(PS260) FinalExamGuide Everythingyouneedtoknow! (23pageslong)

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FINAL EXAM
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STUDY GUIDE
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1. Cognitive Psychology
Two Crucial Properties
om
1) Representation: The knowledge we have and the information we store in our
memory
r.c
a) Dynamic Structure: always changing
b) Static Structure: almost never changing
lur
nb
2) Process: an operation on internal and external stimuli
tu
o Creating and manipulating new memories
ar
o Updating and reinterpreting information Sm
Roots
via
Aristotle
 A doctrine of Association that explained mental life in two basic components

e d
1) Ideas - elements
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2) Associations – links between elements

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 Made 3 Laws of Association

is
1) Contiguity – same in time and space

file
2) Similarity – alike conceptually
3) Contrast – opposites
is
Th
Franciscous Donders 1868
 Was the first to measure thinking time by looking at the time between a
stimulus and different types of responses
 Choice reaction time – Simple reaction time = Decision time for a

choice

Wilhelm Wundt/ Edward Titchener
 They began to study of experimental psychology in the 1800’s
 Created the concept of Introspection
om
o Looking within to observe and record content of out mental lives
o Minimum interpretation
r.c
 They studied the conscious mental events such as feelings, thoughts,
lur
perceptions and recollections
 Problems
nb
o We have unconscious thoughts
tu
o Testability
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o No objective facts Sm
Introspection Experimental
 Subjective  Objective
via
 Individual thoughts and  Group data is averaged

perspectives  Statistical
 Non – statistical
d
Ebbinghaus – 1885
e
ar
 Tested his own memory and created a method that estimates the forgetting
Sh
curve
 Method of Savings
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o Memorized a list of syllables that made no sense and tested his

memory at different time intervals
file
o Found that after a long time he would forget the list but the amount
of time to relearn it was faster each time
is
Th
 Savings = Original learning time – Learning time
William James – Late 1800’s
 Made a distinction between primary and secondary memory
2
o Primary Memory – Short Term Memory
o Secondary Memory – Long Term Memory
om
Functionalism: Define the properties of the mind in terms of the functions
that it serves
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o Examine relationship between adaption and psychological phenomena
lur
Watson / Skinner
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 Uncovered the principles of how behaviour changes in response to stimuli
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such as rewards and punishments
ar
 Behaviour is objective and observable

Sm
No role for consciousness, introspection and mind
 20th century – Behaviorism – an anti cognitive approach

via
 Problems?
o Behaviour comes from from understanding not from a stimulus - need

d
to explain why and how we preform various tasks

e
o Associating learning with performance

ar
 Memory is not simply the performance of a learned act

Sh
o Complex learning – like language

is
From this we Learned…

file
 Introspective methods for studying mental events are not scientific

is
 We need to study mental event in order to understand behaviour

Th
 Need an objective method
3
4
Cognitive Revolutions – created by the mid 1960’s when cognitive psychology
established itself as the dominant field of psychology
1) Transcendental Method – Immanuel Kant
 Work backward from observations to determine
om
 What is the best explanation using available facts
 Allows for firm conclusions based on invisible events
r.c
 Need to study mental events but indirectly
lur
o Measure/manipulate stimuli and responses
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o Develop a hypothesis about mental events
o Design new experiments and retest
tu
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2) Communications Engineering Sm
 Advances offered analogies for interpreting cognitive processes
 View of information as physical changes lead to concepts of experimental analysis

via
of the mind
1. E.g. Encoding, decoding, information processing, communication channels,

d
capacity, and noise

e
ar
Received Message
Message Signal
Signal
Sh
Information Transmitter CHANNEL Receiver Destination

Source
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Noise
3) Computer as Metaphor (1950’s)Source
is
 Computer analogy provided framework for studying the mind such as

Th
information storage, decision making, problem solving
 Psychological data explained in terms of buffers. Gates, and central

processers
4
 Hypothesize a series of information-processing steps
 Allowed to test steps. That lead to important discoveries intellectual

functioning in the 1960’s and 1970’s
om
r.c
4) Linguistic Theory
lur
 Behaviorist approach to language
nb
 Associative Chain Theory: a sentence consists of a chain of associations
tu
between individual words
ar
 Language acquisitions and use explained by reinforcement and
conditioning
Sm
 Families provide environment where proper language and grammar errors
are corrected
via
 Verbal Behaviour coined by B.F. Skinner

e d
o Chomsky (1959) – reviewed skinners approach

ar
 Productivity of Language
Sh
o People are able to understand and produce an infinite amount of

sentences (even when first heard)
is
o Cannot be reduced to stimulus response chains

file
 Poverty of Stimulus Argument
o Information in language samples that are given to children cannot

is
fully take in the complexity of children’s language

Th
 Intuitive Knowledge of Grammar
o Words with little or no associations can still be syntactically

acceptably
5
6
 Notion of Linguistic Units
o Discontinuous units show long-range dependencies among words in

sentences
om
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tu
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Sm
via
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Chapter 2 – Structures of the Brain

is
1)
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Hindbrain
 Located directly on top of the spinal cord

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 Controls crucial life functions such as heartbeat, breathing, alertness,

Th
sleep, and balance
 Cerebellum: controls movement, spatial reasoning, discriminating

sounds and integrating sensory input
6
om
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tu
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2) Midbrain Sm
 sits above the hindbrain
 Coordinates eye movement

via
 Includes auditory pathways

d
 Regulates experience of pain

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ar
 Inferior Colliculi (Auditory): relays auditory information to the forebrain

Sh
for processing
 Superior Colliculi (Visual): receives input from eyes and is involved in

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tracking visual object and in the reflexive movement of the eyes and head
file
3) Forebrain
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 The largest structure

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 Contains the cortex
 It is 3milimeters thick but compromises 80% of brain
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 Consists of convolutions, and produces massive surface area
 Deep fissures divide brain into different sections
Fissures and Lobes of Forebrain
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1) Longitudinal fissure – Separates left and right hemispheres
2) Central fissure – Divides frontal lobes from parietal lobes
r.c
3) Lateral fissure – Divides temporal lobes from frontal and parietal lobes
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nb
 Occipital lobes connected to parietal and temporal lobes
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Subcortical Structures of Forebrain:

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 Thalamus: integration center and “relay station” for most

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sensory information going to cortex
 Hypothalamus: motivated behaviors; such as eating, drinking, sexual activity

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Limbic System
Th
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 Hippocampus: long-term
and spatial memory
 Mammillary bodies: long-

term memory
om
 Amygdala: emotion and
evaluation of stimuli
r.c

lur
nb
Damage to the Amygdala
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• Capgras syndrome
o Recognize loved ones but think they are impostors
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o People with Capgras syndrome may think they were kidnapped
Sm
o May even see slight “defects”
o Capgras syndrome results from a conflict.

via
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Pairs of structures and brain lateralization

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 cortical and subcortical structures come in pairs

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o roughly the same size and shape

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o same pattern of connections to brain areas

Th
 there can be a large difference in functions
 Example: Language is generally dominated by the left hemisphere while

spatial reasoning is mostly dominated by right hemisphere
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Lateralization
 Commissures: are thick bundles of fibers that carry information back and
forth between the two hemispheres
om
o The largest is the corpus callosum
r.c
 Split brain patients have a severing of the corpus callosum
lur
o Treatment of epilepsy
o Severely limited right-left communication
nb
 Cortical organization is contralateral
tu
o the left side of the body or perceptual world has more
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representation on the right side of the brain, and vice versa
Sm
 Left hemisphere produces language but the right can only point to object,
no language available
via
Primary Motor Projection Area

d

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Located at rear of frontal lobe

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 It contains nerve cells that send signals

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to lower parts of brain and spinal cord

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The Properties of the Primary

Projection Area
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1) Contralateral Control: - stimulation to one hemisphere leads to movement

on the opposite side of the body
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Th
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2) Areas form “maps” of the body and specific positions in

the cortex correspond to specific parts of the body
3) More precise movement = more cortical area
om
r.c
Primary Sensory Projection Areas
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1) Touch
nb
 Is located in the front of
the parietal lobe
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 It has more cortical space
devoted to parts of the Sm
body that are most
sensitive to touch
via
 Parts of the body that are

close to each other and
represented close to each
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other in the brain

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2) Auditory
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 Located in the superior temporal lobe
 Different frequencies of sound have their own brain sites
 Adjacent sites are responsive to adjacent frequencies
 Increase to the cortical space to speech frequencies and contralateral
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processing of sound
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tu
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Sm Primary
Sensory
Projection Areas
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3) Visual
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 Located in the occipital lobe

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 Regions of visual space (not body

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parts) have their own cortical

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representation
 Adjacent areas of space have
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adjacent brain sites

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 Most cortical space is devoted to

the fovea (it is sensitive to detail)
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Association Areas
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 Take up 75% of the cortex

 They associate ideas and sensations for complex thoughts and behavior
 Initiate and coordinate skilled movements
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 Lesions in different regions have various cognitive impairments
Lesions in Association Areas and Cognitive Deficits

1) Apraxias
om
 Lesions in the frontal lobes
 There are disturbances in initiation or organization of voluntary actions
r.c
lur
2) Agnosias
 Lesions in occipital cortex and parietal lobe
nb
 There is a disruption in the ability to recognize familiar objects and
tu
often involve only one modality
ar
Sm
3) Neglect Syndrome
 Lesions in parietal lobes

via
 Person neglects half of visual world
o e.g., eat food from half of plate, shave half of face, etc.
e d
4) Aphasia
ar
 There is a disruption of language capacities from damage in left frontal &

Sh
temporal lobes
 Any damage close to motor projection areas leads to difficulties in

is
producing speech
file
 Any damage closer to auditory projection area leads to difficulties in

comprehending speech
is
Th
5) Damage to prefrontal area of frontal lobes
 Problems of planning and implementing strategies
 Problems inhibiting own behavior (e.g., social rules)
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 Prone to confusion (did something happen or not?)
Synapse
Synapse: neurons have firing thresholds and fire when enough ions flow into the
cell and the thresholds are met
om
 Communication between neurons is done via chemical signals.
r.c
 Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by one neuron to communicate
with another neuron.
lur
 The space between the two is called a synapse.
nb
 The space between the neurons is called the synaptic gap; the bit of the
tu
neuron that releases the transmitter into this gap is called the presynaptic
membrane, and the bit of the neuron on the other side of the gap, affected
ar
by the transmitters, is the postsynaptic membrane.
Sm
 Post-synaptic responses vary according to 3 factors:
1) How many neurotransmitters the pre-synaptic membrane releases (the

via
firing rate)
2) Sensitivity of the post-synaptic cell to the neurotransmitters

d
3) Post-synaptic membranes can receive input from multiple neurons

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Sh
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The All or None Law

file
 Once the threshold is met, the magnitude of a signal produced by the axon is
always the same
is
 But a neuron can fire frequently and for a longer periods of time
Th
Cognitive Neuroscience Techniques
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1) Computerized Axial Tomography (CT/CAT scans)
 A computer compares signals from multiple x-ray detectors to pinpoint the

source of each signal
 The computer then reconstructs a 3-D map of the brain and is great for
om
telling us where structures are
r.c
lur
nb
2) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
tu
 A Magnetic field passes through tissue and causes an alignment of nuclei of
atom
ar
 A radio wave then disrupts the spines of the atoms and then they realign the
Sm
spines with the magnetic field
 Energy that is released from the atoms are used to create detailed images
via
3) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

e d
 It has the same principles as a MRI, but measures the oxygen content in the
ar
blood instead
Sh
 Provides an excellent method of tracking blood flow and brain activity
 It has the best spatial resolution available but very limited in the temporal
is
resolution
file
 We see that the Fusiform face area (FFA) is active when we view faces
and the parahippocampal place area (PPA) is active when we view houses
is
Th
4) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
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16
 It creates strong magnetic pulses that are applied to specific regions on the
scalp
 It temporarily disrupts the brain’s processes in the area underneath the

scalp
 This allows examination of function of the brain areas with “normal” brain
om
r.c
5) Event- Related- Brian Potential Methodology (ERP)
lur
Electrical currents are generated when axons are firing
 When large assemblies of neurons are firing together in a similar region in
nb
the brain the electrical currents are detectable on the surface of the scalp
tu
 Relative to the area chosen as a reference site (usually mastoids – the boney
ar
protrusions behind ears), the electrical current is always more positive or
negative Sm
 Brain waves have a series of positive and negative peaks, and some of these
are determined by our cognitive processing
via
6) Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)

e d
 Individuals are injected with a radioactive substance

ar
 Photon detectors track the radioactive substance in the blood, and provides
Sh
a measure of the glucose levels
 Important for learning about brain functioning

is
file
Chapter 3 – Visual Perception

Visual Process
is
 Process begins with light entering the cornea, then through the lens onto
Th
the retina.
 The cornea and lens focus light to produce a sharp image on the retina
16
17
 Muscles surrounding lens change shape:
o Tightening muscle causes the lens to bulge, focusing on nearby objects

on the retina.
o Relaxing muscle flattens the lens, focusing on distant objects
om
Photo Receptors
r.c
 Rods are mostly in the periphery
lur
 Cones are mostly in the center
nb
tu
ar
Sm
via
The Optic Nerve

e d
 Photoreceptors stimulate bipolar cells, which stimulate ganglion cells

ar
 Ganglion cells collect information from retina and then gather to form the
Sh
optic nerve
 The optic nerve caries information to different sites in brain

is
1. Thalamus (Lateral Geniculate Nucleus)

file
2. Occipital Cortex (V1, Primary Visual Projection Area)
 The optic nerve is not just a passive carrier of information the process of
is
lateral inhibition also occurs in optic nerve; and it is crucial for edge
Th
enhancement (and therefore object discrimination)
Single Cell Recording
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1) Center-surround cells - “dot detectors”
 A stimulus in the center leads to faster

firing rates
om
 A stimulus in a surrounding area leads to
slower firing rates
r.c
2) Orientation-
lur
Specific Cells – “edge detectors”
 Cells that fire most frequently for stimuli
nb
with a particular orientation
tu
 Will fire less as the result of the degree
ar
that the orientation is different
Sm
3) Movement Detectors
via
 Cells fire strongly when a stimulus moves

across their receptive fields
e d
4) Angle Detectors
ar
 Cells that fire to angles of a particular size

Sh
Parallel Processing in the Visual System

is
 The “divide and conquer” strategy

file
o Different cells specialized for analysis of visual information

is
o The analysis is preformed simultaneously

Th
 The main advantages of this strategy are
1. Speed- there is no waiting for other processes to be completed first
18
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2. Mutual influence among systems- the systems “negotiate” solutions

that fit both together
om
Parallel Processing in the Visual System
r.c
 The “What and Where” Systems
1. A pathway from the occipital cortex to the temporal lobe is known as
lur
the “what” system
nb
 It is crucial for object identification, damage to this area leads
to visual Agnosias
tu
2. A pathway from the occipital cortex to the parietal lobe is known as
ar
the “where” system Sm
 It is crucial for object location, damage to this area leads to
difficulty in locating things
via
 The Binding Problem

d
o The task of reuniting the various elements of a scene

e
ar
o These elements are dealt with by different systems in different parts of

Sh
the brain
o The three systems include:
is
1. Spatial Position – the brain keeps track of where objects are and
reassembling pieces can be done by overlaying maps of elements (such
file
as where are colours and motions)

is
Th
2. Neural Synchrony – Visual areas processing features of the same

object fire in a synchronous rhythm with each other
3. Attention – We narrow the range of information that we
19
20
receive and neural firing becomes synchronized for the attended
stimuli, this diminishes confusion about what elements go together
o Overloading attention causes conjunction errors
¸Å
Problems with Visual Perception
om
1. How do we resolve ambiguity in the world?
r.c
 E.g. light from surfaces hitting the retina. constructing a 3 dimensional
image from a 2 dimensional surface
lur
 Different objects can produce the same image on the retina and the
nb
same object can produce different images on the retina
tu
2. How do we carve the world into regions that correspond to objects?
ar
a. Establishing boundaries of objects (individuation)
Sm
Objects are often partly occluded by other object and different
orientations
b. Establishing the persistence of objects over successive encounters

via
(identity)
 People resolve ambiguity in everyday situations

d
e
 There can be one set of visual features but two possible interpretations, but
ar
only one can be seen at a time

Sh
Form Perception
is
1. Establishing Figure-ground relations

file
 Gestalt Psychologists
 Figure is determined by regions of contrast, connectedness and

is
cohesiveness
Th
 Figure-ground is not completely determined by a stimulus alone

(reversible figures)
 The principles of grouping include
20
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1.1.1. Proximity- the closer the figures the more likely they will be
grouped together
1.1.2. Similarity- We tend to group similar elements together (shape,

colours, size, orientation)
om
1.1.3. Closure- Grouping items together so they form a closed figure,
when a figure is almost closes we perceive it as the whole figure
r.c
closed
lur
1.1.4. Good Continuation- we group together points that form smooth
continuous lines
nb
1.1.5. Principle of Common Fate – We group together items that are
tu
moving in the same way or direction
ar
1.1.6. Simplicity- We tend to interpret a form in the simplest way
possible Sm
 Bottom-up (Data-driven) Processing
via
has stimulus-driven affects
 Top-down (Concept-driven) Processing

d
has knowledge or expectation driven

e
effects
ar
Sh
Perceptual Constancy
is
 The sensory information we receive changes but the objects properties

appear as a constant e.g. Size, shape, and brightness
file
o Closer objects may appear larger while farther objects appear smaller
is
 Unconscious interference – as the object size doubles, the image size

Th
decreases by half
 The role of interpretation becomes clear from misinterpretations – illusions
 Lateral inhibition produces a contrast effect and a shadow amplifies it
21

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find more resources at oneclass.

We provide unlocked studymaterials from popular websites at affordable find

We provide unlocked studymaterials from popular websites at affordable find

Two Crucial Properties

b) Static Structure: almost never changing

 A doctrine of Association that explained mental life in two basic components

2) Associations – links between elements

 Made 3 Laws of Association

1) Contiguity – same in time and space

2) Similarity – alike conceptually

Franciscous Donders 1868

 Choice reaction time – Simple reaction time = Decision time for a

We provide unlocked studymaterials from popular websites at affordable find

Wilhelm Wundt/ Edward Titchener

 They began to study of experimental psychology in the 1800’s

 Created the concept of Introspection

 Individual thoughts and  Group data is averaged

o Memorized a list of syllables that made no sense and tested his

 Savings = Original learning time – Learning time

William James – Late 1800’s

 Made a distinction between primary and secondary memory

o Primary Memory – Short Term Memory

o Secondary Memory – Long Term Memory

 20th century – Behaviorism – an anti cognitive approach

o Behaviour comes from from understanding not from a stimulus - need

to explain why and how we preform various tasks

o Associating learning with performance

 Memory is not simply the performance of a learned act

o Complex learning – like language

From this we Learned…

 Introspective methods for studying mental events are not scientific

 We need to study mental event in order to understand behaviour

 Need an objective method

1) Transcendental Method – Immanuel Kant

 Work backward from observations to determine

 Allows for firm conclusions based on invisible events

o Design new experiments and retest

 View of information as physical changes lead to concepts of experimental analysis

1. E.g. Encoding, decoding, information processing, communication channels,

capacity, and noise

Information Transmitter CHANNEL Receiver Destination

 Computer analogy provided framework for studying the mind such as

information storage, decision making, problem solving

 Psychological data explained in terms of buffers. Gates, and central

 Hypothesize a series of information-processing steps

 Allowed to test steps. That lead to important discoveries intellectual

 Verbal Behaviour coined by B.F. Skinner

o Chomsky (1959) – reviewed skinners approach

o People are able to understand and produce an infinite amount of

o Cannot be reduced to stimulus response chains

 Poverty of Stimulus Argument

o Information in language samples that are given to children cannot

fully take in the complexity of children’s language

 Intuitive Knowledge of Grammar

o Words with little or no associations can still be syntactically

o Discontinuous units show long-range dependencies among words in

Chapter 2 – Structures of the Brain

 Located directly on top of the spinal cord

 Controls crucial life functions such as heartbeat, breathing, alertness,

sleep, and balance

 Cerebellum: controls movement, spatial reasoning, discriminating

 Coordinates eye movement

 Includes auditory pathways