Characteristics of living things

Living things- single celled organisms or multicellular organisms that satisfy cell theory
Nonliving particle- viruses and prions
Prokaryote- no nucleus(bacteria) versus eukaryotes(has nucleus/more complex) protists, fungi,
plants and animals
Metabolism- autotroph =makes own energy (photosynthesis) algae and some bacteria
heterotroph = needs to eat to gain energy (protozoa and fungi)
virus-parasite(uses host to perform tasks)
Reproduction- asexual- genetic copy( bacteria-binary fission and protists(mitosis)

Classifying living things/taxonomy

Phylogeny-study of evolutionary relationships between groups of living things

taxonomy -science of organizing living things into groups reflecting phylogenetic relationships
Taxon-a group in a series of progressively smaller groupings when classifying things
Binomial nomenclature-method of naming organisms using 2 names- genus and species name
Dichotomous key- a series of questions that use yes/no answers to classify things
Determining how things are related-uses concepts of anatomy,physiology and genetics
Anatomy-study of the parts of an organism
Physiology- study of the metabolism
Morphology-study of the different forms of structures in organisms
Classification order-domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species
The 3 domain system -bacteria(prokaryote), archaea(prokaryote) and eukaryotes
The 6 kingdom system- eubacteria, archaebacteria, protista, plantae, fungi, animalia

Bacteria
characteristics - prokaryotic, unicellular, cell membrane- peptidoglycan
anatomy - prokaryotic, unicellular, parts- cell membrane, nucleoid, cell wall, capsule,cilia,
plasmids, pilus, etc.
Morphology- strepto, staphylo, diplo , cocci, bacilli, spirillum

Metabolism- autotrophic and heterotrophic

reproduction- asexual(binary fission) and sexual (conjugation)(plasmids)
mobility(how they move)- flagella,pili
Bacterial growth- diagram of bacterial growth (lag phase, exponential growth, stationary, death)
( 1 → 2 → 4 → 8 → 16 → 32 → 64 → 128 → 256 → 512 → 1024 → 2048 → 4096 → and so on)
Gram positive bacteria have a thick cell membrane composed of peptidoglycan that stains
purple vs gram negative which stains pink
Classified based off of colonies
Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance

Archaea

Characteristics- prokaryotic, unicellular and live in extreme environments

Anatomy- cell membrane contains unusual lipids which makes sit different from bacteria-
remains stable at extreme temperatures
Metabolism- heterotrophic( gets energy from molecules such as hydrogen)
Methanogens- produce methane gas and live in swamps and sewage
Halophiles live in salty environments
Thermoacidophiles live in hot and acidic environments
Psychrophiles- live in cold temperatures
Archaea classified off of metabolism
Archaea are asexual and reproduce through binary fission

Protists

Anatomy- eukaryotic and unicellular

Morphology- basic protists( algae, protozoa, and slime molds)
Metabolism- autotrophic - algae heterotrophic- protozoa and slime molds
Classifying protists- algae use photosynthesis, protozoa eat internally and slime molds eat
externally
Motility- cilia, flagella and cytoplasmic streaming
Helpful vs harmful protists
Fungi

Examples- yeast,mold,mushrooms-eat externally

Anatomy- (hyphae, mycelium, chitin in cell wall). Eukaryotic and unicellular except for yeast
Vascular fungi organisms have hyphae and mycelium(exception is yeast which is unicellular)
Morphology- basic types of fungus(yeast,molds, and mushrooms)
Reproduction methods- asexual(yeast-budding) and sexual(spores and fragmentation)
Non-motile
Classifying fungi- yeast-single celled, mould-multicelled, mushroom-multi celled and large
Symbiotic or a parasite
Makes penicillin, antibiotics and decomposes dead matter

Animals

Anatomy- multicellular and eukaryotic

vascular organisms- vascular tissue and specialized tissues and organs (except sponges).
morphology- tissue organization, body layers, movement (active/ sessile), symmetry
(asymmetrical or bilateral, or radial), segmentation (distinct sections), body cavity (coelom→
present/absent), vertebrate
Coelomates- has fluid filled body cavity that houses the digestive tract
Vertebrates=chordata- animals with internal skeleton and spine
invertebrates=animals without a spine
metabolism=are heterotrophic
Classified based off of evolutionary background, morphology, and background
Reproduction- internal and external fertilization(sexual)

Plants

Examples- moss,ferns, flowering plants, pine tree, grass, flowers, corn, beans plants, etc.
Multicellular,photosynthetic, cell wall made of glucose and starch
Metabolism- autotrophs- photosynthesis
Reproduction methods- asexual(fragmentation) and sexual(spores or seeds)
Seeds in monocots have 1 coat while dicots have 2 (monocot flowers have 3 pedals while dicots
have 4or 5 pedals)

VIRUSES: examples (H1N1, Ebola, flu, …), non-living particle → viruses do not do their own
life processes
anatomy →genetic materials (DNA/RNA), capsid (protein coat) and optional parts (i.e. envelope,
etc.)
morphology→shape (helical, polyhedral, phage), and some have an additional envelope
reproduction methods → LYTIC cycle (quick incubation period), LYSOGENIC cycle (longer
incubation)
incubation period = the time it takes between when the virus infects a cell and when symptoms
appear
connection to human health (basic facts about viruses that cause disease) and methods of
transmission
ecological role is as parasites→ requires a host)
used in biotechnology (gene therapy, vaccines, etc.)
Shapes Anatomy Reproduction

Biodiversity and Humans

What is biodiversity?
What are 3 ways to measure it (genetic, species, ecosystem)?
Explain how each method of measuring biodiversity (genetic, species, ecosystem) is used to
measure biodiversity.
gene pool = all of the versions of all the genes in a population. What are the benefits of larger
gene pool?
What is a monoculture? How do monocultures negatively impact on the ecosystem?
Ecosystem services are the benefits that are provided by sustainable ecosystems.
What are examples of ecosystem services?
How do human activities affect biodiversity?
What efforts have been made by humans to increase and/or protect biodiversity?

Why are genetics important

● Genetics allows us to understand normal events such as development and growth and
gives us insight as to how these processes can go wrong
How is genetic code passed down
● Parents pass off half of their genetic material to their offspring in the form of
chromosomes
● Random probability is involves into what characteristics you get
How genetic information is organized
 ● Nucleic acids: a group of organic macromolecules that are formed from subunits called
nucleotides
● DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) is a nucleic acid that forms a double stranded helix structure
of nucleotides
● The function of DNA is to store genetic information(DNA)
● Humans have 20,000 genes
● The nucleotides are A=adenine, C=cytosine, t=thymine, and G=guanine
● A partners up with T and C partners up with G
● In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found within the nucleus in the form of pairs of chromosomes
● In prokaryotes, DNA is found floating around freely. DNA is found in the form of a
nucleoid. There is only one nucleoid
● Genes are recipes of traits we receive from our parents (there are many genes found on
a single chromosome)
● Alleles are different forms of the same gene on a chromosome. Alleles come in pairs of
two for most traits
● One allele comes from the mother while the other comes from the father's
gamete(sperm)
● When DNA is copied, each copy is called a chromatid, the two structures are held
together by a centromere
● The chromosomes come in pairs called sister chromatids. One chromatid is from your
mother while another is from your father(don't combine, just replicate)
● Chromosomes have extra material such as proteins called histones that keep DNA
packaged up
● Is genome is a complete set of chromosomes
● In human DNA there are 42 chromosomes, 23 pairs
● Autosomes are chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes(22 pairs)
● Sex chromosomes are XX, and XY

Mitosis and Meiosis

● Cells need to divide so an organism can grow, repair cells, grow new cells, or reproduce
● Normal body cells(somatic cells) go through the cell cycle. They are born, grow, they
reproduce, they die.
● This involves mitosis(dividing genetic information) and cytokinesis(splitting cell into 2)
● The cell cycle has phases, the longest of which is interphase where the cell will spend
most of its life(not apart of cell division)
● During the S phase of interphase, the cell DNA has doubled and the cell has 92
chromosomes for a short time) DNA is not copied during mitosis or meiosis)
● Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes
● Homologous chromosomes: a pair of chromosomes where one chromatid is obtained
from the maternal parent and the other from the paternal parent.
● Mitosis is how cells transmit genetic information from one cell to another within an
organism
● Mitosis and cytokinesis together make up cell replication and create genetically identical
daughter cells
● There are 4 phases in mitosis. Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
● Prophase is where the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. Each chromosome is
duplicated and consists of 2 sister chromatids. At the end of prophase, the nuclear
envelope breaks down
● Metaphase: the chromosomes align at the equatorial plate. The chromosomes are held
in place by microtubules attached to the mitotic spindle and part of the centromere
● Anaphase: the centromere divides and the sister chromatids separate and move towards
the corresponding poles
● Daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles and the microtubules disappear. The
condensed chromatin expands and the nuclear envelope reappears. The cytoplasm
divides, the cell membrane pinches inward ultimately producing two daughter cells
(during a process called Cytokinesis).

● Meiosis is how organisms transmit genetic information from one organism to another
● Diploid cells are cells that contain pairs of chromosomes called homologous
chromosomes
● The diploid number for humans is 2n=46
● Haploid cells only have one set of chromosomes n=23
● The tetraploid number is 4n=92(s phase of interphase)
● Meiosis only makes haploid cells for gametes(sperm or eggs)
● Meiosis can only occur in the ovaries or testes
● ‘The goal of meiosis is to mix up genetix information
● 2^23 =8 388 608 combinations for egg or sperm
● 2^46 = 70 368 744 177 664 combinations for fertilized egg

● Tetrads: two pairs of homologous chromosomes

● Cross over: exchange of chromosome pieces in the tetrad during prophase
● Spermatogenesis: production of sperm(male gamete)
 ● Oogenesis: production of eggs(female gamete)(only one usable egg is produced)
● Fertilization is where egg and sperm unite to create a diploid cell. This creates a zygote
● Egg(n) + Sperm (n) = Zygote(2n)
● Disjunction is when homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase in meiosis
● Nondisjunction is when chromosomes(sister chromatids) fail to separate during meiosis
● Can happen in anaphase 1 and 2
● Because of nondisjunction,sperm or eggs end up with the wrong number of
chromosomes
● Can result in monosomy, having 1 chromosome in a pair, or trisomy, having 3
chromosomes when you should have a pair
●
Alleles:
CD Cd cD cd C = Curly hair , c = straight hair
D= tongue-rolling , d = non-rolling

Mother = CcDd= CD,Cd,cD,cd Father =

CD CCD CCD CcD CcDd
CcDd= CD, Cd, cD, cd
D d D
Genotypes:
Cd CCD CCdd CcDd Ccd
d d Phenotype:

cD CcD CcDd ccDD ccDd

D

cd CcD Ccdd ccDd ccdd

d

SEX LINKED GENETICS

● A female will express a phenotype only if she is homozygous recessive
● A male with one recessive allele will express the phenotype

GENETIC ERRORS
● DNA errors happen in somatic cells propagated by mitosis which affects the individual
● DNA errors happen in gamete cells propagated by meiosis which affects the offspring
● A genetic mutation is a change in genetic material that can be inherited
● A mutation is caused by the interaction with the environment(internal and external) and
your genetic material
● A mutagen is a substance, energy, or thing that causes permanent change in genetic
material
● Cancer: a group of diseases caused by a mutation in DNA that cause cells to divide
uncontrollably( benign and malignant)
● pre -programmed death for cells (apoptosis)
● Carcinogens are environmental factors that cause DNA mutations that cause cancer
 ● Point mutation: changing 1 letter
● Insertion:adding DNA
● Deletion: deleting DNA
● Translocation: DNA is move to wrong location
● Duplication: extra copies of DNA are added
ADVANCED GENETICS
● Polygenic inheritance is where some traits are controlled by multiple genes
● The mitochondria and its DNA is only inherited from the mother in humans
● If the mother has defective mitochondria and its DNA has mutations, than the mother will
pass this defect onto all her children
● Can be avoided by using a donor egg
● Penetrance: the percent of individuals who have a certain genotype and show the
expected phenotype
● Mendel traits: penetrance=100% of expected chance
● Low penetrance =traits penetrance is less than 100%
● Pleiotropy happens when one gene causes more than one phenotype
● Pleiotropy occurs when one gene controls more than one pathway or is expressed in
more than one body part
● Example: one gene makes connective tissue
● Needed for eye lens
● For heart muscles
● For skin
● For muscles
● Genes can be turned off in the environment they are being used in
● Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression(inactive versus active
genes) that do not involve changes to DNA sequence- a change in phenotype without a
change in genotype

EVOLUTION

● Evolution is the process of gradual change that takes place over many generations in
which many species change their physical characteristics as well as metabolic
processes
● mya=million years
● Bya =billion years
● Paleontology is the study of fossils
● A species is a group of organisms that can potentially breed to produce viable offspring
● Variation refers to the genetically determined differences found within a species
● Embryos from all animals look strikingly similar to one another in the early stages of
development
● evolution is the process of biological change overtime based on the relationship between
species and the environment it lives in
● Theory of evolution is a scientific explanation of biological change
● Evolution happens because organisms need to adapt to survive changing environments
● The diversity of organisms within a species, their interaction with the environment all
contribute to survival or extinction
● Variation gives some organisms a distinct advantage in an environment than others
● Adaptation are changes of structure, behavior, or a physiological process that gives
 some organisms within a species a better chance of survival
● The survival adaption allows organisms to reproduce and pass on their adaptions to their
offspring
● Evolution is caused by 2 factors: genetics and a changing environment
● The genetic cause for evolution are genes, mutations, and alleles
● Evolution is driven by random change in genetic materials
● Fitness= an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in a given environment
● Harmful mutations hurt fitness
● Beneficial mutations help fitness
● Neutral mutations have no effect
● Survival of the fittest= the more fit an organisms are the more likely they are to survive
and reproduce to pass on their genes
● Evolution is driven by genetic variation within a species + their interactions with the
environment
● Natural selection= the process where organisms with favourable variations survive and
reproduce at a higher rate than organisms without that trait
● Natural selection only occurs if there is genetic diversity
● Useful genes are selected for
● Harmful genes are selected against

EVIDENCE FOR THEORY OF EVOLUTION

● All living things are related, share a common ancestor

● Powered by natural selection
● Microevolution occurs over a shorter period of time and span a few generations a
species
● History of living things:
● Earth Forms ~4.6 bya
● Lightning ignites gases and converts them to organic molecules, (~4 bya)
● Chemoautotrophs (~3.8 bya): organisms (simple prokaryotes) which can use CO2 and
inorganic molecules for energy
● Photosynthetic bacteria (~3.5 bya): producer organisms - use sunlight to produce energy
molecules using CO2 and H2O.
● Heterotrophic bacteria (~3 bya): the development of organisms that fed off of other living
organisms → organic food sources (such as producers)
● Eukaryotic Organisms (~2.5-2.0 bya): the development of complex organisms
● Evidence for the theory of evolution are fossil records, biogeography(study of historic
geographical distribution of organisms), anatomy (similar structures), embryology(study
of pre birth stage organisms) and DNA/genetic code

FOSSILS
● Are the remains or impressions of a prehistoric organism preserved in petrified
form or as a mold cast in rock
● Permineralization is when minerals carried by water and deposited around a hard
structure
● A natural cast is when flowing water removes all the original tissue, leaving an
impression
● Amber-preserved fossils is where organisms become trapped in tree resin that
hardens after the tree is buried
 ● Preserved remains occur when an entire organisms becomes encased in
material(ice)
● Fossils in younger rock(closer to surface) are more similar to current species
than fossils in deeper(older) strata
● Fossils appear in chronological order in the rock strata and probable ancestors of
species are found in older rock
● Not all organisms appear in fossil records at the same time, showing the
successive evolution of groups of species(kingdom)
● Extinct animal fossils resemble modern animals- shows a common ancestry
● Transitional fossils that show a link between past and present groups of
organisms

CARBON DATING
● Use of half life(decay) in carbon 12

BIOGEOGRAPHY
● Geographically close environments are more likely to be populated by related species
● Closely related species can differentiate in different climates
● Distantly related species can develop similar characteristics in similar environment
● As the southern supercontinent Gondwana broke apart about 150 million years ago, the
land masses that became the current continents of Africa, Australia, South America, and
Antarctica were isolated from each other.
ANATOMY
● Homologous structures are those that have similar structural elements and origins but
different function
● Analogous structures do not have a common origin but share the same function
● Vestigial structures are reduced versions of what once were functional structures
EMBRYOLOGY
● Embryology is the study of pre-birth stages of an organism’s development. Related
species generally share common embryological stages and timings of structural
development.
DNA
● Species that have similar DNA are likely to have a common ancestor

VARIATION AND ADAPTATION

● A selective advantage is a genetic advantage that improves an organism's chances of
survival in a changing environment and reproduction
● Adaptation is the evolutionary process where by a population becomes better suited to
its habitat(a particular environment)
● Mimicry and camouflage are an example of adaptation
● Mimicry is where a group of organisms develop characteristics similar to that of another
species(structural adaptation)
● Camouflage is the alteration of an organism's appearance to better blend in with one's
surroundings(selective advantage)(hide from predators or stalk prey)
● Species that reproduce quickly can adapt quickly
● Artificial selection= selective advantage by which humans interfere to create an
adaptation
● The gene pool refers to all the forms of alleles of genes of all individuals in a population
 ● Allele frequency= the percent of a population that has a specific allele, change in allele
frequency is microevolution

CAUSES OF CHANGE IN ALLELE FREQUENCY

● Mutations
● geneflow(migration)
● Non-random mating
● Genetic drift (fluctuations in small populations)
● Natural selection
● Biotechnology
● Gene flow tends to reduce differences between population and increase genetic diversity
● In non-random mating, individuals that are prefered mates will pass on their alleles in
greater numbers than less preferred mates
● Preferred phenotypes: individuals may choose a mate based off of their phenotype( this
includes physical traits and behaviours)
● Inbreeding
● Genetic drift= (event)random fluctuations in a small population that cause changes to
allele frequency
● Founder Effect= when a few individuals called founders start an isolated population.
Reduced variability
● bottleneck effect= genetic drift caused by an event that greatly reduces the population
size of a species. Gene pool loses some diversity

TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

● Selective pressure= environment condition which is abiotic or biotic can be said to select
certain characteristics and select against other characteristics
● Competition exists when there is limited resources
● Stabilizing selection favours an intermediate phenotype and acts against extreme
phenotypes

● Directional selection favours the phenotype at one extreme

 ● Disruptive selection favours 2 extreme phenotypes in a population( intermediate
phenotypes may be eliminated)

● Sexual selection is a form of natural selection where the selection is based on a

competition for mates(male must prove he is genetically fit to mate)(may lead to sexual
dimorphism)
● Sexual dimorphism refers to prominent different characteristics between males and
females
● Intrasexual selection= male vs male
● Intersexual selection- female chooses mate
● Territorial competition- occurs in birds, males compete for best territory and nest
● Artificial selection leads to the magnification of negative traits
● Monocultures can be wiped out by a single disease or fungus

MACROEVOLUTION AND SPECIATION

● Speciation is the process where new species are formed. Result of genetic change in
organisms
● Reproductive isolating mechanisms: any behavioural, structural, or biochemical traits
that prevent individuals of different species mating
● Prezygotic isolating mechanisms: mechanism the prevents or impedes the fertilization of
eggs from members of different species
● Postzygotic mechanisms: allows fertilization, but prevents offspring from having and
creating viable offspring
● Behavioral isolating mechanisms: behaviours that are specific to a species that prevents
mating with closely related species(courting songs)
● Habitat:isolating mechanisms: may live in the same region but different habitats
● Temporal isolating mechanisms: two species may occupy the same habitat, but mate at
different times
 ● Mechanical isolating mechanisms: two closely related species may try to mate but are
unsuccessful due to anatomical differences
● Gamete isolation: gametes may meet, but do not produce a zygote
● POSTZYGOTIC MECHANISMS
● Hybrid inviability: genetic incompatibility (zygote dies)
● Hybrid sterility: offspring is sterile
● Hybrid breakdown: offspring is fertile, but population may disappear after a while(mule)
● SPECIATION
● Sympatric speciation: when populations live in the same habitat diverge genetically and
become reproductively isolated (adapt differently to the same enviroment to reduce
competition)
● Allopatric speciation: occurs when there is a geographic barrier and diverge genetically
● Parapatric speciation: one population is split into different species by leaving for a new
adjacent niche(no physical barrier for gene flow to exist)
● Gradualism(views evolutionary change as slow and steady, before and after divergence.
● Supported since darwin's time
● Punctuated equilibrium views evolutionary history as long periods of stasis, or
equilibrium, that are interrupted by periods of divergence.

EVOLUTIONARY PATTERNS
● Divergent evolution is a pattern of evolution where species were once similar to an
ancestral species diverge
● Convergent evolution is a pattern of evolution where similar traits arise in different
species
● COEVOLUTION
● Is the process that occurs when 2 or more influence each other during evolution
● Some butterflies have evolved the ability to store poisonous chemicals from the food
plants they eat as caterpillars, thus becoming distasteful. This reduces their chances of
being eaten.
● Predator prey relationships are a form of coevolution
● Mimicry is a form of coevolution
● EXTINCTION
● Elimination of a species
● Mass extinctions happen every 500 million years
● Ciminative selection happens when small and random mutations accumulate within a
species over a period of time to form complex structures or features
● Altruism: decrease in the fitness of one organism to support another

ANIMAL SYSTEMS
Body Systems that work together
Gas exchange- the respiratory system and Circulatory system
Digestive system and circulatory system

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

● Heart has 4 chambers with 2 pumps
● 2 atrium chamber(low pressure, thin walls)
● 2 ventricle chambers (thick walls, higher pressure
● Mitral valve
● Tricuspid valve
● Aortic valve
● Pulmonary valve

● The function of the heart is to pump blood and push material through the circulatory
system
● The mammalian circulatory system is a closed path that has 3 major sections
● The pathway taken by the blood from the heart to the lungs and back again is the
pulmonary circulation
● The pathway taken by blood from the heart to the rest of the body is called systemic
circulation
● The pathway taken by blood within the heart is called cardiac circulation
● Arteries-blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
● Veins carry blood to the heart
● Capillaries-thin blood vessels that allow gas exchange with cells
● Blood is the liquid that makes up the circulatory system
● Plasma is the liquid part of blood (54% by volume)
● Red blood cells carry the oxygen (45% by volume)
● White blood cells -protect body from invaders (1% by volume)
● Platelets stop bleeding (1% by volume)
● Blood cells are produced in the bone marrow
● THE CARDIAC CYCLE OCCURS IN 2 PHASES
● Diastole-heart chambers are relaxed/low pressure
● Systole-heart chambers contract/high pressure
 ● The SA node ( sinoatrial node) generates an electrical impulse that causes the atria to
contract
● After 0.1 seconds, the AV node (atrioventricular node) transmits a signal through the
septum that causes both ventricles to contract
● Blood Pressure is the force exerted by blood pressing against the walls of a blood
vessel as the ventricles of the heart contract.
●
● Systole (120 mmHg): Pressure of contraction
● Diastole (80 mmHg): Pressure at relaxation (re-filling)
● Hormones that increase heart rate is called noradrenaline and is regulated by the
medulla oblongata
● Signals from the body that increase heart rate are increased levels of carbon
● Fight or flight response releases adrenaline(increases heart rate)
● The hormones that decrease heart rate is acetylcholine
● Regulated by the medulla oblongata in the brain
● Signals from body that decrease heart rate are stretch receptors in blood vessels
● Stimulants are chemicals which temporarily increase the heart rate.
● Depressants are chemicals which temporarily decrease the heart rate.

Human respiratory system

● Primary function of the respiratory system is to supply;ply the blood with oxygen and
dispose of carbon dioxide
● Works with the circulatory system to maintain proper oxygen levels
● he respiratory system accomplishes gas exchange by:
1) Using respiratory structures: a pathway (the physical structures air moves through)
2) Using a ventilation process (muscles, spaces & pressures) - moves air in and out of
body
3) Doing gas exchange between the outside world (lung) and inside the body (blood &
cells)
● Respiratory surface-portion of animal body where gas exchange with the respiratory
medium occurs
● The lungs contain sacs called alveoli. Bronchi and bronchioles are the branching tubes
● Diaphragm is a thin dome shaped piece of muscle that separates the abdominal cavity
from the lungs
● The intercostal muscles that attach the ribs from rib above to rib below
● The process of breathing has 2 parts
● Inspiration
● 1. The diaphragm contracts
● 2.intercostal muscles contract and move upward and outward
● 3. This increases the lung volume
● 4.this decreases the air pressure in the lungs
● 5.air pressure outside is higher than in the lungs
● 6. Therefore air rushes in to equalize the pressure
● The other process is expiration
● Diaphragm relaxes( therefore it move up)
● Intercostal muscles relax and move downward and inward
● Decreases volume in the chest cavity
● Increases pressure in the chest cavity
 ● Air pressure outside is lower than in the lungs
● As a result air is forced out
● O2 and CO2 diffuse in/out of the blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli (lungs)
2) O2 and CO2 diffuse in/out of the blood between the cell and the capillary (in the
body)
● The alveoli is where gas exchange occurs in mammals
● 99% of the oxygen that reaches cells is carried by hemoglobin, a [protein in the red
blood cells
● The hemoglobin binds oxygen to a protein, this protein has 4 Fe ions
● The medulla oblongata is the part of the brain that controls breathing. Breathing is
automatic
● We inhale when nerves in the medulla oblongata send signals to the ribs in lungs to
contract or expand
● Your rate of breathing is determined by the amount of CO2 in your blood
● Stretch receptors in the alveoli determine when the breathing will slow down
● Limited conscious control over breathing

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

● Digestive system is used to turn food into raw materials that the body cells can use
● Food travels through the digestive tract and is shit out
● Ingestion-taking in food
● Propulsion-moving food through the system,(mostly by peristalsis- involuntary actions)
● Digestion- breakdown of food
● Absorption- absorbing nutrients from the food
● Elimination- removal of undigested material

OVERVIEW OF DIGESTION
● MOUTH AND TEETH- teeth are used for chomping, tongue is used for taste, mouth is to
hold food.
● Mechanical digestion- saliva lubricates, and teeth chomp
● Chemical digestion- amylase- turns carbohyf=drates into sugars
● ESOPHAGUS- large tube that leads to stomach
● Mechanical digestion- peristalsis (involuntary movement)
● STOMACH
● Collection of muscle, mucus and acid
 ● Mechanical digestion- mucus protects stomach and the muscles churn/mix the stomach
● Chemical digestion- HCL (digest protein), pepsin(digests proteins) ,protease(digests
proteins), lipase (digests fats)
● SMALL INTESTINE- where enzymes mix with food and nutrients are extracted (7 m long
and 2.5cm wide)
● Mechanical digestion- peristalsis( involuntary movement) and bile( helps dissolve fat)
● Chemical digestion- lipase(digests fats), amylase( digests carbs), protease(digests
proteins), trypsin(digests proteins)
● LARGE INTESTINE3 segments → ascending, descending & transverse colon (and
appendix)Length = 1.5 m, Width = 7.5 cm
● Mechanical digestion- water is reabsorbed and food waste is prepared to be excreted
● Chemical digestion - does not occur(does have e coli that digests fibre)
● Liver- produces bile and filters blood
● Gallbladder- stores bile salts
● Pancreas- secretes enzymes into the small intestine

NUTRIENTS
● Food is important because in contains essential nutrients
● Need for growth, repair, and repair production
● Macronutrients (required in large quantities) water , protein, carbohydrates and fats
● Micronutrients include important vitamins(organic), minerals(inorganic), and fibre ( to
hold water through the digestive tract)
● Carbohydrates are sugars/starches that can be easily accessed for quick energy (4
calories per gram)
● Used in cell membrane for structure and cellular communication
● Used in immune system regeneration
● fats/lipids are liquid fats, triglycerides, solid fats = triglycerides, waxes and sterols
● Used in cell membrane structure , hormones (testosterone and progesterone) , form of
energy (9 calories per gram), insulate the body from cold, protects vital organs , and
cholesterol forms some vitamins( vitamin D)
● Proteins are used for structure ( repair and build muscle and membrane proteins),
enzymes allow for many metabolic processes to occur, immune system, some
hormones, and as a last resort, energy (4 calories per gram)
● Saturated fats= the fatty acid is saturated with hydrogen and is solid at room
temperature. There are no double bonds and it creates a straight chain
● Unsaturated fats= the fatty acid has room for more hydrogen bonds and is liquid in room
temperature. There are C=C bonds and it creates a bent shape
● Purpose of water is to transport dissolved nutrients, flush toxins, lubricate tissues and
joints, form essential body fluids, regulate body temperature, and eliminate materials
● Vitamins are organic micronutrients that enable chemical reactions to aid in tissue
development and growth
● Minerals are inorganic micronutrients that also aids in chemical reactions

PLANTS SYSTEMS
● A plant is an organism that does photosynthesis
Shoot system
● Is above ground
● Stem-support leaves, transports water and minerals to the leaves and takes sugars from
leaves, stores food.
 ● Leaf-photosynthesis
● flowers
Root system
● Below ground
● Anchors
● Absorbs water and minerals
● Transporters (Up and down)
● Food storage(as starch)

Vascular tissue
● Vascular bundles contain xylem and phloem
● Xylem- made of dead cells and carries water and minerals
● Phloem- made of living cells and carries nutrients

Transport in vascular tissue

● Water and dissolved minerals are taken from the ground and brought to all cells by
xylem
● sugars(made by photosynthesis) are carried from the leaves to the rest of the plant by
the phloem
● Organic nutrients and hormones are transported to part of the plant by the phloem

Root structure
● Taproots:long, thick, primary roots that grow downwards
● Fibrous roots:Thread-like branching root system found in monocot plants
● Adventitious roots: root that emerges in an unusual place on a plant such as a stem or
leaf
Stem
● Full of vascular tubes
● strong(for support)
Function
● Hold leaves in sunlight
● Conduct substances between roots and leaves
● Grow at angles to catch maximum light
● Store some food for winter
Leaves
 ● Undergo photosynthesis
● Cuticle- waxy covering that provides waterproofing for leaf
● Epidermis- a single layered group of cells that covers the plant
● Mesophyll- cells within the leaf that contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis

ANGIOSPERMS
● All angiosperms have flowers and produce fruit and seeds
● 2 classes of angiosperm(monocot and dicot)

Plant reproduction
● Plants can reproduce asexually and sexually(asexual= fragmentation and spores)(seeds
are the result of sexual reproduction)
● Flowers and cones are sexual organs in angiosperms and gymnosperms
● STAMEN= male reproductive structure
● a)filament: thin stalk; supports another
● b)Anther: knoblike structure’ produces pollen
● c)pollen is the plants sperm cells
● Pistil= female reproductive system
● a)Stigma: stick tip;traps pollen
● b)Style: slender tube that transports pollen to ovaries
● c)Ovary: contains ovules and it develops fruit
● d)Ovule: contains egg which develops into seed(when fertilized)
GROWTH AND REGULATION OF PLANTS

● Meristem cells are like human stem cells and can become any cell within the plant
● There are 2 types of meristem: Apical meristem is located in the roots and shoots and is
responsible for the length of the plant
● Lateral meristem is located in the outer layers of the root and stem and is responsible for
the width (girth) of the plant

PLANT HORMONES
● Auxins are compounds that cause cell elongation and control the growth of the stem,
roots, and fruits and convert stems into flowers
● Cytokinins are a group of chemicals that influence cell division and shoot formation as
well as leaf size
● Gibberellins are a large range of chemicals produced naturally in the plant that regulate
growth, include cell elongation
● Abscisic Acid is a plant like hormones that inhibits plant growth
● Ethylene is a gas that causes fruit to ripen

RESPONSE TO STIMULI
● Tropism is the way a plant grows in response to the environment
● Phototropisms responds to light
● Geotropism is the response to gravity
● Thigmotropism is a growth response to touch
● Nastic movements are responses to things in their environment into movements in a
random direction
Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport are all processes working to move water and nutrients
around in a plant.

Diffusion and osmosis are the result of the random movement of particles down a concentration
gradient and does not require added energy to happen.

Active transport requires energy to move sugars and nutrients across cell membranes.
 
Active transport moves xylem fluid against gravity in 2 ways:
● positive root pressure (pushing)
● negative pressure (transpirational pulling)
The Transpiration-Pull Theory (Leaves)
● 1.At the leaves, water is used in photosynthesis or evaporated out of the stomata
(Transpiration) causing water (and minerals) to be pulled upwards (neg- pressure).
● Water is forced through the endodermis of the root and into the xylem by "root pressure"
(concentration differences).
● Water molecules are absorbed into the roots through the process of osmosis (the
diffusion of water).

Root Pressure (pushing)

● Water enters the roots by osmosis, drawn by the higher concentration of dissolved
nutrients.
● Water creates positive pressure as it enters the spaces between the cells and pushes
upward in the xylem.
● Minerals continue to move across the membrane by active transport.
● At the end of the veins, the water and minerals diffuse into the cells of the leaves.

Phloem Transport Processes

● Translocation is the transport of sugar (glucose during photosynthesis) and other organic
molecules through the phloem.
● Translocation moves nutrients wherever they are needed for growth, metabolism, or
storage.
● Sucrose moves down to the roots for winter storage and back up to the trunk and
branches in the spring.

Plants and Succession:

Succession is the gradual change in the species composition of a community over time.

Succession is a process that happen due to:

● shifts in the population sizes of some of the species
● appearance and disappearance of species

There are two types of Succession:

1) Primary Succession = Succession that takes place on completely barren rock or mineral
deposits.
2) Secondary Succession = Succession that occurs after an existing community has been
disturbed by natural events or by human activity.

Examples of Disturbances: clearing land for agriculture, forest fires, floods, tornadoes, forest
harvesting (logging), and many more.