1/5/2021

Dr. Shakil Ahmad

NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE)
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering (SCEE)
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Islamabad, Pakistan

Outline
Streamflow, Stage, Rating, Section Control: Definition?

Selection of a Gauging Site

Stream Flow Measurements

Measurement of Water Stage

Stage-Discharge Relation

Hydraulic Structures for Discharge Measurement

Flow Measurement; Direct Methods, Hydraulic Devices,

Indirect Methods

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Velocity-Area Method
• Estimate flow volume by determining the velocity at
which water flows through a given cross-sectional area.
Flow = Velocity x Cross-sectional Area or
Q = VA
Need estimates of channel:
cross-sectional area
"average" current velocity
Final flow estimate accomplished by subdividing the
cross-section of the channel, determining the "average"
flow for each subdivision, and summing the
subdivision flows into a total flow for the channel

DISCHARGE IS USUALLY MEASURED USING

THE VELOCITY-AREA METHOD

Discharge = (Area of water in cross section) x (Water velocity)

x Water Velocity

Cross section area

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Channel cross section is divided

into numerous sub sections

Discharge of each sub-section = Area x Average Water Velocity

Area of each sub-section determined by directly measuring width and depth

Width Area = Width x Depth

Depth

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Water velocity in each sub-section estimated

using a current meter to measure water velocity
at selected vertical locations in the water column.

Stream discharge is sum of discharges in

all sub-sections (mid-section method)

Total Discharge = ((Area1 x Velocity 1) + (Area2 x Velocity2) + ….. (Arean x Velocityn))

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Mean-
Mean-section Method

 V + Vx +1  d x + d x +1 
qx =  x  Wx
 2  2 

Mid-
Mid-section Method

 Wx−1 + Wx+1 
q x = Vx d
 2  x

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Methods of Holding Current Meter

Measurement by Wading Rods
Measurement from Bridge
Measurement from a Cableway
Measurement from Boat

Streamflow Measurement

Scott Waichler photo

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Streamflow Measurement
Velocity

Current meter

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Example
Example: The data pertaining to a stream-gauging
operation at a gauging site are given below. The rating
equation of the current meter is V = 0.51 Ns + 0.03 m/s
where Ns = revolutions per second. Calculate the
discharge in the stream using mid-section method.
Distance 0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 12.0
from LEW
(m)
Depth (m) 0 1.1 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.7 1.0 0

Rev. Ns of 0 39 58 112 90 45 30 0
current
meter at
0.6d
Time (s) 0 100 100 150 150 100 100 0

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For the first and last sections, the segments are

taken to have triangular areas and area calculated
as:
ΔA1 = . y1 where

ΔAN = . yN-1 where

For the first and last sections,

Average width =

For the rest of the segments,

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LEW Avg. Width, W Depth, y Ns Avg. Velocity , v Segmental discharge, q

(m) (m) (m) (rev/s) (m/s) (m3/s)
0 0 0 0.0000
1 2 1.10 0.390 0.2289 0.5036
3 2 2.00 0.580 0.3258 1.3032
5 2 2.50 0.747 0.4110 2.0549
7 2 2.00 0.600 0.3360 1.3440
9 2 1.70 0.450 0.2595 0.8823
11 2 1.00 0.300 0.1830 0.3660
12 0 0.00 0.0000
Sum = 6.4540

Discharge in the stream = 6.454 m3/s

 Wx−1 + Wx+1 
q x = Vx d
 2  x

Use of Manning Equation

Stage is also related to the outflow via a

relationship such as Manning's equation

1.49 2 1
Q= ARh S f 3 2

n
Where A = Area of cross section, ft2
n = Manning’s Constant
Sf = Frictional Slope
Rh = Hydraulic Radius, ft

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Example
Find discharge in a rectangular channel having
Manning’s n = 0.04, Sf = 0.0005, width of 5 m and
depth of flow of 1.5 m.

n = 0.04; Sf = 0.0005; B = 5 m; y = 1.5 m

R = A / P where ‘P’ is the wetted perimeter
P = B + 2 y = 5 + 2 x 1.5 = 5 + 3 = 8 m
Area, A = B y = 5 x 1.5 = 7.5 m2
R = A / P = 7.5 / 8 = 0.94 m
Discharge, Q = A (1/n) R2/3 Sf1/2 = 7.5 x (1/0.04) x
(0.94)0.667 x (0.0005)0.5 = 4.02 m3/s

Stage-Discharge Relation
Typical relationship: Q = a(H+b)c
a & c = rating curve constants
b = constant which represents gauge reading corresponding to zero discharge
The function relationship between H & Q has to be calibrated locally for
different stations

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Extension of Rating Curve

During the event of large flood, it is impossible or impractical to
measure discharge directly. More often than not, the flood stage goes
beyond the range of the data range used to define the rating curve.
Therefore, extrapolation of the ration curve is needed when water level
is recorded below the lowest or above the highest level.

Large errors can result if the functional form of rating curve,

c
Q=a(H+b) , is extrapolated beyond the recorded gauge discharges
without consideration of the cross-section geometry and controls

Graphical extension or by the fitted Q-H relationship is adequate only

for small extension

For large extrapolation beyond the active channel cross-section,

hydraulic formula can be used to estimate the stage-discharge relation.

Steven A D Extension
Based on Chezy formula, Q = AC RS
A = flow cross-section area; C = Chezy Coefficient;
R = A/P hydraulic radius; and S = channel slope.

For a given section, C S = constant = K; whereas for a wide

channel (W>10D) R≈D. Therefore
Q=KA D
Q

K
1
AD

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Example (Extension of Rating

Curve)

Shifting controls

Change of stage discharge with time due to:

1. the changing characteristics of channel
2. aggradations or degradation of alluvial channel
3. variable backwater effect (the gauging section)
4. unsteady flow effects (rapidly change stage)

For 1 & 2 it is recommended to update rating curves

frequently

For 3 & 4 shifting control is recommended

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Electromagnetic Methods
An electromagnetic field can be set up in
the flowing water by constructing a coil
beneath the river and placing a coil above
the river
A voltage difference measured across the
river by electrodes on opposite banks is
proportional to the velocity of flow
Very expensive method; not often applied

Ultrasonic Method
By measuring the travel time of sound
pulses between river embankments, an
assessment of the velocity profile can be
made
The line between the sensors on each river
embankment must be at right angle to the
stream
The method is sensitive to turbidity and
operates therefore best in clear water

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