>A nautical chart is a graphic
representation of a
maritimearea and adjacent
coastalregions. It displays the
charted depth of the water at
specific locations with
soundings and the use of
bathymetric contour lines. The
depths are relative to a “chart
datum”. >(Hydrographic
Surveys)Nautical charts are
based on Hydrographic
Surveys. As surveying is
laborious and time-
consuming, hydrographic data
for many areas of sea may be
dated and not always reliable.
Echo Soundin is used for
measuring the seabed in the
open sea.>Safe depth of water
should be measured over an
entire obstruction, such as a
shipwreck. 1National Chart
Number 2INTernational Chart
Number 3Laticed overprint
4Publication Note 5Edition
Note 6Unit used for sounding
7The seals of Hydrographic
Offices 8Chart title 9Chart
Projection (usually Mercator,
Transverse Mercator,
Gnomonic) 10Chart Scale
11Horizontal Datum 12Units
for sounding, Low Water
Datum, High Water Datum
13Cautionary Notes 14Source
Diagram 15Reference to Larger
Scale 16Reference to adjoining
>DATUM is a set of reference
points on the earth's surface
against which position
measurements are made, and
(often) an associated model of
the shape of the earth
(ellipsoid) to define a
Geographic Coordinate System
chart > Horizontal datums are
used for describing a point on
the earth’s surface, in
latitude(lintang) (oN or oS) and
longitude (bujur)(oE or oW) or
another coordinate system.
World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS84) It is the only world
referencing system in place
today.WGS84 is the default
standard datum for
coordinates
stored in
recreational
and
commercial
GPS units.
Uses the zero
meridianas
defined by the Bureau
International de
l'Heurewhich was defined
by compilation of star
observations in different
countries. The mean of
this data caused a shift of
about 100 metreseast away
from the Prime Meridianat
Greenwich>Vertical
Datum is used for
measuring the elevations of
points on the earth's surface.
High actual tide/ Highest high
water level= The highest water
elevation in 18.6 years Mean
High Water Spring = The mean
high water elevation during
Spring tide.Mean Higher High
Water = the average highest
tide of each day Mean High
Water = The mean of all high
water elevation.Mean High
Water (neaps) = The mean of
all high water elevation on
neaps event Mean Sea Level =
The mean of all water elevation
Mean Low Water (neaps) =
The mean of all low water
elevation on neaps event Mean
Low Water = The mean of all
low water elevation Mean
Lower Low Water = the
average Lowest tide of each
day Mean Low Water Spring =
The mean low water elevation
during Spring tide Lowest
Astronomical Tide = The
lowest tide predictable from
based the effects of gravity
Low actual tide/ Lowest low
water level = The lowest water
elevation in 18.6 years.
>GEOGRAPHIC
COORDINATE
SYSTEM:LATITUDE(Lintn
g),LONGITUDE(Bujur),AL
TITUDE (Ketinggian) >
CYLINDRICAL Projection
Gnomonic: The cylindrical
gnomonic projection illustrates
the basic pattern of normal
cylindrical projections.A light
source positioned at the centre
of the globe casts shadows of
the graticule on the projection
surface, which in this instance,
is a cylinder placed tangent to
the globe along the Equator.
The Equator is shown as true to
scale on the map.The polar
regions cannot be
represented.Ortographic:
MERCATOR
Projection:Mercator projection
is conformal, that is, bearings
in the chart are identical to the
corresponding angles in nature,
bearings may be measured from
the chart to be used at sea or
plotted on the chart from
measurements taken at sea. The
Mercator projection is a
conformal projection. On a
conformal projection, the scale
is constant in all directions
about each point but scale
varies from point to point on
the map. If we consider the
parallels, on cylindrical
projections, east-west scale
increases as we move towards
the poles. Assuming tangent
case, only the Equator is
represented true to scale. All
other parallels are longer on the
map than they are on the globe.
In the extreme case, the pole is
subject to an infinite degree of
distortion since it has been
stretching into a line having the
same length as the Equator,
although it is a point on the
globe. Since east-west scale is
increasing as we move toward
the poles, we must increase
north-south scale by an equal
amount in order to obtain a
conformal projection. This
projection was invented by
Gerhardus Mercator in 1569 as
an aid to navigation. It has the
special property that
loxodromes or rhumb lines are
represented as straight lines on
the map. This projection is
often used in conjunction with
the azimuthal gnomonic
projection. On the gnomonic
projection, great circles appear
as straight lines, making it easy
to plot the shortest route
between two points.
Transferred to the Mercator
projection, the great circle route
will appear as a curved line that
can be approximated by straight
line segments. The straight line
segments on the Mercator
projection are easier to follow
since this only requires
following a constant compass
direction. >CASE Projection
the graticule, the lines of
latitude and longitude on the
globe, as being movable.
CONVENTIONAL (or, in the
case of an azimuthal projection,
polar) case, where the
projection is drawn in the
normal and easiest fashion.
TRANSVERSE (or, in the case
of an azimuthal projection,
equatorial) case, in which the
globe has been shifted by 90
degrees before the map is
drawn, OBLIQUE case where
the globe is shifted by a lesser
amount. ROBINSON
Projection Is also called an
orthophanic projection, is one
way of transferring information
from a round globe to a flat
map. Elliptical in shape, shows
the entire world in a single
plane. >COMPASS: the inner
circle shows degrees in
relationship to Magnetic North
and the outer circle is degrees
in relationship to True North.
True North is what can be
measured by your GPS.
Magnetic North is what is
shown on your compass. True
North is the point on the earth’s
surface where the axis of
rotation passes through. The
difference between the two is
called magnetic variation, and it
can be calculated from the
compass rose . >
Latitude:Starts at Equator. 90ºN
and 90ºS. Longitude: Starts at
Prime Meridian 180ºE and
180ºW (denoted with a
negative). Universal Transverse
Mercator: Divides the earth
into 60 zones (each 6 degrees
of longitude wide). X,Y system
in meters east of zone line and
north of equator (in Northern
Hemisphere)> Triangulation:
Traverse:
>The forces between Earth and
Moon cause 2 (two) High Tides
and 2 (two) Low Tides in 24.8
hours. It is also known as Semi-
DiurnalTide.> Neap tides=
Neaps(Pasang Perbani):Lower
Tide ranges occur when the sun
and moon are approximately
90o apart Spring tides=
Springs(Pasang Purnama):
Highest Tide ranges occur
when the sun, the earth and
moon are in a particular line.>
Neap Tides (Neaps) and Spring
Tides (Springs) in one Lunar
Month (29days 12hours 44
minutes and 3 seconds) called
Synodic period. >High and
Low tide in lunar day: 06
hours 12.5 minutes:Low Tide
12 hours 25 minutes:High Tide
18 hours 37.5 minutes:Low
Tide 24 hours 50 minutes:High
Tide. >24 Hours 50 minutes
One complete orbit of the moon
around the the Earth = Lunar
Day. > 24 Hours Rotation of
the Earth = Solar day. > Tidal
ranges are above average
during Perihelion and Perigee
Tidal ranges are less than
average during Aphelion and
Apogee.> Type of Tides:
Diurnal tide cycle: An area has
a diurnal tidal cycle if it
experiences one high and one
low tide every lunar day.
Semidiurnal tide cycle:
An area has a semidiurnal tidal
cycle if it experiences two high
and two low tides of
approximately equal size every
lunar day. Mixed Semidiurnal
tide cycle(Flood and Ebb): An
area has a mixed semidiurnal
tidal cycle if it experiences two
high and two low tides of
different size every lunar day.>
When water reaches its highest
level and stops at high tide,
tidal currents cease, this is
called slack water or slack
tide.>Metonic Cycle: The
relative positions of the earth,
moon and sun repeat almost
exactly in the Metoniccycle of
18.6 years. > Slack Tide or
Slack Water. Occurs near high
water and low water. Are
occasions in between when the
direction of the flow reverses.
Slack water is of particular
interest to sailors and
scubadivers.>
>How GPS work: Uses
measurements from 4+
satellites which distance =
travel time x speed of light.
Suppose the distance from
Satellite at our position is
11,000 miles. At this point we
could be located anywhere on
the specified sphere. Next, let
us take another measurement
from a second satellite, Satellite
B. Now our position is
narrowed down to the
intersection of
theses two sphere. Taking
another measurement from a
3rd satellite narrows our
position down even further, to
the two points . So by ranging
from 3 satellites we can narrow
our position to just two points
in space. We could make a
4thmeasurement from another
satellite to determine the true
point. Or we can eliminate one
of the two points that gives a
ridiculous answer. The
ridiculous point may be too far
from the earth. However, GPS
receivers use a 4th satellite to
precisely locate our
position.>GPS ERROR
SOURCE: Multipath: When
GPS signals arrive at the
receiver having traveled
different paths. The results of
the reflection wave and the
wave will produce a blurry
image. Clock Error: GPS
position calculations, as
discussed above, depending on
measuring signal transmission
time from satellite to receiver;
this, in turn, depends on
knowing the time on both ends.
NAVSTAR satellites use
atomic clocks, which are very
accurate but can drive up to a
millisecond (enough to make an
accuracy difference).
Ionospheric delay: As GPS
signals pass through the upper
atmosphere (the ionosphere 50-
1000km above the surface),
signals are delayed and
deflected. The ionosphere
density varies; thus, signals are
delayed more in some places
than others. Receiver noise:
GPS receivers are equipped
with quartz crystal clocks that
are less stable than the atomic
clocks used in NAVSTAR
satellites. Receiver clock error
can be eliminated, however, by
comparing the times of arrival
of signals from two satellites
(whose transmission times are
known exactly). Orbit error:
GPS receivers calculate
coordinates relative to the
known locations of satellites in
space, a complex task that
involves knowing the shapes of
satellite orbits as well as their
velocities, neither of which is
constant. Tropospheric delay:
The three lower layers of the
atmosphere (troposphere,
tropopause, and stratosphere)
extend from the Earth’s surface
to an altitude of about 50 km.
The lower atmosphere delays
GPS signals, adding slightly to
the calculated distances
between satellites and
receivers.> System GPS: RTK
(Real Time Kinematic) System:
RTK use a reference station as
a reference point and the point
where the location will be
searched. WAAS (Wide Area
Augmentation System):
WAAS-enabled receivers can
provide sub-meter level
accuracy anywhere in most
locations of the US and
southern Canada. Differential
corrections are computed from
ground stations and then
uploaded to geostationary
satellites for broadcasting.
WAAS-enabled GPS receiver
automatically uses such
correction data to enhance the
positional accuracy. >
Differential GPS (DGPS) is
now the principal system used
in hydrographic surveying to
accurately determine the
position of seabed features. The
principle of DGPS is that a
single DGPS monitor station at
a known location can compute
a range error correction for
each GPS satellites in view.
These error corrections are then
broadcast through a radio link
to the ships in the vicinity. By
applying the corrections to the
signals received, a user can
typically improve the accuracy
in the order of 5 metres or less
depending onthe quality of the
receivers. The difference
between DGPS and common
GPS system are:
• Accuracy of
DGPS reach small meter level,
meanwhile common GPS
system reach 10 meter level
• Positioning:
DGPS based on measurement
of signal transit time (accuracy
approx. 1m). A reference
GPS station is setup at a
accurately surveyed point. The
DGPS station calculate the
deviation and submits it to GPS
receivers in a radius of 200
km.>PDOP (Polution Dilution
of Precision): GDOP
(geometric dilution of
precision) or PDOP (position
dilution of precision) describes
error caused by the relative
position of the GPS satellites.
Basically, DOP is the index
which indicates the degreed
level of positioning Accuracy.
The greater the DOP, the
greater its error.