over 6m Sits with own support 8m Sitting without support 9m Standing
holding on (with support) 12m Creep well, stand without support 15m Walks
alone creeps upstairs 18m Runs 2 yr. Walks up and down stairs 3 yr. Rides
tricycle, 4yr Hops on one foot, alternate feet going downstairs.
  . Fine motor skill development • Fine motor development upon neural tract
maturation. Fine motor development promotes adaptive actives with fine
sensorimotor adjustments and include eye coordination, hand eye coordination,
hand to mouth coordination, hand skill as finger thumb apposition, grasping,
dressing act.
 fine motor development milestone Age Milestone 4m reaching out for the
objects with both hands 6m Reaching out for the objects with one hand 9m
Immature pincer grasp 12m Pincer grasp mature 15m Imitates scribbling, tower
of 2 blocks 18m Scribbles, tower of 3 blocks 2yr Tower of 6 blocks, vertical and
circular stroke 3 yr. Tower of 9 blocks, copies circle 4yr Copies cross, bridge
with blocks 5yr Copies triangle, gate with blocks
  Personal & social development • Personal and social development includes
personal reactions to his own social and cultural situations with neuro-motor
maturity and environment stimulation. It is related to interpersonal and social
skill as social smile, recognition of mother, use of toys.
  Age Milestone 2m Social smile 3m Recognizes mother 6m Recognizes
strangers, stranger anxiety 9m Waves “bye” 12m Comes when called, plays
simple ball game 15m Jargon 18m Copies parents in tasks 2yr Asks for food,
drink, toilet 3yr Shares toys, knows full name and gender 4yr Plays
cooperatively in a group, goes to toilet alone. 5yr Helps in household tasks,
dressing and undressing 56 Key social and adaptive milestones
  Language development Age Milestone 1m Alerts to sound 3m Coos ( musical
vowel sounds) 4m Laugh loud 6m Monosyllables (be, da, pa) sound 9m
Bisyllables ( mama, baba, dada) sound 12m 1-2 words with meaning 18 m 8 -10
words vocabulary 2yr 2-3 word sentences, uses pronouns “I”, “Me”, “you” 57 3
yr Ask question 4yr Says songs or poem, tell stories 5yr Asks meaning of words

DEFENCE MECHANISM

The term ‘Defence Mechanism’ was first used by Sigmund Freud in his paper “The
Neuro-Psychoses of defence” (1894).  Anna (1937) developed the ideas given by
Freud and elaborated them, adding 5 other own.  In his psychoanalytical theory,
Freud explained a defence mechanism is a tactic developed by ego to protect against
anxiety
MEANING
Defence mechanism is the act or technique of coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety
generated by threats from unacceptable or negative impulses. The process is usually
unconscious.
 In Freudian Psychoanalytical theory, Defence Mechanism are psychological strategies
brought into play
The unconscious mind to manipulate, deny or distort reality in order to defend against
feelings of anxiety & unacceptable impulses to maintain one’s self schema.
 Defence Mechanism, in Psychoanalytical theory, any of a group mental processes
that enables the mid to reach compromise solutions to conflicts that is unable to
resolve.
 Rationalization.
 Projection.
 Compensation.
 Regression.
 Sublimation.
 Withdrawal.
 Displacement.
 Simple denial.
 Fantasy.
 Repression
 Reaction formation
 Negativism

1) RATIONALIZATION
Is the substitution of a safe & reasonable explanation for the true cause of behaviour?
It occurs when we tell an element of truth but deny the larger truth of the matter.
Example: - a student who cheats on a test may say: “I only cheated on a few question,
I know most of the answers”.
2) REGRESSION:-
When someone is under a lot of stress, they return to behaviour from an earlier stage
of development. Also known as back journey
Ex: - a lady regressed into adolescent starts to walk, talk or dress like as her younger
self. When a person is confronted to some loss may be back journey to a stage which
had been more pleasant & successful in his lifetime.
3) SUBLIMATION:-
 Satisfying an impulse (Ex- aggression) with a substitute object in a socially
acceptable way.
 This is similar to displacement but occurs when we manage to displace our
emotions into a constructive rather than destructive manner.  Refocusing such
unacceptable or harmful impulses into productive use helps a person to channel the
energy that otherwise would be lost or used in a manner might cause a person more
anxiety.
Example: - Sport is an example of putting our emotions into something constructive.
4) WITHDRAWL:-
If someone faces failure or rejection they try to withdraw from that situation. Ex: - fear
of rejection in making friends.
5) DISPLACEMENT:-
 To transfer an impulse or idea from a threatening object to a less threatening object
6) SIMPLE DENIAL
Denial involves blocking external events from awareness. If some situation is too
much to handle, the person refuses to experience it. Most people use denial in their
everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their life they don’t
wish to admit.
7) IDENTIFICATION MECHANISM:-
 A focus on negative or feared traits i.e. if you are afraid of someone, you can
practically conquer that fear by becoming more like them.
 It can be identified as a mental mechanism beyond conscious awareness
8) FANTACY: - Is a sort of imagination which can provide an escape from
frustration by giving us imaginary satisfaction. Fantasy is a mechanism of wishful
thinking & important for creative thinking’s through which an individual tries to make
himself like someone else
9) COMPENSATION:-
 It is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weakness by
emphasizing strength in other areas.
 It may be positive or negative.
Ex: - when a person says, “I may not know how to cook but I can sure do the dishes”.
Or “OK, maybe I’ll never be able to pass the class, but I’ll have fun and that teacher
will be sorry”
This defence mechanism helps to reinforce a person’s self-esteem & self-image.
Direct compensation indirect compensation
 When we try to make up the deficiency in the same area by putting more effort, by
taking guidance from people, tutors, teachers, guides etc.  ex:-a physically
unattractive adolescent becomes an attractive dancer.
 When we try to make up the deficiency of an area into some other area.
 Extreme form of indirect compensation in found in parents.
 Ex: - If one is not good in sports, they can overcome in studies.
10) REPRESSION: -  This was the first defence mechanism that Freud
discovered & the most important one.  It is an unconscious mechanism employed by
the ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts becoming conscious.  It is the
withdrawal from consciousness of an unwanted idea, affect or desire by pushing it
down or repressing it, into the unconscious part of the mind.  It can be defined as
Motivated Forgetting
Example: - Hysterical Amnesia, in which the victim has performed or witnessed dome
disturbing act & then completely forgotten the act itself & the circumstances
surrounding it. Repression is caused due to forces active within ourselves. We try to
forget what makes us feel inferior, ashamed, guilty & anxious
11) REACTION FORMATION: - Expressing emotions that are the exactly
opposite of what you feel.
 Conceal anger/hate with kindness.
 Teasing/bothering someone you like.
 It is converting the dangerous or unacceptable thoughts, feelings or impulses into
their opposites.
 This is a point where a person goes beyond denial & behaves in the opposite way to
which he or she thinks or feel.  It is also called Reversal Formation
Example: - a woman, who is very angry with her boss and want to quit instead may be
overly kind and generous towards her boss.
12) PROJECTION: -  Is the misattribution of a person’s undesired thoughts,
feelings or impulses onto another person who doesn’t have thoughts, feelings or
thoughts.  Projection occurs when an individual threatened by his own angry feelings
accuses another of harbouring hostile thoughts.  People deal with unacceptable
impulses by acting as if other people have them.
Example: - spouse cheats on wife and says that she is also a cheater
13) NEGATIVISM: -  Is a mechanism by which an individual draws the attention
of other persons. The person develops strong and irrational resistance in accepting the
suggestions of other.

BIBIOGRAPHY
Niraj Ahuja. Textbook of psychiatric” 20 edition jaypee brothers medical publishers,
page no.207-210.
Kapoor bimla textbook of psychiatric nursing 2nd edition. Kumar publishers house
Delhi 2006 page no. 9-18.
www.current nursing.com.
www.pubmed.gov