Filter: Filter Can Be Considered Can Be Considered As Frequency

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Chapter:01 v 2 ( jw)
Also, T(s) = T(jw) =
v1 ( jw)
Filter: Filter can be considered can be considered as frequency
selective networks. A filter is required to separate an unwanted Then the voltage gain in db is given by ,
signal from a mixture of wanted and unwanted signals.
The filter specification are generally given in terms Av = 20log10 T ( jw) dB …………….(1)
of cutoff frequencies, pass band (P.B) and stop band (s.b)
regions. P. B is the frequency band of wanted signal and S.B is Or in term of power , the power gain is given by,
the frequency band of unwanted signal. An ideal filter should
p1
pass the wanted signal with no attenuation and provide infinite Ap = 10 log10
p2
attenuation.
Depending upon the components used, filters can be
Now, the voltage attenuation is given by ,
classified as:
1. passive filters: Filters which are the compotnet such as α = 1/Av
R,L,C are the passive filters. The Gains of such filters are
always less than or equal to unity (i.e GS1). It is to be noted α = -20log T ( jw) dB…………….(2)
the L and C are filter components, but R is not.
2. Active filters: The filters which use the components such as From equation 1 and 2 ,we can write,
transistors, op-amp etc are the active filters. The Gains of 0.05Av………………..(3)
such filters are always greater than or equal to unity. ( G ≥ 1) T ( jw) = 10
-0.05 α
T ( jw) = 10 …………….(4)
Gain and Attenuation:
Types of filters: ( According to the function)
i/p o/p
V1(t) Filter V2(t) Filters are classified according to the functions they
network are to perform. The pattern of PB and SB that give rise to the
most common filters as defined below:
Let us consider the filters network with i/p V1(t) having power 1. Low pass filters: (LPF): A LPF characteristics is one in
P1 and o/p V2(t) having power p2 as shown in fig1. Then the which the PB extend from ω = 0 to ω = ωc where ωc is
transfer function is given by T(s) = V2(s)/V1(s) know as cut off frequency.
Where , V1(s) and V2(s) are the Laplace Transform of V1(t) . 1

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A A
PB SB PB SB PB
wc w w
Fig. 1(a) Fig. 1(d) Notch filter
2. High pass filter: A high pass filter is a compolement of
a low pass filter in that the frequency range form o to ωc is 5. All pass filters (APF): It is a filter which passes all range
the SB and from ωc to infinity is the PB. of frequencies , i.e , PB ranges from o to infinity.
A
A
SB PB PB
w
wc w
Fig. 1(e)
Fig. 1(b)
Non- ideal Characteristics:
3. Band pass filter ( BPF): A BPF is one in which the
frequency extending form ωL (or ω1) to ωu (ω2 ) are passed Filter Gain curve Attenuation curve
while signals at all other frequencies are stopped.
A A A
1. LPF 1 TB
0.707
SB PB SB
wc w
Wp Wc Ws Wp Wc Ws
Fig. 1(c)
4. Band stop filter(BSF): A BSF is complement of BPF A A
where signal components at frequencies form ω1 to ω2 are
stopped and all others are passed. These filters are 2.HPF
sometimes known as “Notch filters”.
Ws WcWp
2
1. From the attenuation curve it to be noted that in the pass
band the attenuation is always less then a maximum value.
Designated as αmax Here, G = a1/b1 = Gain
2. In the stop band the attenuation is always larger then a Z = -a0/a1 = a zero
minimum value designated as α min .
P1 = -b0/b1 = a pole
3. Band between PB and SB so defined are known as
Date:2065/4/22
transition bands. (TB).
Bilinear Transfer function and its poles and zeroes: Realisation of filter with passive elements:
We know, Let us now see how the bilinear transfer function and its
T(s) = P(s)/Q(s) = N(s)/D(s) various special cases can be realized with passive elements.
+
a s m + a m −1 s m −1 + ........... + a1 s + a 0
T(s) = m n
bn s + bn −1 s n −1 + ............ + b1 s + b0 v1 + c
-
When , m = n = 1, then the T(s) of equation (i) will be bilinear , -

i.e Fig 1.
Plot the magnitude and phase response of the ckt shown in fig
P( s ) a1 s + a 0
T ( s) = = (1) and identify the filter.
Q( s ) b1 s + b0
a1 ( s + a o / a1 ) Solution:
=
b1 ( s + b0 / b1 ) Applying kirchoff’s law for fig 1
G ( s − z1 ) ⎡ G ( s + z1 ) ⎤ 1
L∫
= V1 = R1 + idt................(i )
⎢or T ( s ) = ⎥
( s − p1 ) ⎣ (s + z 2 ) ⎦
1
L∫
V2 = idt......................(ii )
If z1< p1 If p1< z1
Taking laplace transform of equation (i) and (ii)
3
V1 ( s ) = RI ( s ) +
1
I ( s )..................(iii )
For phase plot:
cs
1
I ( s)
θ (jw) = tan-1(o/w0) – tan-1(w/wo)
V 2 ( s) =
V 2 ( s)
= cs θ (jw) = tan-1(w/w0)
V1 ( s) ⎡ 1⎤ When,
I ( s) ⎢ R + ⎥
⎣ cs ⎦ W = 0 , θ (j0) = 0
1 W = wo , θ (jwo) = -45 ˚
1
= cs = W = ∞ , θ (j ∞ ) = - 90 ˚
Rcs + 1 RC ( s + 1 / RC )
cs 90
1
= RC
S + 1 / RC 45
W0
T ( s) =
S + W0 Wo
W
Where, W0 = 1/RC
Now , for magnitude plot,
T(s) = T(jw) = W0/(jw+W0) -45
w0
∴ T ( jw) = 2
w 2 + wo
-90
Now when
W = 0 T ( jw) = 1
W= wo T ( jw) = 0.707 2.
R1
W = ∞ , T ( jw) = 0
T(jw)
1 R1 2
1
+
0.707
v1 + c
- R1 v2
W
Wc
3 -
Fig. 2. Magnitude plot 4 R
4
Above figure can be modified as:
1 1
θ (jw) = tan-1(-w/wo) - tan-1( w/wo)
θ (jw) = -2tan-1 (w/wo)
3
v1 + 2 when,
-
w = 0, θ (jw) = 0
4 4
- w = 0, θ (jw) = -90 ˚
From figure the potential of node 2, is V1/2 and the potential at w= ∞ , θ (jw) = -180 ˚
node 3 is Vs R/(1+1/cs)
∴ V2 = V1/2 - Vs R/(1+1/cs)
V1/V2 = ½ - RCS/RCS+1 90
T(s) = R(S+1- 2RCS)/2(RCS+1) = -{(RCS+1)/2(RCS+1)}

= RC(S+1/RC)/2RC(s+1/RC) 45
Where Wo = 1/RC
Wo
T(jw) = -1/2 {(jw-wo)/(jw+wo)} W
-45
For magnitude plot ,
-90
1 w 2 + ( w0 ) 2 -135
T ( jw) =
2 w 2 + w0
2 -180
T(jw)
From the magnitude plot, we see that the networking is all pass
filter.
Assignment:
3.
+
1
T ( jw) = W
2 v1 + v2
-
Phase plot: -
5
R1
Z1= 1/Y1 =
4. R1C1 S + 1
c1
Now applying kirchoff’s voltage law, for fig (i).
V1 = z1i+R2i
R1 V1(s) = (z1s+R2)I1(s)
v1
+
-
R2 v2 And ,
V2(s) = R2I(s)
V2 ( s) R2 R2
T(s) = = =
V1 ( s ) Z 1 ( s ) + R2 R1
+ R2
R1C1 S + 1
1
5. R1 R2 C1 ( S + )
R 2 ( R1C1 S + 1) R1C1
R1 = =
+ R1 + R2 R1C1 S + R2 ⎡ R + R2 ⎤
R1 R2 C1 ⎢ S + 1 ⎥
R2 ⎣ R2 R1C1 ⎦
v1 + v2
- 1
C2 S+
R1C1
- =
1 1
S+ +
R2 C1 R1C1
Date: 2065/4/28 S + ω 01 S − (−ω 01 )
Or, T(s) = =
Example :04 S + ω 02 S − (−ω 02 )
c1
R1
+ R2 v2
v1
-
ω > ω 01 -wo1 wo2

And , 02
or , −ω 02 < ω 01
From fig (i)
R1C1 S + 1
Y1 = c1s+1/R1 = For Magnitude plot:
R1
6
jw + w01 w 2 + w01
2 Now at w = 0
T(jw) = = θ (z) = θ (j0) = 0
jw + w02 w 2 + w02
2
θ (z) = θ (jw0)= 45 ˚
w R2
Now at w= 0, T ( j 0) = 01 = Now at w = ∞
w02 R1 + R 2
w θ (j ∞ ) = 90 ˚
At w = ∞, T ( j∞) = 01 = 1
w02
T(jw) Pole plot (θp)
θ (p) = tan-1(w/w01)
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
−1 ⎜ w ⎟
1 = tan ⎜ ⎟
1 1
R2 ⎜ + ⎟
R1 +R2 ⎝ R1C1 R2 C1 ⎠
Now at, w = 0
W
w=0 θp = θ (j0) = 0
at w = w02
For Phase plot, θp = θ(w02) = 45 ˚
jw + w01
T(jw) = at w = ∞ , θp = θ (j ∞ ) = 90 ˚
jw + w02
Where, w01= 1/R1C1 (jw)
W02 = 1/R1C1+1/R2C2
⎛ w ⎞ ⎛ w ⎞
Therefore, θ(jw) = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
zero plot
⎝ 01 ⎠
w ⎝ 02 ⎠
w
90
θ (jw) = θz – θp
45 pole zero plot
Since direct phase plot of above expression is very complicated,
we will go it by indirect method. First we will plot the zero phase wo2
W
and then the pole phase and finally find the net pole – zero w=0 wo1
phase. -45
Zero plot (θz) Pole plot
-90
⎛ w ⎞
θ ( z ) = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = tan −1 ( wR1C1 )
⎝ w01 ⎠ 7
Thus the magnitude response of the above network shown that it One of the important factor that should be consider in design is
is a high pass filter with dc gain R2/(R1+R2) and phase plot that the minimum value of α should be zero degree. But this is
signifies it is leading type. not true in practical case since we are using active element , this
need not be the case because the active element may provided
Insertion Gain and insertion loss: the gain greater than one (1). If it is necessary to meet the
specification exactly then it will be necessary to provide ck t to
T(jw) reduce the gain. We call this unwanted gain as the insertion
gain. On the other hand there is a loss in the components of
passive filter so it provides access attenuation and we call this
1 1 loss as insertion loss. To overcome this problem additional
compensation circuit is required.
w w
Chapter- 2
wo wo
Normalization and Renormalization:

In most of the cases we consider the values of R, L S& C to be
the order of unity. It is very difficult to built the capacitor of 1 f
and inductor of 1 H . Besides this the practical values of
1
capacitors available in the electronic circuit is of the order of
microfarad or Pico farad. The circuit considered so for have
normalized elemental values but practically these values are not
w
wo
Insertion gain
realizable. So we perform scaling to get the realizable
components.
T(jw) There are mainly two reasons for resorting the normalized
design.
1. Numerical computation become simple and it is easier to
1
1 manipulate the numbers of the order of unity.
2. If we have the normalized design of the filter then it is
easy to generate the filter of similar characteristics of
varying center frequency and impedance level without
w
wo redesigning the whole circuit.
Insertion gain
The actual or the required elemental values of the
8
Filter ckt which is obtained after scaling is called demoralized Also,
values of the circuit. XLKm = Lold S Km = (KmLold)S = LnewS
Lnew = Km Lold ……………….(ii)
Scaling: While designing the ckt sometimes the value of Again,
components may not be available so we change them with the
available one, which is called scaling. To obtained the elemental Xc Km = 1/cold s . Km =
1
=
1
values of the required filter we amplitude and frequency scale ⎛ C old ⎞ C new .S
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ s
the normalized design. ⎝ Km ⎠
C 0ld
Types of scaling: C new = ……………………….(iii)
Km
1. Impedance (Magnitude or amplitude) scaling: In this

Example 01:
scaling, the magnitude of the impedance is increased or
Perform Impedance scaling to the following network.
decreased. To scale in magnitude , z(s) (the impedance) is
multiplied by a constant factor Km . R=1 ohm
+ +
V2 V1
C =1F
Z(s) - -
Solution:
Rold = 1 Ω
If Km . 1, then it is called scale up. Cold = 1 F
If Km< 1, then it is called scale down. Now , let us assume that,
Cnew = 10 µF
Let, Rold = old value of Resistor.
Lold = old value of inductor Note: Generally we assume new value of capacitor 1µF or 10 µF.
Cold = old value of capacitor. We know that
Cnew = Cold/Km
The new values of R, L and C are given by Km = Cold/Cnew = 1F/10 µF = 105
Therefore, Rnew = Km .Rold
Rnew = Km Rold ………….(i) = 105 * 1 Ω
9
Rnew = 100K If, w = old corner frequency
Ω = new corner frequency.
R=100k
+ +
Ω = Kf w
V2 C =10 uf V1 Where,
- -
Kf = frequency scaling factor.
If Kf > 1, then it is called expansion scaling
Fig(ii) scaled ckt. If, Kf < 1 , then it is called compression scaling.
The transfer function for fig. (i) , ωo

Told(s) = 1/(s+1)
1 Expansion
Rnew C new
And, Tnew = = 1/s+1
1
S+
Rnew C new
3
Thus we see that there is no change in the following transfer ωo = 10 Ωo = 10
function while doing magnitude scaling.
Date: 2065/5/3
Compression
2. Frequency scaling:
In frequency scaling our objective is to scale the frequency
without affecting the magnitude of the impedance , i.e
ZL = ( = XL) = LS = jWL 3
Z L = WL is a constant. ωo = 10 Ωo = 1
Similarly,
Also, if T(jw) is old Transfer function, then the new transfer
Zc ( = Xc) = 1/cs = 1/ jwc
fucnti is T(j Ω)
1
= T (jKfw)
Zc = is constant.
wc
The resistance is unaffected by frequency scaling , i.e
To do so any change in w must be compensated by
Rnew= Rold …………….(v)
corresponding change in L and c
10
For inductor, Now we know that
Xl = Ls = jwL = jwkf . L/kf Cnew = Cold /kf = 1F/ 1000 = 1 mF
And , Rnew = Rold = 1 Ω
Or, XL = j(wkf) ( Lold/kf) since, L = Lold
1k
= j Ω ( Lold/kf) 1mF
Lold = Lold / Kf ………….(vi)

Fig (ii): after frequency scaling.
For capacitor,
Cnew = Cold/ kf…………………………(vii) Now,
1
3. Both magnitude and Frequency scaling: R0ld C old 1
Told(S) = =
1 s +1
It is not necessary that we scale magnitude and scale in s+
Rold C old
frequency separately. We can do both at once. Cobining all the
1
above equations.
Rnew C new 10
And, Tnew(s) = =
1 s + 10
Rnew = KmRold …………….(Viii) s+
Rnew C new
Lnew = Km/kf. Lold ……………(ix)
Cnew = Cold/Km.kf ………….(x) Example 02:
R=1/10Ω
These three equations are know as element scaling equations.

1Ω
Example 01:
1Ω
1F
1F
Perform frequency scaling with Ωo = 1 Ω
Solution:
W0 = 1 , Ω = 1000 Example 03:
Therefore, kf = Ωo/wo = 1000
11
R1 R2old = 2/5 Ω = 0.4 Ω
Cold = 1 F
Say, C1new = 10 µF
v1
C1 Then, Km = Cold/Cnew = 1F/ 10 µF
R2 v2
Km = 105
Therefore, Rnew = km R2old = 105 × 0.4 Ω = 40 k
The selected ckt will be :
T(s) = (s+0.5)/(s+3) 200k
Perform magnitude and frequency scaling separately with wo = 3

and Ω0 = 300. 40.4F
v1 40k v2
Solution:
The transfer function of the above figure is
1
s+
R1C1 Again for frequency scaling,
T(s) = …………….(i)
1 1 Wo = 3 , Ω0 = 3000
s+ +
R1C1 R 2C1 Therefore , kf = Ωo/ wo = 3000/ 3 = 1000
But given , Therefore, R1new = R1old = 2 Ω
T(s) = (s+0.5)/(s+3) ……………….(ii) R2new = R2old = 0.4 Ω
Comparing equation (i) and (ii) C1old = C1old/kf = 1F/ 1000 = 1 mF.
Example 04:
1/R1C1 = 0.5 C2= 1/10 F R2= 1/100Ω
R1C1 = 2 ……………..(iii)
_
Again, ( 1/R1+ 1/R2)1/C1 = 3…………..(iv)
R1= 1Ω C1= 1 F
Let , C1= 1 F +
For equation (iii) R1× 1 = 2
R1 = 2 Ω
Therefore from equation (iv)
(1/2 + 1/R2) 1/2 = 3 Perform magnitude scaling to the ckt given.
Therefore, R2 = 2/5 Ω Note: Take ‘Cnew’ as the new value of capacitor for ‘Cold’ where
In order to perform magnitude scaling ‘Cold’ represents the largest value in the circuit.
R1old = 2 Ω
12
Solution:
Here, R1old = 1 Ω Chapter: 3
R2old = 2 Ω
C1old = 1 F One port and two port passive network:
C2old = 1/10 F.
Take, Cnew = 10 µF. Positive real function: The filter circuit is complex transfer
Then for, magnitude scaling, function that may be realizable depending upon weather the
Cnew = Cold/km transfer function exhibits PRF properties. I the transfer function
Km = C1old/ C1new = 1F/ 10 µF = 105 is PRF only ckt is realizable. There are two types of passive
Therefore, C2new = C2old/km = 0.1 F/ 105 network : [i] one port network [ii] Two port network.
C2new = 1 µF
Similarly, I(s) I1(s) I2(s)
R1old = km. R1old = 105× 1 Ω = 100 k

1- port 2- port
R2new = km. R2old = (1/100). 105 Ω = 1 k. V(s)
n/w
V1(s)
n/w
1k Fig. 1(a) one port n/w Fig. 2(b) two port n/w
_
100k 10 uF
+ One port network: Let us suppose of fig of 1(a),
Then, z(s) = V(s) / I(s)
If V(s) = 3s+2
Fig: Magnitude Scaling Ckt. I(s) = 1
Then, z(s) = 3s+2
= Ls +R
3H
V(s) 2Ω
Thus , the function is realization but if, z(s) = 3s-2 , then it is not
realizable.
13
Date: 2065/ 5/10 Example: F(s) = 6s/(s2+ σ 2 )
ु को छ)
Why? (छटे In this case, S = ± σ j
Residue = σ real and +ve.
(i) If F(s) denote the function in S-domain, the F(s) indicates 5. The poles and zeroes of PRF Occurs in pairs.
either driving point impedance or driving admittance. 6. The highest power of numerator and denominator
Which ever is concern to us. polynomial may differ atmost by unity.
(ii) F(s) should be for real value of S. S 5 + 4S 4 + 3S 3 + 3S 2 + 3S 1 + 2
Example:
(iii) The value of F(s) must be greater than or equal to zero. S 6 + 4S 4 + 2S 3 + 3S 2 + 3K
i.e Re[f(s)] ≥ 0. 7. The lowest power of numerator and denominator
Thus in brief a PRF must be real and +ve . polynomial may differ atmost by unity.
If F(s) = LS = jWL L must be +ve. S 5 + 4 S 4 + 3S 3 + 3S 2 + 3S
Example:
F(s) = 1/CS = 1/jwc C must be +ve S 6 + 4 S 4 + 2S 3 + 3S 2 + 3K
F(s) = R R must be +ve. 8. The real part of F(s) must be greater than or equal to zero.
i.e Re[F(s)] ≥ 0
Properties of Passive n/w. But , if Re[F(s)] = 0 , then the ckt do not consist resistive
A passive network is one components. Hence only capacitive and inductive components
(i) The element of which one are +ve and real. are presents. Hence only capacitive and inductive components
(ii) The average Power dissipated (APD) by the n/w. for a are present . Such a n/w whose transfer function satisfies this
sinusoidal i/p must be +ve. condition is known as lossless n/w.
For one port n/w APD = 1/2 Re[ z(s)][I(s)]2 ≥ 0 Example: Determine weather the function is PRF.
(i) z(s) = 2s2+5/s(s2+1)
Properties of PRF: Hence , z(s) = 2s2+5/s(s+1)
1. If F(s) is +ve and real , then 1/F(s) is also +ve and real. A/s + Bs/(s2+1) = A/s + B/ (s2+1)/s
2. The sum of DRFS is always PRF but the difference may not 2s 2 + 5
A= .s
be PRF. s ( s + 1) s = 0
Example: Z1(s) = 5s+ 3 (PRF) 2 s 2 + 5 ( s 2 + 1)
Z2(s) = 2s+ 5 ( PRF) B= .
s ( s 2 + 1) s s2
Then, z1(s)+z2(s) = 7s+8 (PRF)
2(−1) + 5
But, Z1(s) – Z2(s) = 3s-2 (not PRF) = = −3
(−1)
3. The Poles and zero’s of PRF cannot be in the right half of
the S-Plain. Z(s) = 5/3 + -3s/(s2+1)
4. Only poles with real residues can exists on the jw axis. Here, (-3) , the residues ( s2 = -1) is –ve , therefore z(s) is not
14 PRF.
( s + 1)( s + 4) s( s + 4) + 2( s + 4) E ( s) + On ( s)
(ii) z(s) = = Z(s) = n
( s + 1)( s + 3) s ( s + 3) + 1( s + 3) E m ( s) + Om ( s)
s 2 + 6s + 8 Where En(s) and Om(s) denote the even parts of numerator and
=
s 2 + 4s + 3 denominator respectively and On(s) and On(s) denote odd part.
2s + 5 s5 + s4 + s3 + s + 1 N ( s)
=1+ Z(s) = =
( s + 1)( s + 3) s + s + s + s + s + s + 1 Q( s)
6 5 4 3 2
= z1 ( s ) + z 2 ( s ) ( s 4 + s 2 + 1) ( s 5 + s 3 + 5)
+
2s + 5 A B 3 / 2 1/ 2 E n ( s) On ( s)
Where z2(s) = = + = + = 6 4 2
( s + 1)( s + 3) s + 1 S + 3 s + 1 s + 3 ( s + s + s + 1) ( s 5 + s 3 + 1)
+
3 / 2 1/ 2 E m ( s) Om ( s )
Therefore, z(s) = 1 + +
s +1 s + 3 For the loss less function , it is to be noted that,
It is not PRF. Re[z(s)] = 0 ………….(i)
8s 3 + 4s 2 + 3s + 1 E n ( s ) + On ( s) E m ( s ) − Om ( s )
(iii) z(s) = Now, z(s) = ×
8s 3 + 3s E m ( s ) + Om ( s) E m ( s ) − Om ( s )
s 2 + 2s + 8 E n ( s ) E m ( s ) + On ( s ) E m ( s ) − E n ( s )Om ( s ) − On ( s)Om ( s )
(iv) Y(s) = =
s ( s + 4) 2 2
E m ( s ) − Om ( s )
Basic ckt Synthesis Techniques: E ( s ) E m ( s ) + On ( s ).Om ( s ) On ( s ) E m ( s ) − E n ( s )Om ( s )
Any one port n/w each can be represented by either = n 2 2
+ 2 2
E m ( s ) + Om ( s ) E m ( s ) − Om ( s )
admittance function Y(s) or impedance function z(s) . i.e
E n ( s ) E m ( s ) − On ( s ).Om ( s )
a n s n + a n −1 s n −1 + a n − 2 s n − 2 + ............. + a1 s + a 0 = Re[ z(s)] = …………(ii)
F ( s) = 2 2
E m ( s) − Om ( s)
bm s m + bm −1 s m −1 + bm − 2 s m − 2 + ............ + b1 s + b0
P( s)
Therefore from equation (i) and (ii).
= E n ( s ) E m ( s ) − On ( s).Om ( s )
Q( s) 2 2
=0
E m ( s ) − Om ( s )
N ( s)
= E n ( s) E m ( s) − On ( s ).Om ( s ) = 0
D( s )
E n ( s) E m ( s) = On ( s ).Om ( s )
Z ( s)
= E m ( s ) On ( s )
P( s) = ………….(iii)
Om ( s) E m ( s)
The above equation (iii) indicates that LC ckt is even to odd (
Design of LC Ckt . (Loss less ckt):
Consider a impedance function as or odd ) to even function.
15
Properties of LC Ckt: k 2k s
F(s) = 0 + 2 i 2 + ............ + k ∞ s ……………….(i)
a n s n + a n − 2 s n − 2 + a n − 2 s n − 4 + ............. + a 0 S s + wi
1. F ( s) =
bm s m + bm − 2 s m − 2 + bm − 4 s m − 4 + ............ + b0 This equation may represent z(s) or Y(s)
The coefficients an and bm must be real and +ve and F(s) must be Case I : ( i.e when F(s) = z(s))
even to odd or odd to even function. Then,
2. The highest power of numerator and denominator can differ k0 2k s
Z(s) = + 2 i 2 + ............ + k ∞ s
atmost by unity ( in this case it is 2). So does the lowest S s + wi
power. Here,
3. The succeeding power of ‘s ‘ in numerator and - ko/s will represent a capacitive reactance of 1/ko F.
denominator must differ by the order of 2 all the way - 2ki(s)/(s2+w2) will represent LC parallel combination.
s 4 + 17 s 2 + 165s 0 Having capacitor of value 1/2ki F and inductor of value 2ki/wi2.
through . Example:
s 3 + 4s Thus the final circuit will be:
4. The poles and zeros must be alternatively placed on the jw 2ki/wi 2
axis and lie only on the imaginary axis. 1/k
0
k∞
5. There must be either a pole or a zero at the origin. .......

Example: Test whether the following function is LC. 1/2ki
(i) z(s) = K (s2+1)(s2+5)/(s2+2)(s2+10) k>0 z(s)
It is not LC ckt function because,

1. There is neither pole or zero at the origin though the pole
zero are alternatively placed on the imaginary axis.
This method of circuit synthesis is known as foster impedance or
2. It is not even to odd or odd to even function.
series or 1st method for LC ckt.
Case – II
(ii) Z(s) = z(s2+1)(s2+9)/s(s2+4)
(iii) Z(s) = k s(s2+4)/(s2+1)(s2+3) , k> 0
In this case , F(s) = Y(s) , then equation (i) becomes
(iv) Z(s) = s5+4s3+5/(4s4+s2)
k0 2k s
Y(s) = + 2 i 2 + ............ + k ∞ s
S s + wi
Date: 2065/5/12
Design of LC ckt by Foster’s Method:
Here,
In this case , - KO/s represents admittance of inductor having value of 1/ko
H.
16 - K ∞s represent admittance of capacitor having value K ∞ F.
2 2
- 2ki(s)/s +w represents admittance of series LC combination −9+4 −5 5
2 = = =
having inductor of value 1/2ki H and capacitor value wi /2ki 2(−9 + 1) 2 × −8 16
Therefore, B = 5/16
The ckt can be realize as :
(3 / 16) s (5 / 6) s
z ( s) = + 2 = z1 ( s ) + z 2 ( s )
s2 +1 s +9
1/2ki
k
The ckt will be as follows.
1/k ι ∞
2 L 1= 3/16 H L 2 = 5/144 H
wi /2ki
This method of circuit synthesis is known as foster admittance z(s) C1 =16/3 F C2 = 16/5 F
or parallel or 2nd method for LC ckt.
Example 01: Design a Foster series n/w for the following n/w.
s ( s 2 + 4)
F ( s) =
2( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 9) • The first part of z(s) ( i.e z1(s) ) represents parallel LC
Solution: combination having inductor L1 of value 3/16 H and
It is Foster’s series n/w capacitor of value 16/3 F.
s ( s 2 + 4)
F ( s) = z ( s) = • The 2nd part of z(s) (i.e z2(s) ) represents parallel LC
2( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 9)
combination having inductor L2 of value 5/144 H and
s ( s 2 + 4) As Bs
Now, z ( s) = = 2 + 2 capacitor C2 of value 16/5 F.
2( s + 1)( s + 9) s + 1 s + 9
2 2
s( s 2 + 4) ( s 2 + 9) Example 02: Design Foster parallel n/w for the function

Where, A = . s ( s 2 + 4)
2( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 9) s s 2 = −1 F ( s) =
−1+ 4 2( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 9)
= = 3 / 16
Solution:
2(−1 + 9)
Therefore, A = 3/16 It is Foster’s parallel n/w
s ( s 2 + 4)
F ( s) = Y ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 4) ( s 2 + 9) 2( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 9)
And B = .
s ( s 2 + 4)
2( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 9) s s 2 = −9 Now, z ( s) = = 2
As
+ 2
Bs
17 2( s + 1)( s + 9) s + 1 s + 9
2 2

s( s + 4)
2
( s + 9)
2
2 s 4 + 20s 2 + 18
Where, A = . =
2( s + 1)( s + 9)
2 2
s s 2 = −1 s 3 + 4s
−1+ 4
= = 3 / 16 S3+4s )2s4+20s2+18( 2s
2(−1 + 9)
2s4+8s2
Therefore, A = 3/16 12s2+18
s ( s 2 + 4) ( s 2 + 9)
And B = .
2( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 9) s s 2 = −9
−9+4 −5 5
= = = 12s 2 + 18
2(−9 + 1) 2 × −8 16 Therefore, Y(s) = 2s + 3
s + 4s
Therefore, B = 5/16 12s 2 + 18
(3 / 16) s (5 / 6) s = 2s +
Y ( s) = + 2 = Y1 ( s) + Y2 ( s) s ( s 2 + 4)
s2 +1 s +9
Y(s) = Y1(s) + Y2(s)
The ckt will be as follows:
12s 2 + 18 A Bs 9 / 2 (15 / 2) s
Figure: Now Y2(s) = 2s + = + 2 = + 2
s ( s + 4) s s + 4
2
s s +4
9 / 2 (15 / 2) s
• The first part of Y(s) ( i.e Y1(s) ) represents series LC Y(s) = 2s + + 2 = Y1 ( s ) + Y2 ( s) + Y3 ( s )
s s +4
combination having inductor L1 of value 16/3 H and
Here Y1(s) = 2s , so C1 = 2 F
capacitor of value 16/3 F. 9/2
Y2 (s) = , So, L1 = 2/9 H
s
• The 2nd part of Y(s) (i.e Y2(s) ) represents series LC
(15 / 2).s
combination having inductor L2 of value 16/5 H and And Y3(s) = 2
s +4
capacitor C2 of value 144/5 F.
L2 = 2/15 H
Example 03: Design Foster parallel n/w for the function C2 = 8/15 F
2( s + 1)( s + 9)
2 2 Therefore, The final ckt will be
F ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 4)
Solution:
L 2 =2/15 H
It is Foster Parallel , L 1= 2/9H
2( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 9) C1 = 2 F
F ( s) = Y ( s) = C2 = 8/15 F
s ( s 2 + 4)
18
Example 01: Synthesis the following function in cauer form.
Fig. Foster’s parallel n/w of LC ckt. 2s 5 + 12s 3 + 16 s
Z(s) =
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
Assignment: Solution:
2( s + 1)( s + 9)
2 2
In cauer n/w we proceed as follows:
1. z(s) =
s ( s 2 + 1)
S4 +4s2+3) 2s5 + 12s3 + 16s (2s z1(s)
2( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4) 2s5+8s3+6s
2. Y(s) =
( s 2 + 3)( s 2 + 1)
4s3+10s) s4 + 4s2 +3 (s/4 Y2(s)
4 2
S + 10s /4
3S /2+3) 4S3 +10S (8s/3
2
Z3(s)
Date: 2065/5/17 4S3 +8S
2S) 3S2/2 +3 (3s/4 Y4(s)
2
Continued Fraction method or cauer method for LC Ckt 3s /2
1. case- I 3) 2s (2s/3 Z5(s)
2s
It is removed by successive removal of pole at ∞. The ckt will
be as follows:
2H 8/3 2/3
L1 L2
....
1/4 3/4
C1 C2 Cn Z(s)
Fig. For F(s) = z(s) Fig. Cauer n/w for LC series ckt
L2 2s 5 + 12s 3 + 16 s
L1
Example: 02: Y(s) =
.... s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
C1 C2 C3 Cn
V(s)
2F 8/3 F 2/3 F
Y(s)
Fig. For F(s) = Y(s)

Fig: Cauer n/w for LC parallel ckt.
19
Example:03: Synthesis the following ckt in cauer form.

s( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4) s( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4) 16/3 176/40 88/3
(i) Y(s) = (ii) Z(s) =
( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3) ( s 4 + 1)( s 2 + 3)
Z(s)
7/64 21/44.44
Cauer –II:
This is the case of removal of pole at origin. Fig. Cauer II n/w for LC ckt
C1 C2
....
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
Example:02: Y(s) = 5
L1 L2 Ln 2s + 12s 3 + 16s
7/64 21/1936
Fig. Caure II n/w for LC series ckt.

Y(s) 176/49 88/3
Example:01: Synthesize the following function in cauer form. 16/3
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
Z(s) = 5
2s + 12s3 + 16 s Fig. Caure II n/w for parallel LC ckt.
Solution:
Since Z(s) is the case of pole at origin (i.e s = 0 ) z(s) can be
rewrite as: R-C one port n/w: (R-C impedance /R-L admittance)
3 + 4s 2 + s 4 1. Foster 1st method:
Z(s) =
16s + 12s 3 + 2 s 5 In this case,
16s+12s3+2s5 ) 3+4s2+ s4 (3/16s z1(s) F(s) = z(s) , gives R-C impedance n/w.
3+9s2/4+ 3s4/8
7s2/4+5s4/8)16s+12s3+2s5 (64/7s Y2(s) 1/k
0
k∞
3
16s+40s /7 .......
44s3/7+2s5) 7s2/4+5s4/8 (49/176s Z3(s)
2 4
7s /4+44s /88 z(s) 1/k1
3s4/44) 44s3/7 +2s5 ((44)2/21s Y4(s)
44s3/7
2s5) 3s2/44(3/88s Z5(s)
3s2/44 20
Foster method defines F(s) as ( s + 1)( s + 2)
(d) Z(s) =
F(s) = z(s) = ko/s + k1/(s+σ1)+ k2/(s+σ2) + ………+k∞ s( s + 3)
Here, Example:02: Synthesis the following function in Foster series
- ko/s represent capacitive reactance having capacitor of 6( s + 2)( s + 4)
form: F(s) =
value 1/ko F. s( s + 3)
- k∞ represent resistor of value k∞ Ω . Solution:
- ki/(s+σi) represents RC parallel in which the resister 6( s + 2)( s + 4)
Since it is foster series function z(s) =
has a value of ki/σi Ω and a capacitor has value of 1/ki s( s + 3)
F. This is the RC impedance n/w.
Now,
Properties of RC impedance N/w: (i) z(0) = ∞ , C0 is present .
1. the poles of RC –impedance n/w are on the –ve real axis. (ii) z(∞ ) = σ , R∞ is also present.
2. As in LC ckt, residues of poles (kis) are real and +ve i. z(s )
must be PRF. Z(s) = ko /s + k∞ + k1/(s+3) = ko /s + k1/(s+3)+6
3. At two critical frequencies i.e when s = o , i.e σ = 0 when s
= ∞ i.e σ = ∞ Ko =
6( s + 2)( s + 4)
.s = (6.2.4)/3 = 16
4. z(0) = ∞ if C0 is present s( s + 3) s=0
= ∑Ri , if C0 is missing K2 = 2
5. z(∞ ) = k∞ , R∞ is present ∴ Z(s) = 16/s + 2/(s+3) + 6
= 0, R∞ is missing The component values are as follows:
6. z(0) ≥ z(∞) is always true.
16/s ⇒ 1/cos ⇒ c0 = 1/16 F
7. The critical frequency nearest to the origin must be a pole.
8. The poles and zeroes must be alternatively placed. σ ⇒ R∞ ⇒ R∞ = 6 Ω
2/(s+3) ⇒ R1 = 2/3 Ω and C1 = ½ F
Example:01 State giving reasons which of the following if not
RC impedance. The ckt will be:
2/3
( s + 1)( s + 4)( s + 9) 1/16 6
(a) Z(s) =
s( s + 2)( s + 5) .......
( s + 1)( s + 8)
(b) Z(s) = 1/2
( s + 2)( s + 4) z(s)
( s + 2)( s + 4)
(c) Z(s) =
( s + 1)
21
6( s + 2)( s + 4)
F(s) =
s( s + 3)
Solution:
Since it is Foster parallel,
Date: 2065/5/19 6( s + 2)( s + 4)
6( s + 2)( s + 4)
F(s) = Y(s) =
F(s) = s( s + 3)
s( s + 3) = 6 + 16/s + 2/(s+3)
6( s + 2)( s + 4)
F(s) = z(s) = ∴ The ckt will be:
s( s + 3)
= 6+ 16/s + 2/(s+3)
Forster parallel method for R-C one port n/w: 2/3
In this case, 1/16
F(s) = Y(s) 1/6
1/2
Y(s) = ko/s + k1/(s+σ1)+ k2/(s+σ2) + ………+k∞
. .. . ..
R1
Fig. R-L admittance ckt from foster parallel
R2
Lo
Continued Fraction method or cauer method for R-C
L1 L2 impedance or R-L Admittance:
1. If F(s) = z(s) , then it yields cauer 1 n/w.
Fig. (i) R-L admittance n/w for foster 2nd method in this case 2. If F(s) = Y(s) , then it yields cauer 2 n/w.
- ko/s represents inductor of value 1/ko For cauer 1 n/w:

- k∞ represents inductor of value 1/ko In this case F(s) = z(s)
- ki/(s+σi) represents RL series ckt having inductor of
Example:01: Synthesize the following function cauer 1 form.
value 1/ki H and resister of value σi/k Ω .
6( s + 2)( s + 4)
F(s) =
s( s + 3)
Properties:
Same as RC- impedance. Solution:
6( s + 2)( s + 4) 6s 2 + 36 s + 48
F(s) = z(s) = =
Example: 01: Synthesis the following function in foster parallel. s( s + 3) s 2 + 3s
Now,
22 S2 +3s)6S2+36s+48(6 Z1(s)
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np S2+18s
2
1. Foster Series method: It yields R-L impedance ckt for
which
F(s) = (s) = ko + kis/(s+ σ1) + k2s/(s+σ2) + ……..+ k∞s
k1 k2
ko k∞
The ckt will be:

....
k1/ σ1 k2/ σ2
6 54 z(s)
1/18 1/144
Fig. Caure 1 n/w

In this case,
Cauer 2 n/w: - k0 represent resistor of value ko Ω .
Example: 02: Realise the given function in cauer 2 n/w F(s) - k∞ s represent inductor of value k∞ H.
6( s + 2)( s + 4)
= - kis/(s+σi) represent RL parallel ckt with resistor of
s( s + 3)
value ki and inductor of value ki/σi .
Solution:
This method of synthesis is know as foster series (1st) method for
In this case,
6( s + 2)( s + 4)
R-L one port n/w.
F(s) = Y(s) =
s( s + 3)
Properties of R-L impedance n/w:
In this case circuit will be : 1. Poles are on the –ve real axis.
1/18 1/144
2. The residue of pole must be real and +ve i.e F(s) must be
PRF.
3. z(0) = k0 if R0 is present.
1/6
1/54 = 0 if R0 is missing.
4. z(∞ ) = ∞ if L is present.
= ∑Ri if L is missing.
Fig. Caure 2 method 5. z(∞ ) ≥ z(0)
6. Zero is nearest to the origin.
R-L one-Port n/w: (R-L impedance or R-C admittance n/w) 7. The pole and zero must be alternatively placed.
2. Foster parallel method:
In this case,
23
F(s) = Y(s) = ko +k1s/(s+σi) + k2s/(s+σ2) + ……….+ k∞ 4( s + 1)( s + 3)
K1 = .( s + 2)
The ckt will be as follows: s ( s + 2)( s + 6) s = −2
4(−2 + 1)(−2 + 3)
=
− 2(−2 + 6)
1/k 1/k
2 k =½
1/k 0 1 ∞
Y(s)
4( s + 1)( s + 3)
K2 = .( s + 6)
k2/σ2 s ( s + 2)( s + 6) s = −6
k1/σ1
4(−6 + 1)(−6 + 3)
=
− 6(−6 + 2)
K2 = 5/2
This method of synthesis is known as Foster parallel method 1 (1 / 2).s (5 / 2).s
which yields R-C admittance n/w. ∴ z(s)/s = + +
s s+2 s+6
1/2 5/2
Properties: 1
Some as that of R-L impedance except F(s) = Y(s)

1/4 5/12
4( s + 1)( s + 3) z(s)
Example:01: Given F(s) = . Realise the above
( s + 2)( s + 6)
function in (a) Foster series (b) Foster parallel. Fig. Foster series n/w
Solution:
Since zero is nearest to the origin , (i.e s = -1f) the function (b) Foster parallel:
yields R-L one port n/w. In this case,
4( s + 1)( s + 3)
4( s + 1)( s + 3) F(s) = Y(s) =
(a) Foster series: In this case F(s) = z(s) = ( s + 2)( s + 6)
( s + 2)( s + 6)
Which yields R-C admittance n/w.
Thus, it yields R-L impedance n/w. To check the availability of (1 / 2).s (5 / 2).s
components, we use. ∴ Y(s) = 1 + +
s+2 s+6
Z(0) = (4×1×3)/(2×6 ) = 1 = ko . i.e Ro is present .
Z(∞ ) = 4 = ∑Ri , L∞ is missing.
4( s + 1)( s + 3) 1 k k 2 2/ 5
∴ z (s) /s = = + 1 + 2 Y(s) 1
( s + 2)( s + 6) s s+2 s+6 12 /5
1
24
Fig. Foster Parallel ckt.
Cauer Method for R-L one port n/w:

(1) If F(s) = z(s) , it is called cauer 1 method which yields R- 1 16/7
L impedance ckt.
(2) If F(s) = Y(s) , it is called caure 2 method which yields
R-C admittance ckt. 2/3 10/49 5/7
Example: 01: Synthesize the following function in
4s 2 + 16s + 12
(a) caure 1 n/w. (b) cauer 2 n/w.
s 2 + 8s + 12 Fig. cauer 1 n/w
Solution:
(a) cauer 1 n/w: (b) Cauer 2 n/w:
In this case In this case,
4s 2 + 16s + 12 12 + 16 s + 4s 2
4( s + 1)( s + 3) 4s + 16s + 12
2 F(s) = Y(s) = =
F(s) = z(s) = = 2 s 2 + 8s + 12 12 + 8s + s 2
( s + 2)( s + 6) s + 8s + 12
1/2ki
S2+8s+12 ) 4s2+ 16s+12 ( 4 1/k ι
k
∞
4s2+ 32s+4s 2
-ve wi /2ki
This way the ckt cannot be realize. Therefore z(s) is rewritten in Fig. Cauer 2 n/w
form as:
12 + 16 s + 4s 2 Assignment: 03
Z(s) =
12 + 8s + s 2
12+8s +s2 ) 12+16s+4s2 ( 1 Z1(s)
12+ 8s+s 2 ( s + 2)( s + 4)
1. F(s) = Find the n/w of the form (a) Foster series
8s +3s2 ) 12+8s+s2 ( 3/2s Y2(s) ( s + 1)( s + 3)
12+9s/2 (b) Foster parallel.
2 2
7s/2 +s ) 8s+3s ( 16/7 Z3(s) ( s + 1)( s + 3)
2 2. Realize the n/w function F(s) = (a) 1st Foster
8s+16s /7 ( s + 2)( s + 4)
5s2/7 ) 7s/2+s2 ( 49/10s Y4(s) method. (b) 2nd foster method.
7s/2
s2 ) 5s2/7 ( 5/7 Z5(s) 25
5s2/7 Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np
( s + 2)( s + 4) 3. Low transition band ratio, ws/wp
3. Realise the n/w function Y(s) = as a cauer n/w.
( s + 1)( s + 3) 4. Simple network.
( s + 1)( s + 3) The approximation Method are:
4. z(s) = Realise the function in foster and cauer
( s + 2)( s + 2) 1. Butterworth
n/w. 2. Chebyshev
( s + 2)( s + 4) 3. Inverse chebyshev
5. Realise the n/w Y(s) = 4. Ellipse or Cauer
( s + 1)( s + 6)
Two port n/w: 5. Bessel –Thomson
1. Z-Parameter 1. Butterworth low pass approximation: Generally signal
2. Y – Parameter become contaminated with high frequency signal. It is
3. ABCD Parameter evident that low pass filter are required to remove such
4. Transformation of one parameter to other unwanted signals from the useful one. The desirable LPF
5. T and π n/w response is shown in fig . 1(a)
6. Interconnection of two port n/w Below the normalize frequency i.e w0 = 1,
a. Cascade b. series c. parallel. the amplitude T ( jw) is constant and above this frequency it is
zero. Pass band and stop band are clearly separated at wo = 1.
But since the ideal response can not be achieve . We make the
approximation based on the ideal response.
Date: 2065/5/24 We make the magnitude T(jw) nearly constant in PB. In
Chapter: 4 the SB, we require sharp roll – off (n-pole roll –off). Where ‘n ‘
Low pass Filter Approximations: will be large no if abrupt transition from PB to SB is desired.
T(jw) T(jw) Mathematically, we can write,
T(jw) = Re[ T(jw) ] + j Im [ T(jw)]
1 Re[T(jw)] = Real part of T(jw)
1
Im [T(jw)] = Imaginary part of T(jw).
PB SB Where it is to be noted that Re[T(jw)] indicates an even
wo=1
w Wp Ws
W functions.
Fig. (a) Ideal case (b) Non ideal case Where Im[T(jw)] indicates it is an odd function.
Agains,
The desirable feature of low pass approximation are T*(jw) = T(-jw) = Re[ T(jw)]+jIm [T(jw)] ……….(ii)The
1. Minimum pass band attenuation, αp functions so obtained is called conjugate of T(jw)
2. Maximum stop band attenuation, αs Thus (i) and (ii) gives
26
2
T(jw) T*(jw) = T ( jw) = Re[T(jw)] + jIm[T(jw)] ……(iii) 2 2 B2n = (1/w0)2n. B0 and A0 = B0
2 Now , putting these assumption in the equation (i) we get,
T(jw) T*(jw) = T(s) T*(s) = T (s)
2 Ao
2 2 T ( jw) =
The function T (s) (or T ( jw) ) is called magnitude squared B0 + B 2 n w 2 n
function. Bo
= 2n
⎛ 1 ⎞
Example 01: Find the magnitude square function for B0 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ B0
⎝ w0 ⎠
T(s) = (s+2) / (s3 + 2s2 + 2s+3)
1
T(s) = -s+2 / -s3 + 2s2 – 2s +3 = 2n
⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ T (s) = T(s) . T(-s)
2
1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ w 2 n
= (2+s)/(s3+2s2 +2s+3) × (2-s)/(-s3 +2s2 – 2s+3) ⎝ w0 ⎠
1
= ……….. 2
T ( jw) = 2n
………….(ii)
⎛ w ⎞
1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
The magnitude square function is an even function which can ⎝ w0 ⎠
be represented by using a numerator and denominator In generalize condition,
polynomial that are both even, i.e wo = 1
2 A( w 2 ) 2 1
T ( jw) = T ( jw) = ………….(iii)
B( w 2 ) 1 + (w )
2n
2 A + A2 w 2 + A4 w 4 + ........... + A2 n w 2 n 2 1
T ( jw) = 0 T ( jw) = …………(iv)
B0 + B2 w 2 + B 4 w 4 + ........... + B2 n w 2 n 1 + (w )
2n
2 A0 From equation (iv) the following property can be written.

T ( jw) =
B0 + B2 w + B4 w 4 + ........... + B2 n w 2 n
2
1. At w = 0 , i.e T(j0) = 1 for all values of n.
Here A2 = A4 = ……A2n = 0 (assumption). 2. At w = 1 (=w0), i.e T(j1) = 0.707 for all values of n.
The choice has been made as per our inspection on the roll off 3. At w = ∞ , i.e T(j ∞ )= 0 for all value of n.
that was directly dependent on the number of poles. This means 4. For large values of w; Tn(jw) exhibits larger roll off.
larger the difference between degree of A and B , we get the 5. Butterworth response , also known as, maximally flat
larger roll-off . This will give us a direct n-pole roll off for response, is all pole functions.
Tn(jw) or Tn(s) which will be know as “ All pole” function. 6. Butterworth (BU) response can be expanded in Taylor’s
series from as:
Special case: 2 1
T ( jw) =
We assume , 1 + (w )
2n
B2 = B4 = 0 27
2n -1/2
= (1+w )
= 1+ ½ . w2n + (1/2)2. (w2n)2/2! - ………..
≈ 1 – ½. w2n
∴ In Taylor series, Date: 2065/5/29
⎛ 1 ⎞
T ( jw) = ⎜1 − w 2 n ⎟ ………..(v) Butterworth transfer function (continued ……)
⎝ 2 ⎠
(ii) For n = 2
Equation (vi) becomes ;
2 1
Again we know , T ( s) =
1 1 + (−1) 2 s 4
2
T ( jw) = jw
1 + (w)
2n
Putting jw = s
2 1 1 1 1 45
T (s) = = = = 135
⎛s⎞
2n
s 2n
1+ s 2n
1 + (−1) n s 2 n
1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 1 + 2n σ
⎝ j⎠ j (−1) n
315
2 1 225
T (s ) = ………(vi)
1 + (−1) n s 2 n
1
=
1+ s4
Which gives the butterworth response in s-domain To get the poles ,
1+s4 = 0
Evaluation of T(s) for BU – Response: S4 = -1
(i) For n = 1 equation (vi) becomes
2 1 S = 1 ∠ (180 ˚ + k360 ˚ )/4 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3 [since n = 4]
T (s ) =
1− s2
s2 =1 S = 1 ∠ 45 ˚ , 135˚ , 225˚ , 315˚
s = ±1 The poles that lie on the left half of s-plane are:
NOTE:
∴ T (s) = 1/(1-s)(1+s)
2
S = 1 ∠ 135˚ , 225˚
(i) If sn = -1, then, s=1∠
= 1/(1+s). 1/(1-s) (180+k360)/n, k = 0, 1…..(n- Or S = -0.0707 ± j0.707 = s1, s2
= T(s) . T(-s) 1
1) in s domain. ∴ T(s) =
T(s) = 1/(s+1) (ii) If sn =-1, then, S = 1 ∠ ( s − s1 )( s − s 2 )
k360/n, k =0,1, 2….(n-1)
28
1 jw
=
( s + 0.707 − j 0.707)( s + 0.707 + j 0.707)
120 60
1
=
s 2 + 2s + 1
σ
180
(iii) For n = 3
1
T ( s) = 240
1 + (−1) 3 s 6 320
1
=
1 − s6 Order and cutoff frequency for Butterworth:
To get the pole It is to noted that, at w =wp , α = α p = α max
1-s6 = 0 And at w = ws , α = α s = α min
S6 = 1 We know that
S = 1 ∠ k360/n , k = 0,1,2 ………(2n-1) 2
T ( s) =
1
2n
S = 1∠ 0, 60, 120, 180, 240, 300 ⎛ w ⎞
1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
The poles that lie on left half of s-plane are ⎝ wo ⎠
S = 1 ∠ 120, 180, 240 Also the attenuation formula is given by ;
α = -20log T (s )
Or, = 1∠120, 1∠ 180, 1∠ 240
S1 = -0.5 + j0.866 ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
S2 = -1+j0 ⎢ 1 ⎥
S3 = -0.5 - 0.866j α = -20log10 ⎢ 2n ⎥
⎢1 + ⎛⎜ w ⎞ ⎥
⎟⎟
⎢ ⎜w ⎥
1 ⎣ ⎝ o ⎠ ⎦
∴ T ( s) = 1
( s − s1 )( s − s 2 )( s − s 3 ) 2n − 2
⎛ w⎞
=
1 α = -20log10 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
( s + 1)( s − 0.5 − 0.866 j )( s + 0.5 − 0.866 j ) ⎝ wo ⎠
2n
1 ⎛ w ⎞
= α = 10log10 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ …………….(i)
( s + 1)( s 2 + s + 1)
⎝ wo ⎠
2n
⎛ w ⎞
α /10 = log10 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ wo ⎠
29
⎛ w ⎞
2n
Now let us find expression for transition band ratio , i.e
10α /10 = 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ TBR = ws/wp , where , TBR = Transition band ratio.
⎝ wo ⎠
2n Ws/wp = [(10α min/10 – 1)/(10α max/10-1)]1/2n ………….(v)
⎛ w ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 10α /10 -1
⎝ wo ⎠ Example 01: Consider a filter using a butterworth response to
⎛ w ⎞ realize the following specifications of LPF.
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = (10α /10 -1)1/2n
⎝ wo ⎠ α max = 0.5 dB
w α min = 20 dB
w= 1 wp = 1000 rad/sec
α / 10
(10 − 1) 2n
ws = 2000 rad/sec
Now at w = wp , α = α max Determine the order and cut off frequency for the filter.
wp Solution:
wo = ………….(ii)
1
n = 4.83 ≈ 5
(10 α max/ 10 − 1) 2n
wo = 1234.12 rad/sec
and at w = ws , α = α min Note: Always choose higher value of ‘n’ ( i.e the order of filter
ws )because it provides larger roll off which decreases attenuation.
wo = 1
………………..(iii)
(10 α min/ 10 − 1) 2n
equating (i) and (ii) can be equated as:

wp ws
=
1 1 Date: 2065/6/2
(10 α max/ 10 − 1) 2 n (10 α min/ 10 − 1) 2 n
1
wp (10 α max/ 10 − 1) 2 n
2. Chebyshev Approximation Method For LPF :
= 1
wo α min/ 10
(10 − 1) 2n T(jw) T(jw)
2n
⎛ wp ⎞ (10 α max/ 10 − 1)
⎜ ⎟ =
⎜w ⎟
1
1 BU-R
⎝ o ⎠ (10 α min/ 10 − 1) C-R
Taking log on both sides,

2n
⎛ wp ⎞ (10 α max/ 10 − 1) W W
⎜ ⎟
20 log ⎜ ⎟ = log Wo Wo
⎝ wo ⎠ (10 α min/ 10 − 1) Fig (i) (a) Chebyshev response (b) butterworth response
(10 α max/ 10 − 1) ⎛w ⎞
n = log α min/ 10
/ 2 log ⎜⎜ p ⎟⎟ The generalize low pass filter can be represented by
(10 − 1) ⎝ wo ⎠
30
Tn ( jw) =
2 1
……………….(i) When adjustable frequency multiple of fixed frequency is
1 + [ Fn ( w)] 2 applied , stationary figures are obtained which are know as
For Butterworth Lissagious figures.
Fn(w) = (w/wo)n
With w0 = 1 Analysis:
Fn (w) = wn Let the deflection due to voltage on horizontal plates be
Similarly to butterworth we have to determine the function x = coskT …………….(ii)
Fn(w) for chebyshev response for which the concept of Where , k = 2 π/T
Lissagious figure is required. The deflection due to voltage on vertical plates will be then,
y = cosnkT …………….(iii) Where n is integer and proves the
Lissagious figure: multiple frequencies.
From (ii),
Horizontal plate KT = cos-1x
Line of axis y = cosn cos-1x ……………..(iv)
cn(x) = cosn cos-1x which is the equation for Lissagious
sin θ
Vertical plate
figures.
Example: If n = 4
Assume, θ = cos-1x
Fig (ii) (a) CRO Lissagious figure. x = cosθ
n=1
y Then,
n=2
n=3
y = cos4θ
n=4 θ x 4θ y
0 1 0 1
22.5 0.924 90 0
45 0.707 180 -1
x
67.5 0.383 270 0
90 0 360 1
Fig(ii) (b) Lissagious figure for n = 1,2,3 and 4

31
y
∴ cosjz = coshz
1
∴ w = coshz
Z = cosh-1w
∴ w = cosj cosh-1w
∴ cos-1(w) = jcosh-1w
0.383
x=1
∴ cn (w) = cosn cos-1w

-1
0.707
= cosnj cosh-1w
# Analyse the same for n = 3 and 5. = cosj(ncosh-1w)
= coshn cosh-1w
Chebyshev magnitude Response:
We know that , ∴ cn(w) = cosh cosh-1w , w> 1
2 1 Cn(w) = cosn cos-1w, w = ± 1
Tn ( jw) =
1 + [ Fn ( w)] 2
Where Fn (w) = ∈ cn(w) ; ∈ ≤ 1 Properties of magnitude response for Chebyshev:
-1
Where cn(w) = cosn cos w We know that,
Therefore the magnitude square response will be 2 1
Tn ( jw) =
2 1 2
1+ ∈ c n ( w)
2
Tn ( jw) = 2
…………….(vi)
1+ ∈2 c n ( w) 1
Tn ( jw) =
This function (i.e cn(w)) is valid within the range w = ± 1. 1+ ∈2 c n ( w)
2
However , the function must also be valid for longer value of w

Where, cn(w) = cosn cos-1w w≤1
for which we should refine our assumption for cn(w).
= coshn cosh-1w w≥1 and ∈ ≤ 1
∴ w > 1,
Let,
1. At w = 0,
Cos-1(w) = jz Cn(0) = cosn π/2 ; 0,1,2…….
w = cosjz
Tn ( jw) = 1 for n = odd
we know that ,
1
e j ( jz ) + e − j ( jz ) e z + e−z = for n = even
cosjz = = = coshz 1+ ∈2
2 2
32
2. w = 1 ∴ equation (vii) reduces to ,
cn (1) = 1 for all values of n. α = α max = 10 log ( 1+ ∈2 .1)………(x)
1
∴ Tn ( jw) = αmax / 10 = log ( 1+ ∈2 .1)
1+ ∈2 1+ ∈2 = 10α max/10
1 1 1
α max/ 10
∈= (10 − 1) 2
…………….(xi)
w w
w=1 w=1
Fig (iii) (a) C-R for n = odd (b) C-R for n = even Date: 2065/6/7
Order of C-R filter: Here
We know , the attenuation formula is given by we know that
α = -20log Tn ( jw) dB w = wnp , then, ∈2 c n 2 ( w) = 1
1
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞2 1
But, Tn ( jw) = = ⎜ ⎟ = cosh(n cosh −1 wnp )
c n ( wnp ) = [since wnp >1]
2 ⎜ 1+ ∈2 c 2 ( w) ⎟ ∈
1+ ∈2 c n ( w) ⎝ n ⎠ 1
1 Cosh-1(ncosh-1whp) =
∈
⎛ ⎞
1 2
∴ α = - 20log ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ 2 Cosh-1(ncosh-1whp) =
1
⎝ 1+ ∈ c n ( w) ⎠
2
∈
-1 -1 1
1 Cosh whp = 1/n. cosh ( )
= -10log ∈
2
1+ ∈ c n ( w)
2
1
∴ wnp = cosh(1/n. cosh-1( )) ………(xii)
α = 10 log 1+ ∈2 c n 2 ( w) …………(vii) ∈
Wnp = cosh [1/n. cosh-1({10αmax/10 -1}1/2)]
∴ α = 10log 1+ ∈2 (cos n cos −1 w) 2 w ≤1 Now α = αmin when w = ws
for w > 1, ∴ αmin = 10 log10(1+ ∈2 c n 2 ( ws )
α min/10
α = 10 log 1+ ∈2 (cosh n cosh −1 w) 2 ............(ix) ∈2 c n ( ws ) = 10
2
–1
Now , ε (cosh ncos ws) = 10α min/10-1
2 -1 2
α max occurs when , cn(w) = 1 Or, ( cosh ncosh-1ws)2 = (10α min/10-1)/ (10α max/10-1)
n cosh-1ws = cosh-1 [(10α min/10-1)/ (10α max/10-1)]1/2
33
∴ n = {cosh-1 [(10α min/10-1)/ (10α max/10-1)]1/2}/cosh-1ws …..(xiii) Again,
Cn (s/j) = cosn cos-1(s/j)
Example: Given wp = 1 , ws = 2.33 , αmax = 0.5dB , αmin = 22 dB. Let
Calculate ‘n’ for Butterworth and chebyshev filters which filter Cos-1(s/j) = x = u + jv
would you select. Then, cn(s/j) = cosnx = cosn (u+jv)
Solution: For Butterworth filter , the order is given by = cosnu. Cosnjv – sinnu. Sin njv
n = log10[(10α max/10-1)/(10α min/10 -1)]/ 2 log (wp/ws) = cosnu coshnv – jsin nu . sinh nv
1
= log[(100. 5/10 -1)/(1022/10 -1)]/2log (1/2.33) =0 ±j [ from equ. (iii)]
= 4.234 ≈ 5 ∈
Thus, comparing , we get, [ cosjnv = coshnv
∴ n for BU = 5 Cosnu . cosh nv = 0 [ sinjnv = jsinhv]
For Chebyshev the order is given by , -sinnu. Sinhnv = 0
n = cosh-1[(10αmin/10-1)/(10αmax/10-1)]/cosh-1(2.33)
= 2.89 ≈ 3 ∴ The minimum value of
n for chebyshev = 3 . Coshnv = 1, coshnv not equal to 0
∴ cosnu = 0
Since the order of chebyshev filter (i.e n =3) is less then the Or cosnuk = cos(2k+1). Π /2, k = 0,1,2………….
order of butterworth filter (i.e n = 5) and both filter provides the Uk = (2k+1) π/2n ……….(v)
same roll- off for the specification, n would choose chebyshev Now ,
filter. 1
-sinnuk = sinhnvk = ±
∈
Chebyshev poles location and network function: But, sin nuk = +- 1
We know 1
∴ +-1 . sinhnvk = ±
2 1 ∈
T ( jw) = 2
……..(i) 1
1+ ∈ c n ( w)
2
Or sinhnvk =
∈
Substituting s = jw equation (i) becomes, 1
2 1 Nvk= sinh-1 ( )
T (s ) = 2
………..(ii) ∈
1+ ∈ c n ( s / j )
2
1
To determine the poles, Vk = 1/n. sinh-1( )
∈
2
1+ ∈2 c n ( s / j ) = 0 Again, we know that
Cos-1 (s/j) = x = u +jv
cn (s / j) = ± j
1
……(iii) s/j = cosx = cos(u+jv)
∈ 34 in general,
sk = jcos(uk +jv) Date: 2065/6/9
= j[cosuk .cosjv – sinuk. sinjv] Example:01 Obtained the 4th order network function of a low
pass chebyshev filter with α max = 0.75 dB
= j[cosuk . coshv – jsinuk. sinhv ]
Solution: n = 4 αmax = 0.75 dB
Sk = sinuk. sinhv + jcosuk. coshv ……(vi) , k = 0,1,2….(2n-1) Now ε = ( 10αmax/10 -1)1/2 whp = cosh (1/n. cosh-1 (1/ε))
Again, = (100.75/10 -1)1/2 = 0.434
Sk = sin[(2k +1) π /2n] sinhv + jcos[(2k+1)π /2n] coshv And whp = cosh ( 1/n. cosh-1(1/ε)) =
Or , sk = σk + jwk ………..(viii)
Where, Pole location is given by
Σk = sin[(2k+1) π /2n] sinhv ……….(ix) Sk = sinuk sinhv + jcosuk coshv
Where, uk = (2k+1) .π/2n ; k = 0, 1, ………2n-1
Wk = cos[(2k+1)π /2n] coshv ………..(x)
V = 1/n. sinh-1(1/ε)
Form euation (ix) ,
σ k2/sin2 hv = sin2[ ( 2k+1)π /2n] ……..(xi) ∴ uo = π/8 u1 = 3π/8 , u2 = 5π/8, u3 = 7π/8 , u4 = 9π/8
u5 = 11π/8 u6 = 13π/8 , u7 = 15π//8
and from quation (x)
v = 0.393 (adjust calculator in radian)
w2k/cos2hv = cos2 [ (2k+1)π /2n] ……..(xii)
Now adding equation (xi) and (xii) we get, s0 = 0.154 + 0.996j
σ k2/sin2 hv+ w2k/cos2hv = 1 ……….(xii) s1 = 0.373+ 0.413j
s2 = 0.373 – 0.413j
Which is equation of ellipse . Therefore we can say that the
poles of chebyshev filter lie on the ellipse. s3 = 0.154-0.996j
s4 = -0.154 – 0.996j
s5 = -0.373 – 0.413j
s6 = -0.373 + 0.413j
s7 = -0.154 + 0.996j
The transfer function (or n/w function) for forth order chebyshev
35 filter is given by ,
T(s) = 1/(s+s4)(s+s5)(s+s6)(s+s7) T (jw) T (jw)
jw
S7 S0
S1
S6
S2 W W
S5 inverse-Chebyshev-response
Chebyshev-respone
S4 S3
2
1- T (jw)
Home Assignment:
Example:02: Determine the network function for 3rd order
chebyshev LPF with αmax = 0.75 dB ( =αp ; pass band
attenuation)
Date: 2065/6/14 W
Fig: intermediate stage to obtain inverse chebyshev response.
Inverse chebyshev low pass approximation:
2
Tic(jw)
T (jw) T (jw)
Fig: The reciprocal value of w of intermediate stage give the

W W value of w in I-C response.
Ideal LPF BU-Response
We know the response of chebyshev is given by

2 1
T ( jw) = 2
1+ ∈ c n ( w)
2
36
1 1
∴ αmin = 10 log [ 1+
2
1- Tc ( jw) = 1- }
1+ ∈ c n ( w)
2 2
∈2
1
Or , 10αmin/10 -1 =
2
∈2 c n ( w)
= 2 ∈2
1+ ∈2 c n ( w)
( )
1
−
Now replace w by 1/w ∈= 10 α min/ 10 − 10…………. (iv)
2
Again in general, the attenuation formula can be written as:

2
∈2 c n (1 / w) ⎡ ∈2 c n 2 (1 / w) ⎤
TIC ( jw) =
2
………………(i) α = -10log ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣1+ ∈ c n (1 / w) ⎥⎦
2 2
1+ ∈2 c n (1 / w)
Where, ⎡ 1 ⎤
2 α = 10 log ⎢1 + 2 2 ⎥
TIC ( jw) is the magnitude square response for I-C. ⎢⎣ ∈ c n (1 / w) ⎥⎦
Now at w = wp α = αmax
We know , Then above equation becomes
cn(1/w) = cosncos-1(1/w) ⎡ 1 ⎤
at for w = 1 α = αmax = 10 log ⎢1 + 2
⎥
⎢⎣ ∈2 c n (1 / w p ) ⎥⎦
cn(1) = 1 for all value of n
Thus equation (i) becomes 1
(10α max/10 – 1) = 2
2∈ .1 2 ∈2 c n (1 / w p )
TIC ( j.1) =
1+ ∈2 2 1 1
c n (1 / w p ) = . α max/ 10
∈2 .1 ∈ (10
2
− 1)
TIC ( j.1) = ……. (ii)
1+ ∈2 2 (10 α min/ 10 − 1)
c n (1 / w p ) =
We know that , (10 α max/ 10 − 1)
α min = -20log TIC ( j.1) dB ……(iii) (10 α min/ 10 − 1)
c n (1 / w p ) = ……….(v)
(10 α max/ 10 − 1)
Using equation (ii) on equation (iii) , we get, c n (1 / w p ) = coshn cosh-1 (1/wp) …………. (vi)
α = α min = -20log TIC ( j.1) dB
1/ 2 [∴ wp < 1, 1/wp > 1]
⎛ ∈2 ⎞
= - 20log ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Thus equating equation (v) and (vii)
⎝ 1+ ∈
2
⎠ 1
⎡ (10 α min/ 10 − 1) ⎤ 2
⎛ 1+ ∈2 ⎞ Coshn cosh-1(1/wp) = ⎢ α max/ 10 ⎥
= 10log ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎣ (10 − 1) ⎦
⎝ ∈ ⎠
37
1
wp = 0.9
⎡ (10 α min/ 10 − 1) ⎤ 2
−1
cosh ⎢ α max/ 10 ⎥ n=?
⎣ (10 − 1) ⎦ wnp = ?
∴ n= ………………(vii)
cosh −1 (1 / w p )
Which gives the required order for the inverse chebyshev filter. Assignment:
Now , for half power frequency i.e at w = wp
TIC ( j.1) = 1/√2 Example:02 Differentiate between Butterworth , chevyshev and
TIC ( j.1)
2
=½ inverse chebysehev filters.
Which means, Pole zero location for inverse chebyshev:
2
∈2 c n (1 / w P ) = 1 We know that ,
2 1 2
∈2 c n (1 / w)
c n (1 / wnp ) = TIC ( jw) =
2
∈2 2
1+ ∈2 c n (1 / w)
1
c n (1 / w) = T(s). T(-s) = z(s).z(-s)/[p(s).p(-s)]
∈
1 Where, z(s) z(-s) |s = jw = ∈2 c n 2 (1 / w)
Coshn.cosh-1(1/wnp) =cosh-1
∈ P(s) P(-s)|s = jw = 1 + ∈2 c n 2 (1 / w)
1
n coshn.cosh-1( (1 / wnp ) = cosh-1( )
∈ For zero location:
1
cosh-1( (1 / wnp ) = 1/n. cosh-1( )
2
∈2 c n (1 / wk )
∈
∴ ∈≠ 0 ⇒ c n 2 (1 / wk ) = 0
1 c n (1 / wk ) = 0
1/wnp = cosh[1/n. cosh-1( )]
∈ Cosn cos-1(1/wk) = cos(kπ/2) for k = 1,3,5 ………..(i.e odd)
1 ncos-1(1/wk) = kπ/2
wnp = < 1 ……….(viii) 1/wk = cos(kπ/2n) which gives the zero for inverse chebyshev.
⎡1 1 ⎤
cosh ⎢ cosh −1 ( )⎥ Wk = sec(kπ/2n)
⎣n ∈⎦
Which gives the desire half power frequency. For poles:

Example: 01 1+ ∈2 c n 2 (1 / wk ) = 0
Given, α max = 0.5 dB The poles location are similar to chebyshev.
αmin = 22 dB Simply replacing wk by 1/wk
38
i.e if chebyshev poles = pi The effect of frequency transformation are:
Then , inverse chbyshev poles = 1/pi 1. Magnitude response 2. Network function
3. Location of poles and zeroes. 4. Network elements.
Types of transformation:
1. LP to LP transformation
Transformation
Fig. Zero location
Fig. Pole location
W
W0 Ω0
Example:01 Old LPF New LPF
Given,
α min = 18 dB Replace s by wo/Ωo .s
αmax = 0.25 dB i.e
ws = 1.4 rad/sec ∴ w0 = 1 ( in normalized case)
wp = 1 rad/sec
Find out the pole and zero for inverse chbyshev response. ∴ s → s/Ω0
∴ TLP(new) (s) = TLP(old) (s/Ω0)
Chapter 5 For eamaple,
Frequency transformation: If
Frequency transformation is important because the prototype TLP(s) = 1/S+1
LPF with any type of approximation can be converted into high Then
pass band pass , band stops filters within the same characteristics TLP(old)(s) = 1/s+1
easily. ∴ TLP(new)(s) = TLP(old)(s/Ωo) = 1/(s/Ωo)+1 = Ω0/(s+Ω0)
T(jw)
1. For resistor:
1
0.707 - No change.
2. For inductor:
XL = LS
Wc
39
( )
s
Putting s → ∴THP(s) = TLP(s) = TLP
Ω0
Ω0 s=
Ω0 S
s
s L
XL’ = Lold = old s = Lnew .S Example if TLP(s) = 1/(s+1)
Ω0 Ω0 1 s
Then, THP(s) = =
∴ Lnew = Lold/Ω0 Ω0 Ω0 + s
+1
s
3. For capacitor: (1) For resistor:
Xc = 1/cs No change
s
Putting s →
Ω0 (2) For inductor:
1 1 1
Xc’ = = = XL = LS
s C old C new .s
C old .s Ω0
Ω0 Ω0 Putting s →
s
∴ Cnew = Cold/s Ω0 1
XL’ = L. =
s ⎛ 1 ⎞
2 LP to HP Transformation: ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.s
⎝ LΩ 0 ⎠
1
Comparing with 1/CS
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.s
⎝ LΩ 0 ⎠
Transformation 1
C=
LΩ 0
W
W0 Ω0
LPF with W0 HPF with Ω0 (3) For capacitor:
Xc = 1/cs
Ω0 Ω0
In this case we replace s → Putting s →
w0 .s s
Ω0 1 s ⎛ 1 ⎞
Or , s → [Since w0 = 1] XL’ = = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.S = LS
s ⎛ Ω0 ⎞ cΩ 0 ⎝ CΩ 0 ⎠
⎜ ⎟.c
⎝ s ⎠
40
⎛ 1 ⎞
Comparing ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.S with LS
⎝ CΩ 0 ⎠ (2) For inductor:
⎛ 1 ⎞
XL = LS
L = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ The new value of inductive reactance is given by:
⎝ CΩ 0 ⎠ ⎛ s 2 + Ω02 ⎞
’
XL = L. ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ Bs ⎠
2
L LΩ 0 L 1
XL’ = .s + = .s +
B Bs B B
2
.s
Date: 2056/6/15 LΩ 0
∴ The new component are inductor and capacitor in series.
(3) LP to BP Transformation:
L B
T (jw) TBP(jΩ ) B LΩo2
LP
(3) For capacitor:

Transmission The new capacitive reactance form LP to BP is given by :
1 1 1 1
= = = =
s 2 + Ω0
2
cs 2 + cΩ 0
2
c cΩ 0
2
c 1
W Ω c. s+ s+
Wp Ws ΩL ΩU B B
Bs Bs B Bs .s
2
cΩ 0
In this case, The new components (i.e inductor and capacitor) are in parallel
s2 + Ω2 as shown in fig. below:
s → w0 .
Ωu − Ω L
Here, Ωu – ΩL = B
And w0 = 1
s2 + Ω2
∴ s →. B C
Bs CΩo2 B
2
Where Ω0 = ΩL. Ωu
(1) For resistor

- no change
41
LP to BS Transformation:
T (jw) TBS(jΩ ) LB 1
LP
2 LB
Ωo
Transmission
(3) For capacitor:
Wp Ws
W ΩL ΩU Ω Xc = 1/cs
2 2
1 s2 + Ω0 s2 Ω 1 1
Xc = = = + 0 = .s +
Bs Bs CBS CBs CBs CB CB
In this case s is replaced by .w0 c. 2 2
.s
s + Ω0
2 2 s 2 + Ω0 Ω0
Bs
But w0 = 1, ∴ s→ 2 CB 1
s + Ω0
2
2
Ωo CB
(1) For resistor :
Resistor value remain same.
1
(2) For inductor: Example:01: If T(s) = , then change the above function
s +1
from LP to BP. Given , ΩL = 10 and Ωu = 20.
XL = LS Solution:
Bs 1 1 1
XL = L. =. = =
Then, TLP(s) =
1
, ΩL = 10 , Ωu = 20
s + Ω0
2 2
s + Ω0
2 2 2
s Ω
2
1 1
+ 0 s+ s +1
LBS LBS LBs LB LB
2
.s
Ω0 We know ,
The new component (i.e inductor and capacitor ) are in parallel Ω02 = ΩL. Ωu = 10. 20 = 200
as in figure below: For Lp to BP we replace
2
s 2 + Ω0 s 2 + 2000 s 2 + 200
s→ = =
B (20 − 10) s 10 s
Thus,
42
Where, Ωo = 400 rad/sec , B = 150
1 10 s
TLP s 2 + 200 = TBP ( s) = 2 = 2
s= s + 200 s + 10 s + 200
10 s +1 Now for section A:
10 s L = 1.2817
10( s )
∴TBP(s) = 2
s + 10 s + 200
Which changes to series LC component as shown below:
L B
Example:02: Obtain the transfer function of the 4th order Butter B LΩo2
worth HPF with Ω0 = 2π ×104 rad/sec.
1
TLP(s) = ∴ The new inductor value is = L/B = 1.2817/150 = 8.54 mH
s + 2.61313s + 3.41921s 2 + 2.61313s + 1
4 3
We know that , and the new value of capacitor is = B/L Ω20 =

Ω0 150/(1.2817×4002) = 731.45 µF.
s→
s
1 For section B:
= 4 3 2
C= 1. 9093
⎛ Ω0 ⎞ ⎛Ω ⎞ ⎛Ω ⎞ ⎛Ω ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + 2.61313⎜ 0 ⎟ + 3.41921⎜ 0 ⎟ + 2.61313⎜ 0 ⎟ + 1
⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠
Which changes for LP to BP As:
Example:03:The filter shown in the figure below is a 4th order
chebyshev low pass filter with αp = 1 dB and wp = 1. Obtain a
bandpass filter from this low pass with Ωo = 400 rad/sec and B =
150. B C
CΩo2 B
+
} }
A C
V1
+
- B D
}
E
V2
New inductor value = B/C Ωo2 = 150/(1.9093×4002)= 491.01 µF

-
New capacitor value = C/B = 1.9093/150 = 12.72 µF
Solution:
For LP to BP conversion , we replace For section C:
L = 1.4126
2
s 2 + Ω0
s→
Bs 43
B L I1
I2
+
R1
LΩo2 B
1
+ Loss less V2
Vs zi n R2
Ladder
- V1
For section D: -
Fig.1 Doubly Terminated LC ladder ckt.
From figure(i)
I1= Vs/(R1 +Vin) ……………(i)
B C
Where,
CΩo2 B Zin = Rin + jxin …………….(ii)
Since the ckt is loss less
Input power = output power
P1 = zin |I1(jw)|2 = |V2(jw)|2/R2 ……………(iii)
From equation (i) and (iii)
For section E: zin|Vs(jw)|2/(R1+zin) = |V2(jw)|2/R2
R=1 R=1
or , |V2(jw)|2/|vs(jw)|2 = zin R2/(R1+zin)2 …………..(iv)
Now for matched source.
R1 = zin
Which means
+ V1 = vs/2
8. 54 mH 9. 41 mH
731. 45uF 663. 66uF ∴ P1max = |v1(jw)|2/R1 = |vs(jw)|2/4R1
+ 12.72 uF 1Ω Also it is to remember that ,
V 491uH 893. 71mH
- 6. 99 mF P2 = |v2(jw)|2/R2
|(jw)|2 = p2/p1max = [|v2(jw)|2/R2]/ |vs(jw)|2/4R1 = 4R1/R2.
- |v2(jw)/vs(jw)|2 …………..(vi)
Form equation (iv) and (vi)

Date: 2065/6/16 |H(jw)|2 = 4R1/R2. {zin R2/(R1+zin)}
= 4R1zin/ (R1+zin)2 = 1- (R1-zin)2/(R1 +zin)2
Doubly Terminated LC-Ladder ckt: (R1-zin)2/(R1 +zin)2 = |(jw)|2
= reflection coefficient
44
( R1 − z in ) 2
s
ρ ( s).ρ (− s) = 1−
1 − ρ ( s) s +1 = . s +1− s
( R1 + z in ) 2 ∴ zin1 = R1 . = 1.
1 + ρ ( s) s s +1+ s
1+
( R1 − z in ) s +1
ρ ( s) = ± .....................(vii) 1
( R1 + z in ) Zin1 = . .............(a)
2s + 1
From equation (vii) , we get Zin2 = 2s+1 ……….(b)
1 − ρ ( s)
z in = R1 . −−−−−1st zin ……..(viii) Zin2 = 2s+ 1 = Ls + R
1 + ρ (s) i.e L = 2, and R = 1
1 + ρ ( s)
z in = R1 . -----------2nd zin ∴ The ckt will be
1 − ρ ( s) R1 2
1
Generally we take R1 = 1. Both impedances in equation (viii) are
reciprocal impedance. vs
+
-
R2 1
Synthesis of Doubley Terminated LC ladder with equal

terminal (All pass filter)
From equation (a) , zin1 = 1/(2s+1) i.e c = 2, and R = 1
For butterworth response: 1
+
2 2 1 N ( s) N (− s) + 1 v2
T ( jw = H ( jw) = = [since w0 = 1] vs
-
2
1+ w 2n
D( s ) D(− s )
-
2 2 2 1 w 2n
ρ ( s ) = 1 − H ( s ) = 1 − H ( jw) = 1 − = For n = 2
1 + w 2n 1 + w 2n
D(s) = s2+√2s + 1
w 2n w 2n s n .(− s ) n
ρ ( s).ρ (− s) = = = ……(ix) sn sn
1 + w 2n D( s).D(− s ) D( s ).D(− s ) ρ ( s) = = 2
D( s) s + 2 s + 1
Now,
1 − ρ ( s) 1 − s 2 /( s 2 + 2 s + 1) (s 2 + 2s + 1 − s 2 )
For n = 1 ∴ zin1 = = =
1 + ρ ( s) 1 + s 2 /( s 2 + 2 s + 1) (s 2 + 2s + 1 + s 2 )
D(s) = s+1 [since T(s) = H(s) = 1/S+1]
Form equation (ix) ( 2 s + 1)
∴ zin1 = ……..(a)
ρ(s) = sn/D(s) (2 s 2 + 2 s + 1)
= s1/s+1 = s/s+1 45 Similary,
2s + 2s + 1
2
Synthesis of Doubly Terminated LC - Ladder with unequal
Zin2 = ……….(b)
2s + 1 termination: ( R1 ≠ R2) :
Taking equation (b) For R1 ≠ R2 the butter worth response is given by ,
2H 2 (0) 2
H ( jw) = = T ( jw)
1+ w 2n
Generally we take,
√2 s+1) 2s22+√2 s +1 (√2.s z1(s) R1 ≠ 1 and R1 ≠ R2
2s +√2 s
1 ) √2.s + 1( √2 s Y2(s) R1 I1 I2
√2 s
+ R2 V2
1) 1 (1 z3(s) Zin LC
- Vs
1
∴ The ckt will be as follows:

+
1 1.41
V2
From figure, the transform function , T(s) =
vs
+ 1 v2 Vs
-
1.41
From which we get ,
- R2
2 T(0) =
R2 + R1
1 1.41
vs
+
-
1.41 1 Now we know
2
4 R V ( s)
2
H ( s) = 1 . 2
R2 Vs ( s)
2 4 R1 2
H ( s) = . T ( s)
R2
Home work : For n = 3 and n = 4 R1
H (S ) = 2 .T ( s )
R2
R1 R R2
H ( 0) = 2 .T (0) = 2 1 .
Date: 2065/6/17 R2 R2 R1 + R 2
46
R2 .R1 D(s) = s3+2s2 + 2s+1 (from table)
∴ H (0) = 2
R1 + R2 ∴ The first impedance is ,
1/ 3 + s3
1−
Example:01: Realize the doubly terminated ladder filter with a 1 − ρ ( s) s 3 + 2s 2 + 2s + 1
Zin1 = =
Butter worth response for n = 3, R1 = 1, R2 = 2 . 1 − ρ ( s) 1/ 3 + s3
1+ 3
Solution: s + 2s 2 + 2s + 1
We know, for unequal termination ( i.e R1 ≠ R2) the Butterworth
response is given by, 2s 2 + 2s + 2 / 3
Zin1 = ……….(a)
2 H 2 (0) 2s 3 + 2s 2 + 2s + 4 / 3
H ( jw) =
1 + w 2n 2s 3 + 2s 2 + 2s + 4 / 3
Zin2 = …………..(b)
Here, n = 3, R1 = 1 & R2 = 2 2s 2 + 2s + 2 / 3
4 R2 .R1 4.1.2 8 Now using continued fraction method for equation (b)
H2(0) = = =
(R2 + R1 ) 2
(1 + 2) 2
9
8/9
∴ H ( jw) =
2
1 + w 2n
The reflection coefficient function is
2 2
ρ ( jw) = 1 − H ( jw)
2s2+2s+2/3 ) 2s3+2s2 +2s + 4/3 ( s z1(s)
8/9 1 + w − 8 / 9 1/ 9 + w 2n 2n
=1 − = = 2s3+2s2+2/3.s
1+ w 2n
1 + w 2n 1 + w 2n
4/3.s+4/3 ) 2s2 +2s+ 2/3 (3/2. s Y2(s)
2s2+2s
2 1 / 9 − ( s / j ) 2×3 1 / 9 + ( s / j ) 6
ρ ( jw) = = 2/3 ) 4/3.s +4/3(2s z3(s)
1 + w 2×3 1 + w6
2 1 / 9 − ( s) 6 (1 / 3) 2 − ( s 3 ) 2 (1 / 3 − s )(1 / 3 + s ) 4/3.s
Or, ρ ( s) = = =
1 − s6 1− s6 1 − s6 4/3 ) 2/3 (1/2 Y4(s)
2/3
(1 / 3 + s 3 ) (1 / 3 − s 3 )
ρ ( s).ρ (− s) = . 1 2
D( s) D(− s ) + 1
-
Where, D(s). D(-s) = 1- s6 2/3 2
1/ 3 + s3
∴ ρ ( s) =
D( s)
For n = 3,
47
Home Assignment:
• Try it for n = 1, 2, 3 and 4 , for unequal terminal i. e R1 = 1
and R2 = 2.
[ for n = 4, D(s) = s4+2.16s3+3.14s2+2.6s+1]
• Review of ideal and non ideal properties of operational

amplifiers, GBP, CMRR, Inverting and non inverting A/F.
48

Filter: Filter Can Be Considered Can Be Considered As Frequency

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Where , V1(s) and V2(s) are the Laplace Transform of V1(t) . 1

When , m = n = 1, then the T(s) of equation (i) will be bilinear , -

T(s) = R(S+1- 2RCS)/2(RCS+1) = -{(RCS+1)/2(RCS+1)}

ω > ω 01 -wo1 wo2

Normalization and Renormalization:

1. Impedance (Magnitude or amplitude) scaling: In this

The transfer function for fig. (i) , ωo

Lold = Lold / Kf ………….(vi)

These three equations are know as element scaling equations.

Perform magnitude and frequency scaling separately with wo = 3

R1old = km. R1old = 105× 1 Ω = 100 k

5. There must be either a pole or a zero at the origin. .......

It is not LC ckt function because,

s( s 2 + 4) ( s 2 + 9) Example 02: Design Foster parallel n/w for the function

Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np

Fig. For F(s) = Y(s)

Example:03: Synthesis the following ckt in cauer form.

Fig. Caure II n/w for LC series ckt.

- ko/s represents inductor of value 1/ko For cauer 1 n/w:

The ckt will be:

Fig. Caure 1 n/w

Some as that of R-L impedance except F(s) = Y(s)

Cauer Method for R-L one port n/w:

2 A0 From equation (iv) the following property can be written.

equating (i) and (ii) can be equated as:

Taking log on both sides,

Fig(ii) (b) Lissagious figure for n = 1,2,3 and 4

∴ cn (w) = cosn cos-1w

However , the function must also be valid for longer value of w

σ k2/sin2 hv+ w2k/cos2hv = 1 ……….(xii) s1 = 0.373+ 0.413j

Fig: The reciprocal value of w of intermediate stage give the

We know the response of chebyshev is given by

Again in general, the attenuation formula can be written as:

Which gives the desire half power frequency. For poles:

(3) For capacitor:

(1) For resistor

We know that , and the new value of capacitor is = B/L Ω20 =

New inductor value = B/C Ωo2 = 150/(1.9093×4002)= 491.01 µF

Fig.1 Doubly Terminated LC ladder ckt.

Form equation (iv) and (vi)

Synthesis of Doubley Terminated LC ladder with equal

∴ The ckt will be as follows:

• Review of ideal and non ideal properties of operational

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