Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Definition 1: A function 𝐹(𝑥) is said to be an antiderivative of a function f(x) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹 ′ (𝑥)for all
𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓. That is,
Example 1:
𝑑
a) The function F(x) = x2 is an antiderivative of the function f(x) = 2x, because 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥.
Remark 1: If 𝐹 and 𝐺 are any two antiderivatives of 𝑓, then there exist a constant c so that G = F +
c. Thus any two antiderivatives of a function differ only by a constant.
3 𝑑
Solution: Note that f(x) = 𝑥 2 . From the power rule for derivatives (𝑥 𝑟 ) = 𝑟𝑥 𝑟−1 . Hence, the
𝑑𝑥
1 3
function F(x) = 𝑥 𝑟 is an antiderivative of the function f(x) = 𝑥 𝑟−1 . Putting 𝑟 − 1 = we get
𝑟 2
2 5 3
that the function G(x) = 5 𝑥 2 is an antiderivative of f(x) = 𝑥 2 . If 𝐹 is any an anti-derivative of 𝑓,
2 5 8
then F(x) = x 2 + c for some constant c. If in addition, 𝐹(1) = 2, then c = . Therefore, F(x) =
5 5
2 5 8
𝑥 + .
2
5 5
1
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Definition 2: The family of all antiderivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) is called the indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) and it is
denoted by ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
The process of finding the indefinite integral of a function is called indefinite integration.
F(x) + C,
Thus
The formula above is called an integration formula. By reversing known differentiation formulas, we
can obtain many integration formulas. Here are some examples:
Example 3:
𝑑
a) ∫ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = x2 + c because (𝑥 2 + 𝑐) = 2𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
b) ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐 because 𝑑𝑥 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.
𝑒2𝑥 𝑑
c) ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
+ c because
𝑑𝑥
(x2 + c) = e2x.
1
d) . ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 2 +1
2
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
𝑥 𝑟+1
a. ∫ 𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑟+1
+ c for r ≠-1 (2)
b. ∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝑐 (3)
Proof:
𝑑 1
a) [ xr+1] = xr
𝑑𝑥 𝑟+1
𝑑 𝑑
b)
𝑑𝑥
[ln x] = 1/x = [ln (-x)]
𝑑𝑥
Example 4:
𝑥 5+1 𝑥6
a) ∫ 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 = 5+1
+𝑐=
6
+𝑐
1
1 − +1
1 − 𝑥 2
b) ∫ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =∫ 𝑥 2 dx = 1 = 2√𝑥 + c
− +1
2
1 𝑥 −2+1 −1
c) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = −2+1
+𝑐= 𝑥
+𝑐
Proof:
𝑑 𝑑
a) [k ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥] = k ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = kf(x)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
b) [∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥] = f(x) + g(x)
𝑑𝑥
3
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
𝑥6 𝑥4
Example 5: ∫[𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 ]𝑑𝑥 = − +c
6 2
The following integration technique is usually used to evaluate integrals whose integrands involve
composition of functions. Its proof is based on chain rule.
C. Substitution Rule
Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions such that 𝑔𝑜𝑓 and 𝑓 ′ are continuous. If 𝐺 is an antiderivative of 𝑔, then
𝑑
Proof: [𝐺(𝑓(𝑥 )) + 𝑐] = 𝐺 ′ (𝑓 (𝑥 ))𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 0 = 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑥 ))𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑔(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝐺 (𝑢) + 𝑐
Example 6: Evaluate
√1+√𝑥
a) ∫ 3𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 + 5)9 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
𝑑𝑢
Solution (a): Let u = 𝑥 3 + 5. This implies 𝑑𝑥 = 3x2. Then du = 3x2dx
𝑢10 (𝑥 3 +5) 10
Therefore ∫ 3𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 + 5)9 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 3 + 5)9 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢9 𝑑𝑢 = + c=
10 10
+c
3
√1+√𝑥 𝑢 4
Thus ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑥 2√ 𝑥𝑑𝑢 = 2 ∫ √ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 3 (1 + √ 𝑥)2 + 𝑐
√𝑥 √
𝑓 ′ (𝒙)
Corollary: ∫
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐 .
4
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Example 7:
3
a) ∫ 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 |𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐
2𝑥
b) ∫ 𝑥 2 −5 𝑑𝑥 = ln |x2 - 5| + c
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥=− ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 | + 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
d) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥𝑑𝑥= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 𝑙𝑛 |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 | + 𝑐
The following integral table presents the indefinite integrals of the six basic trigonometric functions.
D. Integration by Parts
The following integration technique is used to evaluate certain integrals whose integrands involve
products of two functions. Its proof is based on the product rule for derivatives. Note that a single
function can also be considered as a product of functions, namely 1 and itself.
𝑑𝑦
[𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
5
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣= 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢
Example 8: Evaluate
Solution (a): Let u = x and dv= cosx dx. Then du = dx and v = sin x. (NB. v = sin x + c , in
general. But let us put c=0). Thus
Solution (b): Let u = x2 and dv= cosx dx. Then du =2x dx and v = sin x. Thus
1 1
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐
Solution (d): Put 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 and apply the technique of integration by parts. Then
∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = x ln x − 𝑥 + 𝑐 //
6
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
𝑃(𝑥)
This technique is used to integrate rational functions. Recall that a rational function is said to
𝑄(𝑥)
be proper if 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑃) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑄) and improper otherwise. A proper rational function is said to be a
partial fraction if its numerator is of degree less than 2.
𝑃(𝑥)
Let R(x) = be a rational function. Then ∫ 𝑅(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 can be evaluated as follows.
𝑄(𝑥)
𝑟(𝑥)
𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥) +
𝑄(𝑥)
𝑟 (𝑥)
Where q(x) is a polynomial and 𝑄 (𝑥) is a proper rational function. This can be achieved by using the long
division method. More precisely, if q(x) is the quotient and r(x) is the remainder of dividing P(x) by
𝑟(𝑥)
Q(x), then R(x) = q(x) + .
𝑄(𝑥)
Thus
𝑟(𝑥 )
∫ 𝑅(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑞(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑄(𝑥)
Step 2: Factorize Q(x) into linear factors or irreducible quadratic factors. The factors could be:
𝑟(𝑥)
Step 3: Express the proper fraction 𝑄(𝑥) as a sum of partial fractions depending on the factors of Q
as follows.
7
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Factors of Q 𝒓(𝒙)
Partial fraction decomposition of
𝑸(𝒙)
(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 )𝑛 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛
2
+⋯+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏x + c) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏x + c)𝑛
Product of two or more of the above Sum of two or more of the above
Example 9: Evaluate
𝑥3 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥 2 −2
a) ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥. b) ∫ 𝑥 3 +3𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥. c) ∫ 𝑥 3 +3𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥3 3𝑥+2
Solution (a): 𝑥 2 +2𝑥 +1
= x−2 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥 +1
𝑥3 3𝑥 + 2
⇒∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥2 3𝑥 +2
= 2
− 2𝑥 +𝑐2 + ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥+2
(*)Next, let us integrate ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥 +1 𝑑𝑥 .
8
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
3𝑥 +2 𝐴1 𝐴2 3𝑥+2 𝐴1 𝑥 +(𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )
Let = + . ⇒ = ⇒ 𝐴1 𝑥 + (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 ) = 3𝑥 + 2
𝑥 2 +2𝑥 +1 𝑥+1 (𝑥+1) 2 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 (𝑥+1) 2
𝐴1 = 3
⇒{
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 2
3𝑥+2 3 −1 1
Therefore ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + + 𝑐1 (**)
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑥+1 (𝑥+1) 2 𝑥+1
𝑥3 𝑥2 1
From (*) and (**), ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − 2𝑥 + 3𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + +𝑐
𝑥 2 +2𝑥 +1 2 𝑥+1
𝑥 2 −1 1 1 2𝑥−1
Answer (b): ∫ 𝑥3 +3𝑥 +4 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑙𝑛|4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 16| − 15 arctan ( 15 ) + 𝑐.
√ √
Note: Certain non-rational functions can also be integrated by the method of partial fraction. For
𝑥
example, the substitution 𝑧 = tan(2 ) reduces any rational function of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 to a rational
function of 𝑧.
1
Example 10: Integrate ∫ 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
F. Trigonometric Integrals
Trigonometric integrals are integrals whose integrands are combinations (products) of trigonometric
functions. Methods for evaluating such integrals are described case by case as follows.
The following reduction formulas may be used to evaluate these integrals of powers of
trigonometric functions.
−1 𝑛−1
1. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑛−1
2. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥
3. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑛−1
9
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Derivation:
Thus,
a) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥
b) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Solution:
−1 3−1
a) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 −1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 +
3
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
−1 2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3
−1 2
=
3
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 - cos 𝑥 + c
3
10
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
1 4−1
b) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4−1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 4
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
1 4−1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4−1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4−2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
4 4
1 3
= 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 …(*)
4
1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2
cos 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 𝑐_1
…(**)
1 3 3
From (*) and (**), we obtain∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 8 cos 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 8 𝑥 + 𝑐
4
1
(1+cos 2𝑥 )
- 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 2
11
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Solution:
𝑑𝑢
a) Let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑢4 𝑢6
∴ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑢3 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑢 = ∫ [𝑢3 − 𝑢5 ]𝑑𝑢 = 4
− +𝑐
6
From the last result and the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 we get that
𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = = 4
−
6
+𝑐
Caution: In view of trigonometric identities, it is useful to notice that the final answer can take
𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥
different forms. For example ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = = - 4
+ 𝑐
+𝑐 .
b) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥[1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥]2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 - 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥𝑑𝑥
12
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
1 1 1
= 16 (1 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥) + 48 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥 + 𝑐
c) Since the exponent of tan is odd and that of sec is even, so we apply the third guideline of table
III.
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 - ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥
= ½ sec x tan x – ½ ln |sec x + tan x| + c
−1
d) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 𝑥𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4 𝑥 + 𝑐
4
The identities can easily be derived from the addition and subtraction laws of sine and cosine. For
example:
Example13: Integrate.
Solution:
1 1
a) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (−3𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝑥𝑑𝑥
13
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
1 1
=4 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 16 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧𝑑𝑧
1 1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 16 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑥 + 𝑐
4
1 1
b) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ sin(−𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥𝑑𝑥
1
=− ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 10 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧𝑑𝑧
1
= cos 𝑥 - 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 + 𝑐
10
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 −5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Trigonometric integrals that are not of the forms discussed above can often be simplified by
expressing the integrands in terms of sines and cosines and then using the methods already
discussed.
1 1
Answer : ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 cos −2 x + 2ln|cosx| − 2 cos2 x + c
The function g used in (b) is usually a trigonometric function and sometimes a hyperbolic function.
Trigonometric substitution is used specially for integrals containing expressions of the type:
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 , √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 and √𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. The method used for each case is
summarized in the following table.
14
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Case Method
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝜋 𝑥 −𝜋
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢; 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ if ≥ 1 and ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 0 if
2 𝑎 2
𝑥
𝑎
≤ −1
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 −𝜋 𝜋
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢 , 2
≤𝑢≤2
√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 −𝜋 𝜋
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢, 2
≤𝑢≤2
√𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. Reduce to any one of the above forms by using completing the
square method
9 √ 2 −9+ √ 2 −9
a) ∫ √𝑥 2 − 9 𝑑𝑥 Answer : − 2 | 3
|+ 2
+
9 √9−2
b) ∫ √9 − 2 Answer : 2 −1 ( 3 ) + 2
+
1 1
c) ∫√ 2
Answer : 4 | √42 + 1 + 2| +
4+16
√9−2 −√9−2
d) ∫ 2 Answer :
− −1 3 + c
1
e) ∫ 2
Answer : | + 1 + √2 + 2| + c
√ +2
Note : Some integrals having none of the above forms can be solved by similar methods
after an appropriate substitution of variables is made.
Example 16: Evaluate ∫
√+4
Solution : Put = 2 .
3
2 ( 𝑥+4) 2
Answer : 3
− 8√ 𝑥 + 4 +c
15
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
H. Concluding Remark
Exercise 5.1:
b) xe
x 1 x dx
2
(Hint: put u= 𝑥 √ 𝑥 − 3)
c) x2 cos (x3 ) dx
f) ∫ 𝑒 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥
d) ∫
√2 +1
2. Integrate.
a) x e dx
2 x
d) ∫ 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
b) ∫ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 e) ∫(𝑙𝑛𝑥)4 𝑑𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 f) sin(ln x) dx
3. Integrate.
1 𝑒𝑥
a) ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥. c) ∫ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +1 1−𝑒
2𝑟
b) ∫ 𝑟3 +1 𝑑𝑟
sin xcosx dx
3
a) b) sin 2xcos 3x dx c)
7. Evaluate
dx 3x 2 dx x 3 2 x 2 dx
a) 4x2 4x 5 b)
(1 x) 2 ( x 2)
c) ( x 1)( x 2 2 x 2)
8. Evaluate
𝑥+1
a) ∫
𝑥 √𝑥−1
𝑥+1
b) ∫ √ 𝑑𝑥 (Hint: rationalize numerator)
𝑥−1
16
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Let 𝑅 be a region in xy-plane bounded by the graph of a continuous nonnegative function 𝑓 from
above, the x- axis from below, the line 𝑥 = 𝑎 from left and the line 𝑥 = 𝑏 from right. Such a
region is called the region below the graph of f over [a, b]. Our aim is to find the area of 𝑅, 𝑎(𝑅).
Since R can have irregular shape, so the traditional geometrical methods cannot be used to find
𝑎(𝑅). We can estimate 𝑎(𝑅) as follows.
17
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
𝑥𝑘−1 𝑥𝑘
𝑡𝑘 Fi gure 2: Ri emann Sum
Definition 1:
a) Any set P: = {x0, x1, x2,…,xn-1, xn} is called a partition of [𝑎, 𝑏] if a = x0 < …<xn=b. In other
words, any finite subset of [a, b] that contains 𝑎 and 𝑏 is called a partition of [𝑎, 𝑏].
d) For a partition P: = { x0, x1, x2,…,xn-1, xn} of [a, b], the number ‖𝑃‖ := max {∆x1,….,∆xn}is
called the norm of P.
e) Let P: = { x0, x1, x2,…,xn-1, xn} be a partition of [a, b]. Let t 1 ∈ [𝑥 0 , 𝑥 1 ], t2 ∈ [𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 ],…,
tk ∈ [𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑥 𝑛 ]. The set T: = {t 1,…,tn} is called a selection of P.
Note that if ‖𝑃‖ approaches to 0 , then 𝑛 approaches infinity. But the converse is not true.
18
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Definition 2: Let 𝑓 be any function (not necessarily continuous or nonnegative) defined on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Let 𝑃: = { x0, x1, x2,…,xn-1, xn} be a partition of [a, b] and T: = {t 1,…,tn} be a selection of P. Let
𝑚 𝑘 and Mk be the maximum value and the minimum value of f on {xk-1, xk} respectively, i.e, 𝑀𝑘 ≔
max𝑥 𝑘−1≤𝑥≤ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑚 𝑘 ≔ min 𝑥 𝑘−1 ≤𝑥≤𝑥 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥).
The sum
a. 𝑅𝑓 (𝑃; 𝑇): = ∑𝑛𝑘 =1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘 is called the Riemann sum of f associated with P and T.
Note: If f is not continuous on [a, b], then Mk and mk may not exist. If 𝑓 is bounded on [a, b] we
modify the definitions Mk and mk as 𝑀𝑘 = Sup𝑥 𝑘−1≤𝑥≤𝑥 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑚 𝑘 ≔ inf𝑥 𝑘−1 ≤𝑥≤𝑥 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥).
Properties
1 3 5 7
Example 1: Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ∈ [0,4], 𝑃1 = {,1,2,3,4}, 𝑃2 = {0, 2 , 1, , 2, , 3, , 4},
2 2 2
1 3 5 7
T={2 , 2 , 2 , 2}.
Find
Solution:
19
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
a) Note that for 𝑃1, ∆x1=∆x2.=∆x3= ∆x4 = 1 ; m1 = f(0) = 0, m2 = f(1)=1, m3 = f(2) = 4 and
m4 = f(3)=9 and M1 = f(1) = 1, M2 = f(2)=2, M3 = f(3) = 9 and M4 = f(4)=16.Thus
𝐿 𝑓(𝑃1 ) = ∑4𝑘 =1 𝑚 𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑘 = 0(1) + 1(1) + 4(1) + 9(1) = 14
𝑈(𝑃1 ) = ∑4𝑘 =1 𝑀𝑘 ∆𝑥 𝑘 = 1(1) + 4(1) + 9(1) + 16(1) = 30
1 3 5 7 1 9
𝑅𝑓 (𝑃1 ; 𝑇) = ∑4𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘 = 𝑓 ( ) (1) + 𝑓 ( ) (1) + 𝑓 ( ) (1) + 𝑓 ( ) (1) = + +
2 2 2 2 4 4
25 49
+ = 21.
4 4
Hence,
1 1 9 25 49
𝐿 𝑓(𝑃2 ) = ∑8𝑘=1 𝑚 𝑘 ∆𝑥 𝑘 = ( )[0 + + 1 + + 4 + +9 + ] = 17.5
2 4 4 4 4
1 1 9 25 49
𝑈𝑓 (𝑃2 ) = ∑8𝑘 =1 𝑀𝑘 ∆𝑥 𝑘 = ( )[ + 1 + + 4 + +9+ + 16] = 25.5
2 4 4 4 4
Note: In the case of the plane region R described earlier, it can be proved that
In the language of limits, the statement in the box above can be written as
The limit above is used to represent not only areas of plane regions but also a number of other
quantities. For example, it can be used to solve speed-distance problem. Because of its frequent
application it is given a special name. It is called the definite integral of f from a to b (or over [a, b])
𝑏
and it is denoted by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .
20
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Definition 3: Let 𝑓 be a function defined on [𝑎, 𝑏]. The definite integral of f from a to b, written
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , is defined to be
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 : = lim | |𝑃| |→0 𝑅(𝑃; 𝑇);
Remarks:
1. The precise meaning of the limit that defines the definite integral is as follows:
𝑏
" ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼" means that , given any ∈> 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that for every
partition P of [a, b] and every selection T of P if ‖𝑃‖ < 𝛿, then |R f (P; T) – 𝐼 | < ∈ ,no
matter how P and T are chosen.
𝑏
2. The component parts of the expression" ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 " have the following names/ roles/:
a is called lower limit of integration;
b is called upper limit of integration;
[a, b] is called interval of integration;
f is called integrand;
𝑑𝑥 shows that x is the variable of integration and
the sign ∫ is elongated “S” and it is called integral sign
3. Definite integral need not be area. But if f is a continuous nonnegative function defined on
[a, b], then we can interpret the definite integral of f over [a, b] as the area of the region below
the graph of f over [a, b].
4. The variable of integration is called a dummy variable, since it does not matter what letter to
use. Thus,
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = ⋯
5. There are many equivalent (alternative) definitions (formulations) for the definite integral.
One of these is given below.
21
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Example 2: compute the following definite integrals by using the (alternative) definition.
𝑏 𝑏
a) ∫𝑎 𝑐𝑑𝑥 c) ∫𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
b) ∫𝑎 𝑥𝑑𝑥 d) ∫𝑎 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
a) ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎 𝑏
b) ∫𝑏 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥
C. Existence
The limit that defines the definite integral of f may not exist. If it exists, we say 𝑓 is Riemann integrable
on [𝑎, 𝑏].
D. Properties
𝑏 𝑏
a. . ∫𝑎 𝑘𝑓𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 (Constant Multiple Rule)
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
b. ∫𝑎 [𝑓 + 𝑔]𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 +∫𝑎 𝑔𝑑𝑥 (Sum Rule)
22
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
c. ∫𝑎 [𝑓 − 𝑔]𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 - ∫𝑎 𝑔𝑑𝑥 (Difference Rule)
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 +∫𝑏 𝑓𝑑𝑥 (Interval Union Property)
e. If 𝑚 & 𝑀are constants and 𝑚 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎) (Comparison property)
𝑏 𝑏
f. If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) on [𝑎, 𝑏], then ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 ≥ ∫𝑎 𝑔𝑑𝑥 . (Domination Property)
𝑏
𝑓(𝑐 )(𝑏 − 𝑎) = ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑑𝑥 (Mean Value Theorem for Integral)
The number 𝑓(𝑐) in the above result is called the average value of f on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Proof: The rigorous proofs of these rules are omitted. But the following intuitive reasoning can
enhance understanding the comparison and interval addition rules.
23
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎).
Example 3:
𝜋
a) Explain why ∫−𝜋 √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 exist.
𝜋
b) Show by using the comparison property that 0 ≤ ∫−𝜋 √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ≤ 2√ 2
2
c) Evaluate ∫−1 2|𝑥 |𝑑𝑥
d) Find the average value of f(x) = x2 on [0, 2].
24
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Up to now, we have evaluated definite integrals by means of limits. The second fundamental
theorem of calculus is an alternative and the most powerful method for evaluating definite integrals.
Its proof is based on another theorem, called the first fundamental theorem of calculus.
Theorem 4 [The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus]: If f is continuous on [a, b], then
𝑥
the function G(x):= ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , x ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], is an antiderivative of f. Thus every continuous function
on a closed bounded interval has an antiderivative.
𝑥
a) 𝐺(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑡 sin( 𝑡 3 )𝑑𝑡 ans. 𝐺 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 sin( 𝑥 3 )
𝑥2
b) 𝐹(𝑥 ) = ∫0 𝑡 sin( 𝑡 3 )𝑑𝑡 ans. 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 sin( 𝑥 6 )
2𝑦
c) 𝐹(𝑦) =∫𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ans. 𝐹 ′ (𝑦) = 2 cos(2𝑦) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)
𝑑 𝑥
Example 5: Find the value of 𝑑𝑥 ∫3 √𝑡 2 + 5 𝑑𝑡 at x = 2. Ans. 3
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎
𝑥
Proof: By the first fundamental theorem of calculus, the function G(x):=∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 is an
antiderivative of f. By hypothesis, F is also an antiderivative of f. By a consequence of the mean
value theorem, there is a constant c such that F(x) = G(x) + c, 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].
Now,
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = 𝐺(𝑏) + 𝑐 − 𝐺(𝑎) − 𝑐 = G (b) – G (a) = ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡-∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 .
25
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
𝑏
Notation: 𝐹(𝑥 ) | = 𝐹 (𝑏) – 𝐹 (𝑎)
𝑎
Note: The fundamental theorems of calculus relate (unify) the two core topics of calculus
(derivatives and integrals). The second fundamental theorem reduces the problem of finding defini te
integrals to that of finding indefinite integrals. Since indefinite integrals (antiderivatives) arose from
slope problem and definite integrals arose from area problem and these two geometric problems are
seemingly unrelated, so the fundamental theorems of calculus are amazing results.
Historical Note: The geometric problems that motivated the development of the integral calculus
(determination of lengths, areas, and volumes) arose in the ancient civilizations of northern Africa
and they took only practical (concrete) approach at the beginning. But a more abstract approach was
taken later by Greek philosophers. In fact, Eudoxus (around 400 B.C.) and Archimedes (250 B.C.)
formulated ideas of integration as we know it today. Originally, integral calculus developed
independently and without an obvious connection to differential calculus. The calculus became a
“whole” in the last part of the seventeenth century when Isaac Barrow, Isaac Newton, and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (with help from others) discovered that the integral of a function could be found
by asking what was differentiated to obtain that function.
Example 6: Evaluate the following definite integrals.
2
5
a) ∫2 𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥 ans. 3[ 3√ 5 − 3√ 2]
4 𝑒2√𝑥
b) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 ans. 𝑒 4 − 𝑒 2
√𝑥
4
c) ∫−2|𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3| 𝑑𝑥
Example 7: Explain why each of the following integrals cannot be evaluated by means of the
second fundamental theorem of calculus.
2
1
a) ∫−1 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥
4 2
b) ∫1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Answer. The integrand in (a) is not continuous on [-1, 1], so the second fundamental theorem
2
does not apply to it. The indefinite integral ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can not be evaluated by the integration
techniques covered so far.
26
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Exercises 5.2:
1. Use the definition of definite integral or any of its equivalent formulations to compute
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 .
1
2. Use areas to evaluate ∫−1(2 − |𝑥|)𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 0
3. Find the where a) 𝑦 = ∫0√ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑡 b) 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 sin(𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 √
𝑥
4. Find 𝑓(4) if ∫1 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1.
2 5 5
5. Suppose 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous and ∫1 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = −4, ∫1 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 6 and ∫1 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 =
8. Then, find:
2 5 5
a) ∫5 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 b) ∫1 [4𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )]𝑑𝑥 = 8 c) ∫2 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
1 3
6. Show that the value of ∫0 √ 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 is less than .
2
7. Find the average value of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √1 − 𝑥 2 on [0,1].
8. Use the second fundamental theorem of calculus to evaluate the following definite
integrals.
x 1 / x dx
2 2
a) (x 2 1) dx
0 c) 1
5
b) |x-3| dx
2
4
d) 0
sin2 x cos3 x dx
16 x 2 dx
1
f)
0
e) sin-1 x dx
0
2 xdx
g)
1 x 2x 10
2
9. Show that 0
x dx
1 sin x
27
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Certain application of integrals lead to the formulation of definite integrals in which either the
interval of integration is infinite (unbounded) or the integrand is infinite (unbounded). Such integrals
are called improper integrals. A function 𝑓 is said to be bounded on an interval 𝐼 if there is a constant 𝑀
such that |𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 𝑀 for all x in 𝐼. A function 𝑓 is unbounded on 𝐼 if and only if it has an infinite
discontinuity at some number 𝑐 in 𝐼, i.e., lim𝑥 →𝑐+ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ±∞ or lim𝑥 →𝑐− 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ±∞.
𝑏
Definition 1: The integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is called an improper integral if
Example 1: Evaluate
28
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
∞1
a) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 ans. divergent
𝑥
∞ 1
b) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 ans. 1
𝑥2
∞ 1
c) ∫−∞ 1+ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ans. 𝜋
𝑥2
∞ 1 −( )
d) ∫−∞ 2𝜋 𝑒 2 𝑑𝑥 ans. 1
√
Note: The above definition also applies to integrals involving integrands with finite discontinuities at
𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐. But such integrals are not considered as improper integrals.
Example 2: Evaluate
11
a) ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ans. divergent
1 1
b) ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ans. 2
√𝑥
2 1
c) ∫0 (𝑥−1) 2
𝑑𝑥 ans. divergent
29
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Caution: If you evaluate an improper integral with infinite discontinuity by direct use of the second
fundamental theorem of calculus (i.e., without noticing that it is an improper integral), your result
may be correct by chance but the method is incorrect.
Remark: Sometimes it is impossible to find the exact value of an improper integral and yet it is
important to know whether it is convergent or divergent. The following convergence theorem is
useful in addressing such cases.
Theorem 1 (Direct comparison test for improper integrals of first kind): Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be
continuous on [𝑎, ∞) with 𝑓 ≥ 𝑔.
∞ ∞
a. If ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) is convergent, then ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) is convergent.
∞ ∞
b. If ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) is divergent, then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) is divergent.
∞ 2
Example 4: Determine if the improper integral ∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 converges or diverges.
2
Solution: Note that 𝑒 −𝑥 ≤ 𝑒 −𝑥 on [1,∞) and both functions are continuous. Note also that
∞ 𝑡 ∞
∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 = lim𝑡 →∞ ∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1. ⟹ ∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 is convergent and hence by the comparison test
∞ 2
∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 converges.
30
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Exercise 5.3:
2 xdx
b)
2
0
4 x2
f) sec x dx
1 4
c) 3
dx
g) x e x dx
2
0 x x
d) x
dx
x 2 6x 10
dx
0 e 1
h)
1
e) x
dx
x
0 e e
2. Test if the following improper integrals are convergent or divergent without evaluating.
∞ 2
a. ∫1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
b. ∫02 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3. Find the area of the infinite region in the first quadrant between 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 and the x-axis.
4. Find the area of the region that lies between the curves y=sec x and y=tan x from x=0 to
𝜋
x=2 .
31
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Major mathematical and physical applications of integrals are summarized in the following table.
For each application, the derivation of an integral formula for a quantity 𝐼 proceeds as follows. First,
depending on the properties of the quantity, we find a function 𝑓 continuous on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
such that 𝐼 ≈ ∑𝑛𝑘 =1 𝑓 (𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑡𝑘. Second, we turn the approximation (the sum) into an integral.
5.4.1 Area
Integration can be used to find the area of a region between two or more curves.
Definition 1 (area): Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be continuous functions on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Let 𝑅 be the region bounded
by the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 and by the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 (assume that 𝑎 < 𝑏). Then 𝑅 is called
the region between the graphs of f and g on [𝑎, 𝑏] and the area 𝐴 of 𝑅 is defined by:
𝑏
𝐴: = ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥
Derivation:
Remarks:
𝐴: = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
32
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
In this case 𝑅 is called the region under the graph of f on [𝑎, 𝑏].
b) If 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑏
𝐴: = ∫ −𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
d) If the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 intersect exactly twice (say at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏), then the region
between the graphs of f and g on [𝑎, 𝑏] is simply called the region between the graphs of f and g. (i.e., the
phrase “on [𝑎, 𝑏]” can be dropped).
e) We can also reverse the roles of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and integrate with respect to 𝑦 .
1
Example 1: Find the area of the region between the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥2
on[1,2]. Answe r:
Example 2: Determine the area of the region enclosed by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = √ 𝑥. Answer : 1/3
Example 3: Determine the area A of the region between the graphs of𝑓 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) =
cos 𝑥 on [0, 2𝜋]. Answer : 4√2
𝑥2 𝑦2
Example 4: Prove that area A of the region enclosed by the ellipse + = 1. Answer : 𝜋𝑎𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏2
33
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
5.4.2 Volume
There are two methods for computing volume by integrals: the cross-sectional area ( or slicing
method )and the cylindrical shell method.
𝑏
𝑉: = ∫𝑎 𝐴(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
Derivation:
Remarks:
a) We can also reverse the roles of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and integrate with respect to 𝑦 by:
𝑉: = ∫ 𝐴(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑐
b) When the graph of a continuous, nonnegative function 𝑓 on [𝑎, 𝑏] is revolved about the x
axis, it generates a solid region D having circular cross sections (circular disks). The volume
V of D is given by
𝑏
𝑉: = ∫ 𝜋 [𝑓(𝑥 )]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
This method of finding voulmes is called the 𝒔𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 , because the cross sections are
disks.
34
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
c) Let 𝑓&𝑔 be functions such that 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ∀𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. The volume 𝑉 of the solid
generated by revolving the region between the graphs of 𝑓 and𝑔 on [𝑎, 𝑏] is given by
𝑏
𝑉: = ∫ 𝜋[𝑓 2 (𝑥 ) − 𝑔2 (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎
When g is different from 0, this method of finding volumes is called the 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅
, because the cross sections resemble washers.
d) The disk and washer methods can be used whether the axis of revolution is x axis or not.
(See examples 3 and 4).
35
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
1
Example 1: Prove that the volume of a right circular cone with radius r and height h is 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟2 ℎ.
3
Solution: Let the vertex of the cone be at the origin and the center of the base be at (h,0), as shown.
Let the radius of the cross section at x be 𝑟′.
𝑟′ 𝑥 𝜋𝑟2 𝑥 2
From triangle similarity, = . This implies 𝐴 (𝑥 ) = 𝜋𝑟′ 2 = .
𝑟 ℎ ℎ2
𝑏 ℎ 𝜋𝑟2 𝑥 2 1
Thus 𝑉 = ∫𝑎 𝐴(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝜋𝑟2 ℎ //
ℎ2
Example 2: Find the volume of the solid with the following information: The base of the solid is a
circle with radius 1, and the cross sections perpendicular to a fixed diameter of the base are squares.
16
Ans. 3
Example 3[finding volume using disk method and horizontal axis of rotation]: Find the
1
volume of the solid formed by revolving the curve, = 𝑥 , from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 2, around the x-axis.
π
Answer: 2
Example 3[finding volume using disk method and vertical axis of rotation]: Find the volume
1
of the solid formed by revolving the curve, = , from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 2, around the y-axis.
𝑥
Answer: π
36
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Example 5[finding volume using washer method and horizontal axis of rotation]: Find the
volume of the solid formed by rotating the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 −
1 about the x-axis.
104
Answer: π
15
Example 6[finding volume using washer method and vertical axis of rotation]: Use the
washer method to find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the triangular region with vertices
10
at (1,1),(1,1), (2,1)(2,1) and (2,3)(2,3) about the y-axis. Answer: π
3
The shell method (version 1): Let 𝑓 be a continuous nonnegative function on [𝑎, 𝑏], with
a≥ 0 .Then the volume 𝑉 of the solid 𝐷 obtained by revolving about y axis the region R between
the graph of 𝑓 and the x axis on [a, b] is given by:
𝑏
𝑉: = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑥𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
The shell method (version 2): Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], with a≥ 0 and suppose
that 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥 ) for ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 . let 𝑅 be the region between the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then
the volume 𝑉 of the solid 𝐷 obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the 𝑦 axis is given by:
𝑏
𝑉: = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑥[𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔 (𝑥 )]𝑑𝑥
Remarks:
a) In general, the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the graph of
𝑓 and the x axis about any vertical line is given by
37
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
b) The shell method can also be used when the axis of revolution is horizontal. (See examples 7
and 8).
c) While the cross sectional area method can be applied to other solids, the shell method
applies only to solids of revolution.
d) The volumes of certain solids of revolution can be evaluated by both washer and shell
method. But one method could be more difficult than another.
Example 7 [finding volume using shell method and rotation about y axis]: Find the volume of
the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) and the x-axis from 𝑥 = 0 to
𝑥 = 𝜋 about the y-axis. Answer: 2𝜋 2
Example 8 [finding volume using shell method and rotation about x axis]: Find the volume
of the solid formed by rotating the triangular region determined by the
points (0,1), (1,1) and (1,3) about the x axis .
Example 9[Finding volume using shell method and vertical axis of rotation]: Find the volume
of the solid formed by rotating the triangular region determined by the
points (0,1), (1,1) and (1,3) about) the line 𝑥 = 3.
Example 10 [shell method with two functions of x]: Let R be the region between the graphs of
the equations 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 on [0, 2]. Find the volume V of the solid generated by revolving
R about the X axis by
64
Answer : 15
𝜋
38
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
5.4.3 Length
𝑏
ℒ: = ∫𝑎 √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
Example 11: Use the length formula to derive the circumference formula of circle.
Example 12: Find the arc length of the graph of f(x) = ln (sin x) on the interval [π/4, π/2].
Answer : 𝑙𝑛|√ 2 + 1|
𝑏
𝒮: = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥)√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
Remarks:
1. The above definition can be extended to solids of revolution formed by revolution about y
axis. (See Eg. 12).
2. We can consider surface areas of unbounded regions, too, by using improper integrals.
(Read: Gabriel’s horn).
Example 11: Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
about the x-axis.
𝜋
Answer : 27
[145√145 − 1]
Example 12: Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the curve 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤
𝜋
1 about the y-axis. Answer : 6
[5√ 5 − 1]
39
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
5.4.5 Work
Definition 5(work): Suppose an object moves from a to b under the influence of a force F, where
F is a continuous function on [a, b]. Then the work W done by the force on the object is defined by:
𝑏
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Example 13: Find the work done on a spring when you compress it from its natural length of 1
m to a length of 0.75 m if the spring constant is k = 16 N/m. Answer: 0.5 NM
Many people think that the terms centre of mass, centre of gravity and centroid are synonymous. But this is
not the case. Intuitively, the center of gravity (CG) of a body is the point in which the body will be
balanced horizontally if suspended from that point (or if supported by fulcrum against gravity at that
point) where as the center of mass (CM) of a body is the point where an applied force causes the body
to move without rotation. More formally:
Definition 6(centre of mass and centre of gravity):
a) The center of mass of an object or a system is the unique point with the property that the
weighted position vectors relative to this point sum to zero.
b) The center of gravity of an object or a system is defined as the point about which the sum of
torques due to gravitational forces is 0. A body's center of gravity is the point around which
the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanishes.
If a body is in a uniform gravitational field, then the center of gravity and the center of mass coincide.
Throughout the rest of this discussion we assume that CM and CG are the same.
The centroid of a figure is the arithmetic mean position of all the points in the figure. It is the
geometric centre of the figure. If the density of a body is uniform throughout the body, then the
centroid and centre of mass of the body coincide.
40
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
41
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
The center of mass can be found for any one, two-, or three-dimensional object experimentally.
Next we consider how to locate the centre of mass of a one dimensional object with variable density
and a two dimensional object with uniform density.
The position 𝑋 of center of mass of a system of 𝑛 point masses 𝑚 1 , … , 𝑚 𝑛 that lie on x- axis at
𝑥 1 , … , 𝑥 𝑛 respectively is given by:
The moment of a point mass m about y axis is defined by 𝑚 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥. We may think 𝑚𝑥 as the measure
of the tendency of the mass to rotate about the y axis. The heavier the mass the larger it rotates if x
is kept constant. Similarly the farther the mass from y axis the larger it rotates. The sum 𝑀𝑦 ≔
∑𝑛𝑘 =1 𝑚 𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 is called the moment (about y axis) of the mass system 𝑚 1 , … 𝑚 𝑛 .
The position vector 𝑟⃗ = (̅𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅)of the center of mass of a system of 𝑛 point masses 𝑚 1 , … , 𝑚 𝑛 that
lie on xy- plane at 𝑟⃗1 = (𝑥 1, 𝑦1 ), … , 𝑟⃗𝑛 = (𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) respectively is given by:
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑟⃗𝑘
(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = ∑𝑛
.
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘
This implies
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑥 𝑘
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑥𝑦𝑘
𝑥̅ = ∑𝑛
, 𝑦̅ = ∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘 𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘
The sum 𝑀𝑦 ≔ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑚 𝑘 𝑥𝑘 is called the moment of the point masses about the y axis and the sum
𝑀𝑥 ≔ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑚 𝑘 𝑦𝑘 the moment of the masses about the x axis.
Applications of CM
Many calculations in mechanics are greatly simplified by making use of a system’s center of mass.
Locating the cm of a body or a system is important in engineering designs.
42
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Example 14[CM of a one dimensional continuous mass]: Suppose a beam lies on the x-axis
between 20 and 30, and has density function 𝜎(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 19. Find the center of mass.
475
Answer . 18
.
Example 15 [CM of a two dimensional discrete mass system]: Find the position of the
center of mass of three particles with masses 𝑚 1 , 𝑚 2 and 𝑚 3 lying in the xy plane
(1,1,0), (1, −1,0)and(0,0,0) respectively where 𝑚 1 = 𝑚 2 and 𝑚 3 = 10𝑚 1.
Answer: (1/6, 0)
Throughout the rest of this discussion we assume that CM and CG are the same.
Definition 7:
: Let f and g be continues on [𝑎, 𝑏] with 𝑔(𝑥 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and R be the region between
the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then
𝑏
1
𝑀𝑥 = ∫ {[𝑓(𝑥 ]2 − [𝑔(𝑥)]2 ]
𝑎 2
𝑏
1
𝑀𝑥 = ∫ {[𝑓(𝑥 ]2 − [𝑔(𝑥)]2 ]
𝑎 2
c) the center of gravity (or center of mass, or centroid) of R is the point 𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅ defined by:
𝑀 𝑀
𝑥̅ = 𝐴𝑦 and 𝑥̅ = 𝐴𝑥 ,
Example 16[CM of a two dimensional continuous mass with uniform density]: Suppose a flat
plate of uniform density has the shape contained by y=x2y=x2, y=1y=1, and x=0x=0, in the first
3 3
quadrant. Find the center of mass. Answer: (8 , 5 )
43
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
Let s(t) denote the position at time t of an object moving on a straight line (its distance from a
reference point, such as the origin on the x-axis). Then the net change in position
between 𝑡0 and t is s(t)−s(𝑡0 ). Since s(t) is an anti-derivative of the velocity function v(t), we can
write
𝑡
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡0 ) + ∫ 𝑣(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 .
𝑡0
Similarly, since the velocity is an anti-derivative of the acceleration function a(t)a(t), we have
𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡0 ) + ∫ 𝒂(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 .
𝑡0
Example 17: An object moves along a straight line with acceleration given by 𝑎(𝑡) = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋𝑡).
Exercises 5:4:
c. x 12 y 2 3 and y x 1 .
2. Prove that the volume 𝑉of a right circular cylinder with radius 𝑟 and height h is 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟2 ℎ
of a sphere with radius r.
4
3. Use the cross sectional area method to verify the volume formula 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟3 of a sphere
3
with radius r.
4. Use the cross-section method to prove that the volume V of the torus formed by rotating
the circle with centre (𝑅, 0) and radius 𝑟 about the Y-axis is = 2𝑅𝑟2 𝜋 2 .
5. Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region inside the circle x 2 + y 2 = 9 if cross
sections taken perpendicular to the y‐axis are squares.
44
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
6. The base of a solid region is the region between the graphs of 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 3 − 2𝑦 2 .
Find the volume of the solid given that the cross sections perpendicular to the x axis are
squares.
7. Find the volume of the solid whose base is bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1, the
cross sections perpendicular to the x-axis are rectangles of height 5.
This surface is called Gabriel's horn or Toricelli's trumpet.. Show that Gabriel's horn has
infinite surface area.
11. Consider the circle (𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 1. Sketch the surface obtained by rotating this circle
about the y-axis. This surface is called a torus. What is the surface area?
𝑥2
12. Consider the ellipse with equation 4
+ 𝑦 2 = 1. If the ellipse is rotated around the x-axis it
45
Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)
References
1. Ellis
2. Leithold
3. Edwards
4. Stewart
5. Anton
6. Zill
7. Kreyszig
8. Schaum’s Outline Series of Calculus
9. Spark
10. Apostol
11. Thomas
12. Johnson and Kiokemesteir
13. Lick*
14. Inder K Rana *
15. Snedon*
16. Calculus for dummies
17. Calculus Demystified
18. Latest book
19. Latest book
20. Latest book
46