INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Historical Perspective of ICE

 1860s – Coal/gas atmospheric engines (J.J.E. Lenoir 1822-1900)

• 5000 of this engines were produced from 1860 to 1865.

 1867 – Coal/gas atmospheric engine improvement using pressure rise from combustion
(Nicolaus A. Otto 1832 – 1891 / Eugen Lagen 1833 – 1895)

• About more 5000 of engines were produced, Thermal efficiencies of up 11%.

 1876 – A prototype of 4 piston strokes first ran in Germany.

• By 1890 more than 50,000 units were commercialized in Europe & US.

 1884 – Unpublished patent of 4 piston strokes engine were issued in 1862 to Alphonse
Beau de Rochas (1815 -1893)

• This chance discovery cast doubt on the validity of Otto’s own patent....
• Outlined the methods to maximize efficiency (size, speed, expansion, pressure)
 Historical Perspective of ICE
 By 1880 Two stroke engines were developed by several engineers,
Dugald Clerk (1854 -1913), James Robson (1833 -1913), Karl Benz (1844 -1929).

 1880 Atckinson Engine cycle developed by James Atckinson (1846 – 1914).

 1890s Hornsby-Ackroyd engine became the most popular oil engine in Europe & US.

 1892 Rudolf Diesel (1858 -1913) outlined in his patent the Diesel Engine doubling the
efficiency of its predecessors.

 The period following the World War I faced a huge advance in fuel development and
production.

 1940s the automotive air-pollution problem became apparent in Los Angeles.

 1957 The first pratical rotary engine proposed by Felix Wankel were finaly tested.

 1960s The first Exhaust Emission Standards were introduced in California.

 1970s The first Vehicle Noise Standards were implemented.

 Fundamental Concepts
Heat Engines
Chemical
Energy
(Fuels)

Solar
Energy Thermal Mechanical
Energy Energy
Electrical
Energy
Nuclear
Energy
 Fundamental Concepts
Internal Combustion Engines / External Combustion Engines
 Fundamental Concepts
Typical External Combustion Engine Arrangement
 Fundamental Concepts
Typical Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine Arrangement

Liquid or Gaseous
Fuel Chemical Exhaust Gases
Energy

Oxidizing
Combustion

Cranktrain
Mechanical
Energy
 Engines Classification
There are many different types of internal combustion engines. They can be classified by:

Application:

Automobile Truck Locomotive

Aircraft Marine Power Generation

 Engines Classification

Basic engine design:

Reciprocating engines Rotary engines

In-line Opposed – Boxer

“W”
Wankel

“V” Radial
 Engines Classification
Ignition System:
Spark Ignition - SI Compression Ignition - CI

Gasoline / Ethanol Diesel HCCI

 Engines Classification
Working Cycle:
Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
(Constant Volume Combustion) (Constant Pressure Combustion)

2 3
 Engines Classification
Intake Air System:

Naturally Aspirated Supercharged Turbo-charged

 Engines Classification
Electrical Ignition System:

Ignition Magneto Battery and coil-operated ignition Electronic Ignition Systems

 Engines Classification
Valve or port design and location:
Overhead Valves Underhead Valves Rotary Valves Loop – Scavenged
Porting

Cross – Scavenged Porting Through or Uniflow Scavenged Reverse Flow Scavenged

 Engines Classification
Fuel:
Gasoline (or petrol) Fuel Oil (or Diesel Fuel) Natural Gas Liquid Petroleum Gas

Alcohols (Ethanol, Methanol) Hydrogen Dual Fuel (Flexfuel)

 Engines Classification
Method of mixture preparation:
Carbureted Direct Injection

Port Fuel Injection Dual Injection System

 Engines Classification
Divided Chamber
Combustion chamber design:
Open Chamber

Wedge Bowl-in-Piston Pentroof Prechamber

Hemi Disc Swirl

 Engines Classification
Method of cooled:
Water Cooled Air Cooled
 Engines Classification

Number of Strokes:
Four – Stroke cycle Two – Stroke cycle
 Main Components
Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines Parts

Engine Components
 Main Components
Engine block / Crankcase
• An engine block is the core of the engine which houses nearly all of the componentes required for the engine to
function properly. The block can be arranged in several configurations. The requirements include lasting the life of
the vehicle, housing internal moving parts and fluids, ease of service and maintenance, and withstand pressures
created by combustion process.
 Main Components
Cylinder Head
• The cylinder head must be strong and rigid to distribute the gas forces acting on the head as uniformly as possible
through the engine block. The combustion gas, the coolant and the lubricating oil flow independently in the
cylinder head and follow complex three dimensional routes. Thus cylinder heads are generally produced by gravity
or low-pressure die casting. In Europe, grey cast iron cylinder heads have been almost completely replaced by cast
aluminum alloys during the past 20 years. Aluminum has the advantages of light weight, high thermal conductivity,
and ease of production to close tolerances.
 Main Components
Valve Materials Standard exhaust Sodium Cooled
Valve Exhaust Valve
Materials that are commonly used for
performance valve applications include carbon
steel alloys, stainless steels, high-strength
nickel-chromium-iron alloys and titanium. The
alloys that are most commonly used for
performance engines include various high
chromium stainless alloys for intake valves, and
21-4N (EV8) for exhaust valves.
 Main Components
Valve Materials

Hydraulic tappets Adjusting valve clearance on mechanical tappets

 Main Components
Oil Pan
Oil pans are a major engine cooling system parts. They are usually constructed of thin steel and shaped into a deeper
section to fully perform its function. Nowadays they are also made in aluminum alloy to increase their heat transfer
ability, making possible reducing their internal volume and the amount of oil needed, It is also where the oil pump is
placed. When an engine is not running or at rest, oil pan collects the oil as it flows down from the sides of the crankcase.
In other words, oil pans that are mounted at the bottom of the crankcase serve as an oil reservoir. Engine oil is used for
the lubrication, cooling, and cleaning of internal combustion engines.

Aluminum alloy
Mild Steel
 Main Components
Cranktrain
The Cranktrain is the heart of the reciprocating piston engine, and the purpose is to translate the linear
motion of the pistons into rotary motion for the purpose of extracting useful work. This is typically composed
of a connecting rod, crankshaft, and flywheel.

 Piston Functions:

• Transfer the combustion gas forces to the connecting rod;

• Guide the connecting rod through the cylinder;
• Support lateral forces;
• Seal the combustion chamber;
• Dissipate the heat absorbed by the piston during combustion;
• Configure the lower geometry of the combustion chamber to promote mixing and burning.
 Main Components
 Piston Layout:
Consisting of two parts:

Head (1)

Skirt (2)

Dimension OTTO Cycle, 4 cylinders

Diameter D (mm) 65 to 105
Height GL / D 0.6 to 0.7
Compression height KH / D 0.30 to 0.45
Diameter of the piston pin BO / D 0.20 to 0.26
Burning recess F (mm) 2 to 8
Position of the 1st ring St / D 0.040 to 0.055
1st ring height (mm) 1.0 to 1.75
Skirt height SL / D 0.4 to 0.5
Connecting Rod Width AA / D 0.20 to 0.35
Thickness of head wall s / D 0.06 to 0.10
 Main Components
 Piston Geometric Features:

• Typical clearances; Engine Type Clearances (% of piston diameter)

• Small gap to reduce impact noise ("piston slapping"); Nominal Top of the Skirt
• Pin offset to minimize wear and noise; OTTO Cycle 0,3 a 0,5 1,7 a 2,2
• Oval shape of the skirt to reduce weight and minimize wear; DIESEL Cycle 0,7 a 1,3 1,8 a 2,4
• Small weight to reduce inertia.

 Piston Mass Features:

Engine Type GN/D³ (g/cm³)

OTTO, 2 Stroke 0,50 a 0,70
OTTO, 4 Stroke 0,40 a 0,55
Diesel, 4 Stroke 0,80 a 1,10
Where;
GN is the piston mass without accessories in (g);
D is the piston diameter in (cm)
Note: The section delimited by the compression height (KH)
represents 80% of the piston weight.
 Main Components
 Piston Types and Typical Temperature Profiles:

• Regular, symmetrical type with large skirts (SL / D> 0.5) used on older engines and compressors;
• Aluminum pistons with steel straps for thermal expansion control;
• Racing pistons, forged, with small mass and short skirts;
• Pistons with oval skirts and various thicknesses along the perimeter;
• Pistons with different materials on head and skirt.

Obtaining of temperature profiles:

• Simulation
• Measuring using thermal chalk
 Main Components
 Thermal and pressure stress exerted by the combustion gas:

Stress Strain

In-Cylinder Peak Pressure for traditional Engines (bar)

OTTO Cycle 50 to 110
DIESEL Cycle 80 to 190
 Main Components
 Lubrication (5 kg/h/kW):

• 3º Piston ring;
• oil spray;
• Internal Cooling Jackets

Engine type Specific Power (kW/l)

OTTO Cycle Cooling by 3° Piston Ring Simple piston with oil mist Forged piston with oil mist
<40 40-65 > 65

DIESEL Cycle Simple piston with oil Piston with internal oil Oil channel connected to 3rd piston
mist channel ring
<35 35-45 > 45
 Main Components
 Piston Materials:

• Low coefficient of thermal

Property Temperature (°C) Mahle 124
expansion;
Elasticity Modulus (N/mm²) 20 80000
• Al-Si alloys;
150 77000
• Eutectic, 11 to 13% Si;
250 72000
• Semieutetic, plus Cu & Ni;
350 65000
• Supereutetic, 15 to 25%
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K) 20 155
Si;
150 156
• Gray cast iron used in old
250 159
engines and large
350 164
compressors.
Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient (1/K E-6) 20 to 100 20
20 to 200 21
Coatings:
20 to 300 21.9
20 to 400 22.2
• Zinc plated piston;
Specific Mass (g/cm³) 20 2.70
• Graphite piston;
• Hard anodizing;
• Locally reinforced steel
straps.
 Main Components
 Piston Rings:

• Piston rings are metal gaskets for sealing the combustion chamber;
• Piston rings are responsible for controlling the heat transfer from
the piston to the cylinder wall;
• Piston rings adjust the lubrication oil layer thickness between the
cylinder wall and piston.

• Compression piston
rings are responsible for
sealing the combustion
chamber.

• The oil control piston

rings control the
distribution of the
lubrication to lubricate
and cool down nearby
moving parts.
 Main Components
 Piston Ring Types:

• Retention piston ring shape;

• The contact edges may have various shapes for performing
the lubrication and scraping deposits formed in the
cylinder wall;
• The most common are bevelling that fits faster during
break-in and helps in oil distribution. The 1st ring has the
chamfer up and the 2nd ring has the chamfer down.

 Arrangements:

• Two compression rings are used to make the seal

redundant. One near the top and another near the middle
of the piston head. Typical Piston Rings Thicknesses (mm)
• The oil control piston ring closest to the top of the piston
Engine Type OTTO Cycle DIESEL Cycle
skirt is normally used.
1° Piston Ring (Compression) 1.2 2.5
• Three rings is the most commonly used setting.
2° Piston Ring (Compression) 1.5 2.0

3° Piston Ring (Oil) 3.0 3.0

 Main Components
 Piston Ring Materials:

• Steel (for rings less than 1.2 mm thick);

• Hardened nodular cast iron (Hardness 310 to 470 HB, Bending strength of
1300 N / mm²);
• Size adjustment by simultaneous turning of multiple rings;
• Manufacture from machine-thread by calendering;
• Use of surface protection;
• Chromium, molybdenum deposition, ceramic deposition by plasma,
nitriding, deposition of titanium by PVD (physical vapor deposition);
• Electrochemical treatments such as phosphatization and deposition of tin
or copper.
 Piston Ring Forces Diagram

• The rings are responsible for 20% of the friction of the moving parts of the
engine;
• The gap at the junction of the installed segment ring is responsible for
blowing gas from the cylinder to the crankcase. Joints are 120º out of phase,
but the rings rotate during piston displacement.
 Main Components
2𝐹
 Piston Ring Forces: 𝑃 =
𝑑ℎ

Calculation of the contact pressure: 𝑎𝐸

𝑏 = 2𝑘
𝑑−𝑎
Pc = contact pressure (radially constant)
Ft = tangential force (of spring) 2 𝑚
D = outer ring diameter installed 𝑘=
3𝜋 𝑑 − 𝑎
h = ring thickness

• Calculation of the bending stress on the back of the ring:

Heat
(Point of maximum flexion) Absorbed
b = bending stress a = ring width
K = elastic factor of the ring
m = ring locking clearance installed
E = modulus of elasticity
 Main Components
 Piston Pin:

Functions
• Connect the piston to the connecting rod;
• Withstand cyclic loads of reciprocating piston;
• Accept unfavorable lubrication.

Dimensions
• Connecting rod / pin from 0.002 to 0.005 mm

Engine Type Dpin/Dpiston (mm) Dint/Dext (mm)

OTTO Cycle, 2 Stroke 0.20 to 0.25 0.60 to 0.75

OTTO Cycle, 4 Stroke 0.20 to 0.26 0.55 to 0.70

DIESEL Cycle 0.32 to 0.40 0.48 to 0.52
 Main Components
 Piston Pin description:

Means to prevent axial movement of the pin

• Locking bolt
• Pressure bolt
• Retention rings (wire or flat profile)
• Mechanical interference Ex: The pin is placed
with the rod previously heated in an electric
oven up to 240 ° C
 Main Components
 Piston Pin Materials:

• The pins are made of steel tool Steel L (17Cr3) or M

(16MnCr5) 0.40 to 1.0% of Cr Hardness 59 to 65 HC, Elasticity
Modulus of 210000 N / mm2;

• When the load is high it is used chromium steel,

molybdenum, vanadium nitride Steel N (31CrMoV9).

Forces

• The lateral force of the order of 6 to 8% of the maximum

pressure in the cylinder;
• The effort on pin fixing varies from 55 to 75 N / mm2;
• Fg = force of the gas pressure in the cylinder;
• Fb = resultant force on the connecting rod axis;
• Fn = normal force to the piston;
• ø = angle of connecting rod.
 Main Components
 Piston Pin Offset:

1 a 2 mm Pin Center Piston Center

(± 3% do Dpiston)

Intake Exhaust

P P’

P>P’

Engine Rotation (Pulley Side View)

 Main Components
 Piston Pin Offset:

Pin offset:

Effects

• Equivalent pressure on the intake side and the exhaust side allowing uniform wear;
• Reduced impact of the piston against the cylinder walls to minimize piston slapping.

Note:

• The center offset is contrary to the direction of engine rotation in OTTO engines. On
DIESEL engines the offset from the piston pin center is in the rotation direction.
 Main Components
 Connecting rod:
Rod
Function Small
End
• Connect the piston to the crankshaft;
I-Beam
• Transmit the gas pressure forces on the crankshaft cylinder;
• Lubricate the piston pin; Section A-A
Scale 2:1
Parts

• Rod Small End, I-Beam, Rod Bearing Inserts, Conrod Cover;

• Bolts and connecting rod cover; Rod
• Bearings. Bearing
Inserts

Conrod
Cover
 Main Components
 Connecting rod:

Mass characteristics

The connecting rod should be:

• Light;
• High rigidity;
• Have a design in order to avoid stress concentrations.

Application Type Connecting Rod Mass (kg) Material

DIESEL, trucks 1.5 to 5.0 Forged Steel
OTTO Cycle 0.4 to 1.0 Cast iron, sintered steel or forged steel
Sport Cars 0.4 to 0.7 Steel or titanium
Racing Cars 0.3 to 0.4 Titanium or carbon fiber
Compressors 0.2 to 0.6 Aluminum
 Main Components
 Connecting Rod Mass Features:

• For the modeling of the reciprocating L

movement the connecting rod is replaced
by two masses.
h MB = M1 + M2
• One rotates together with the
crankshaft (M2).
Xcg
M1
• The other moves alternately along with the
M2
piston, rings and pin (M1).
j
• General model : M1 = 1/3 MB
M2 = 2/3 MB
MB h
M1 
L
M 2  M B  M1
 Main Components
 Connecting Rod Mass Features:

• The finite element method (FEM) is used to modify the

geometry in order to eliminate regions of stress
concentrations.

• The weight reduction is important to reduce the inertial

forces on the crankshaft.

• Cyclic forces are complex boundary conditions that make

FEM analysis difficult.

Before Stress After

 Main Components
 Connecting Rod Material:

• Nodular cast iron (NCI) (magnesium, boron or

cesium which form nodular graphite Material NCI C70 TiAl4V4
(greater ductility); Elasticity Modulus 170000 210000 128000
(MPa)
Fatigue Stress 200 300 225
• Forged C70 steel with Ball-jet finishing; (traction) (MPa)
Fatigue Stress 200 300 309
(compression)
• Titanium (bushings are required on the contact (MPa)
surfaces as the titanium does not slide well over Traction Stress at 0,2% 410 500 1000
the steel). of strain (MPa)
Rupture Stress --- 550 ---
(compression)
(MPa)
Rupture Stress 750 850 1080
(traction)
(MPa)
Specific Mass 7.20 7.85 4.51
(g/cm3)
 Main Components
 Connecting Rod Manufacturing Process:

• Foundry;
• Sintering;
• Forging;
• All processes require further machining;
• The connecting rod cover can be obtained by
controlled fracture, which decreases
precision machining at the interface (laser is
used to mark the break line).
 Main Components

 Crankshaft
• The crankshaft convert the piston reciprocating motion
in rotary motion and provide the engine torque to
vehicle transmission;

• Can be massive (more resistant) or hollow (reduces

crankshaft weight by 10%);

• The angle of the cranks is defined by the number of

cylinders and the ignition order aiming to distribute the
torque applied cyclically by each cylinder to the
crankshaft as evenly as possible. It is also the purpose
of the configuration to reduce the forces of inertia in
order to relieve the stresses on the bearings and
consequently in the engine block;

• The inertial forces created by the reciprocating motion

are counterbalanced by the crankshaft counterweights.
 Main Components

 Crankshaft: Materials
Cast Iron Forged
• Nodular Cast Iron (Type B, GJS-700-2 or ADI)
Modulus of Elasticity 180000 N/mm2
Breaking Stress (Traction test) 700 a 900 N/mm2
Stretching at break 2a5%
Hardness 230 a 320 HB
Heat Treatment Tempered and Stress relieving

• Steel 37Cr4 (forged steel)

Modulus of Elasticity 210000 N/mm2
Breaking Stress (Traction test) 600 a 720 N/mm2
Stretching at break 14 %
Hardness 220 HB
Heat Treatment aging
 Main Components

 Crankshaft: Manufacturing process

• Foundry (cheaper process, represents more

than 80% of production);
• Forging (applied to turbo-charged engines);
• Bearing machining;
• Static and dynamic balancing;
• Bearing surfaces Treatment in order to
increase service life (routing, induction and
nitriding).
 Main Components
 Fly Wheel Function:

• The flywheel is an inertia device that

keeps the engine angular speed
constant throughout the cycle;

• The torque generated by the gas

burned in the piston varies
according to each piston stroke.
Thus, the fly wheel absorbs this
variation due to its great moment of
inertia;

• Assist the starter motor.

 Main Components
 Fly Wheel Description:

 Geometric and Mass Features

The main characteristic of the fly wheel is its mass that will raise the moment of inertia of
the crankshaft. This mass is calculated according to the degree of desired speed
irregularity (δs). For Propulsion it varies from 1/35 to 1/20.

δ s  ω máximo  ωmínimo  ωmédio

• The outside diameter is defined by the engine speed and the starting engine
torque, which is usually present on a gear ring installed on the outside of the
flywheel;

• The flywheel still has the function of supporting the clutch plate, and its
dimensions must be compatible with the disc;

• The flywheel is machined in steel, whose properties must only attend the
mechanical forces applied.
 Main Components
 Fly Wheel Types:

• Conventional mass;
• Two masses (DVA) and Three
• masses (TVA);
• The two- and three-mass systems
function as low-pass oscillations
between the engine and the
transmission;
• Elastic elements are used between the
masses, such as helical springs or
elastomeric parts;
• This system increases drivability and
reduces transmission noise.
 Engines Operating Cycles
Four Stroke events of SI Internal Combustion Engine
Intake Valve Exhaust Valve Spark-plug

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

 Engines Operating Cycles
Four Stroke events of CI Internal Combustion Engine
Intake Valve Fuel Injector Exhaust Valve

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

 Engines Operating Cycles
Two Stroke events of SI Internal Combustion Engine

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

First Stroke Second Stroke
 Engines Operating Cycles
Two Stroke events of CI Internal Combustion Engine
 Engines Operating Cycles
Volumetric Compression Ratio

R – Razão Vol.
Compressão

Vc – volume do cilindro

Vcc – volume da
camara de combustão

PMI – ponto morto

inferior

PMS – ponto morto

superior
 Comparison between SI and CI engines

 Compression ratio*: CI > SI

 Engine Size and Weight: CI > SI

 Working pressures*: CI > SI

 SI - Premixed combustion / CI - Diffusive Combustion

 Turbulence Index: CI > SI

 Engine Speed achievable: CI < SI

 SI – Combustion chamber overhead + piston / CI – Combustion Chamber

bowl-in-piston