1 Introduction to Vectors

A vector is a mathematical object that has magnitude and direc-

tion.
Graphically, vectors are represented by arrows. The length of the
arrow represents the magnitude, and the arrowhead represents the di-
rection of the vector.

⃗
C
⃗
B
⃗
A

⃗ B
Figure 1.1. The arrows represent vectors A, ⃗ and C.
⃗ The arrows
above the symbols indicate that the objects are vectors.

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1 Introduction to Vectors (cont.)
A vector does not have a specific position in space. If we move a vector
arrow from one position into another retaining its direction, it still
represents the same vector.

⃗
A

⃗
A
⃗
A

Figure 1.2. Because a vector does not have a specific location in

⃗
space, all arrows represent the same vector A.

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1 Introduction to Vectors (cont.)
In mathematics, the magnitude of a vector is denoted by modulus
⃗ is three units, we
signs. For example, if the magnitude of vector A
write |A|
⃗ = 3.

In physics, we usually write simply A = 3 to denote the magni-

tude of a vector. This can cause, however, cause confusion in cases
where it is not clear whether A stands for a vector or a scalar.
Vectors A⃗ and B⃗ are equal (A
⃗ = B),
⃗ if they are equal in magnitude and
point in the same direction.

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Because vectors are represented by arrows, the magnitude is often
referred to as the length of the vector.
The beginning of a vector arrow is called the tail and end of the
arrow the tip of the vector.
tip
tail

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1.1 Zero Vector
Next we define a couple of concepts that are important in vector
algebra. First of all, we need to define a zero vector:

A zero vector ⃗0 is a vector that has zero magnitude and undefined

direction.

A zero vector is just a point in a vector space, such as ℜ2.

⃗
B
⃗
C
⃗
A

Figure 1.3. Zero vectors are represented by points,

⃗ =B
A ⃗ =C ⃗ = ⃗0.

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1.2 Opposite Vector
⃗ be a non-zero vector. The opposite vector of A
Let A ⃗ is denoted
by −A.
⃗ It is the vector that is equal in magnitude, but opposite in
⃗
direction to A.

⃗
A

−A
⃗

⃗ and opposite vector −A.

Figure 1.4. A representation of vector A ⃗

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1.3 Parallel Vectors
⃗ and B
Non-zero vectors A ⃗ are parallel (A||
⃗ B),
⃗ if they point in the
same or opposite direction.

By definition, the zero vector is parallel to all vectors.

If the vectors point at the same direction, we write A ⃗ ↑↑ B.
⃗ If they
point in opposite directions, we write A ⃗ ↑↓ B.
⃗

⃗
A
⃗
B
⃗
C

⃗ ↑↑ B
Figure 1.5. Examples of parallel vectors. A ⃗ and A,
⃗ B⃗ ↑↓ C.
⃗

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1.3 Parallel Vectors (cont.)
In mathematics, in relation to vectors, real numbers are called
scalars.
Let A⃗ be a non-zero vector and k a scalar (real number) such that
k ̸= 0. Then, the vector k A
⃗ is a scalar multiple of A.
⃗

⃗ is
The magnitude of k A
|k A|
⃗ = |k||A|.
⃗

If
⃗ points at the same direction than A
k > 0, then k A ⃗ ↑↑ A),
⃗ (k A ⃗
⃗ is opposite to A
k < 0, then k A ⃗ ↑↓ A).
⃗ (k A ⃗

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1.3 Parallel Vectors (cont.)
Parallelism
⃗ and B
Let A ⃗ be non-zero vectors. Vectors A ⃗ and B⃗ are parallel if,
and only if, there is a real number k ̸= 0 such that A
⃗ = k B.
⃗
That is,

⃗ B
A|| ⃗ ⇔A ⃗ k ̸= 0
⃗ = k B, (1)

⃗ ↑↑ B
A ⃗ ⇔A
⃗ = k B,
⃗ k>0
⃗ ↑↓ B
A ⃗ ⇔A
⃗ = k B,
⃗ k<0

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1.4 Non-parallel Vectors
⃗ and B
Vectors A ⃗ ∦ B),
⃗ are non-parallel (A ⃗ if they are not parallel.

⃗
A

⃗
B

Figure 1.6. An example of non-parallel vectors, A⃗ ∦ B.⃗ There is

⃗ = kA
no real number k such that B ⃗ ̸= k A
⃗ (B ⃗ for all k ∈ R).

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2 Vector Sum
To be able to calculate with vectors, we need to define vector addi-
tion and subtraction. First, we learn how to add and subtract vec-
tors graphically. Later in the course we learn how the add and
subtract vectors in algebraic form.

⃗ and B
Let A ⃗ be vectors. The sum of the vectors is denoted by
⃗ + B.
A ⃗

We can determine the sum of the non-zero vectors A ⃗ and B⃗ graph-

ically by moving the vector B⃗ such that its tail coincides with the
⃗ Then, the sum of the vectors is represented by
tip of the vector A.
⃗ and ends at the tip of B.
the arrow that starts from the tail of A ⃗

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 ⃗
B
⃗
tail of B

⃗
A
⃗
tip of A
⃗
B
⃗ +B
A ⃗

A⃗
⃗ +B
The sum vector A ⃗ goes from tail of A
⃗ to tip of B
⃗

⃗ + B.
Figure 2.1. The green arrow represents the sum A ⃗ All arrows
⃗ +B
that are equal with A ⃗ represent the same vector.

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3 Vector Subtraction
⃗ and B
Let A ⃗ be non-zero vectors. The difference of the vectors is
denoted by A ⃗ − B.
⃗ The difference of A⃗ and B ⃗ is defined as the
addition of opposite vector −B
⃗
⃗−B
A ⃗ =A
⃗ + (−B)
⃗

We can determine the difference of non-zero vectors A ⃗ and B

⃗ graph-
ically by constructing the opposite vector −B, ⃗ and moving it such
⃗ Then, the differ-
that its tail coincides with the tip of the vector A.
ence of the vectors is represented by the arrow that starts from the
⃗ and ends at the tip of −B.
tail of A ⃗

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 ⃗
B −B
⃗

⃗
A

⃗
A −B
⃗

⃗ −B
A ⃗

⃗ −B
Figure 3.1. The green arrow represents the difference A ⃗ =
⃗ + (−B).
A ⃗ ⃗ −B
All arrows that are equal with A ⃗ represent the
same vector.

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There is also an alternative way of determining the difference of
two vectors.

To determine the difference of vectors A ⃗ and B,⃗ you may first

move the vector arrows so that their tails are at the same point.
Then, if you draw an arrow from the tip of B ⃗ to the tip of A,
⃗ the
arrow represents the vector A ⃗ − B.
⃗ If you draw an arrow from the
⃗ to the tip of B,
tip of A ⃗ − A.
⃗ the arrow represents the vector B ⃗

The method above is very convenient, when the representations of

⃗ and B
vectors A ⃗ already share a common starting point, and you
have to express the third vector connecting the tips of the vectors
⃗ and B,
in terms of A ⃗ as we see on the following page.

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 ⃗
B ⃗ −B
A ⃗

⃗
A
⃗
B ⃗ −A
B ⃗

⃗
A

Figure 3.2. On the left −B+

⃗ A⃗ = A− ⃗ and on the right −A+
⃗ B, ⃗ B⃗ =
⃗ − A.
B ⃗

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2.5 Base Vectors
When A ⃗ and B⃗ are non-parallel vectors on a two dimensional
⃗ on the plane can be expressed in terms
plane, any other vector C
⃗ and B,
of A ⃗ as illustrated on page 57 in the book.

Let A⃗ and B ⃗ ̸= k B,
⃗ be non-zero vectors such that A ⃗ where k ̸= 0
⃗ can be expressed as a
is a real number. Then, any other vector C
⃗ and B.
linear combination of A ⃗ That is,

⃗ = rA
C ⃗ + sB
⃗ (2)

where r, s ∈ R.

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2.5 Base Vectors (cont.)
Linear combination means that we multiply the variables by scalars
and sum the results. It is an important mathematical term.
Vectors A⃗ and B ⃗ in Equation 2 are said to form a base in a two
dimensional vector space (plane). The vectors are called base vectors
of the vector space.
When we express vector C ⃗ as a linear combination of A⃗ and B, ⃗
we divide C ⃗ into parallel components to A
⃗ and B.
⃗ Equation 2 is a
⃗
component representation of C.

⃗ and B
Let vectors A ⃗ form a base. Then
⃗ + sB
rA ⃗ = tA ⃗ ⇔ r = t and s = u.
⃗ + uB (3)

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2.6 Scalar Product
The types of multiplication for vectors are the scalar product (dot
product) and the vector product. We study scalar product in this
course, and vector product in the IB course.

⃗ and B
The scalar product of non-zero vectors A ⃗ is defined as

⃗ ·B
A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos α (4)

⃗ and B.
where α is the angle between the vectors A ⃗

⃗ = ⃗0 or B
If A ⃗ ·B
⃗ = ⃗0 then the scalar product is defined as A ⃗ = 0.

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Note that the result of a scalar product is a scalar (real number),
not a vector.

The multiplication sign is ”·” not ”×”, and it cannot be omitted as

in real variables where x · y is usually written as xy.

The expression A⃗ ·B⃗ is read as ”a dot b” not ”a times b,” because

the scalar product is not an ordinary multiplication.

The scalar product is important in several fields of mathematics

and physics. For example in physics, the work done W by a con-
⃗ is calculated by W = F
stant force F ⃗ · ⃗d where ⃗d is displacement
(the scalar product of force and displacement vectors, Topic 2.3).

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2.6 Angle α and Scalar Product
The angle α between the non-zero vectors A ⃗ and B
⃗ can be solved
from
⃗ ·B
A ⃗
cos α = ⃗ B
, A, ⃗ ̸= ⃗0 (5)
|A||
⃗ B|⃗

⃗ and B
Vectors A ⃗ are perpendicular when

α = 90◦ ⇔ A
⃗ ·B
⃗ = 0 ⇔ A⊥
⃗ B⃗ (6)

⃗ and B.
where α is the angle between the vectors A ⃗

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The following laws apply to scalar product
•A
⃗ ·B⃗ =B⃗ ·A⃗ (commutative law)
•A
⃗ · (B
⃗ + C)
⃗ =A ⃗ ·B ⃗ ·C
⃗ +A ⃗ (associative law)
• sA
⃗ · rB ⃗ · B,
⃗ = srA ⃗ s, r ∈ R (multiplication by scalars)

Exercise 2.1. Prove the commutative law above.

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2.6 Scalar Product as a Projection
Let A⃗ and B
⃗ be non-zero vectors. Then,
|B|
⃗ := |B|
∥
⃗ cos α is the scalar projection of B
⃗ in the direction of A
⃗ (the
symbol := means ”is defined as”).

⃗
B
⃗ cos α
|B|

⃗
A

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The scalar product can be understood as a measure of parallelism
of two vectors.
The scalar product is at maximum when A ⃗ ↑↑ B
⃗ (|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos α =
|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos 180◦ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ × 1 = |A||
⃗ B|).
⃗

At minimum when A ⃗ ↑↓ B
⃗ (|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos α = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos (−180◦) =
|A||
⃗ B|⃗ × −1 = −|A||
⃗ B|).
⃗

⃗ B
Zero when A⊥ ⃗ (|A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos α = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ cos 90◦ = |A||
⃗ B|⃗ × 0 = 0).

The scalar product

⃗ ·A
A ⃗ 2
⃗ = |A| (7)

⃗ ·A
because A ⃗ = |A||
⃗ A|⃗ cos 0 = |A|
⃗ 2 · 1 = |A|
⃗ 2.

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3 Vectors in xy-coordinate system
We can represent vectors in a plane by the xy-coordinate system.
For that we use perpendicular unit vectors î and ĵ.

î is a unit vector that points at the positive x-direction.

ĵ is a unit vector that points at the positive y-direction.
y
2

1
ĵ x
−2 −1 î 1 2
−1

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Because î and ĵ are perpendicular vectors, they form a base in xy-
coordinate system.

Any vector A⃗ in xy-coordinate system can be expressed in terms

of base vectors î and ĵ such that
⃗ = xî + y ĵ
A (8)
where x and y are real numbers.

Since î and ĵ are unit vectors, |î| = |ĵ| = 1.

You should note that î · ĵ = ĵ · î = 1 × 1 × cos 90◦ = 0, and î · î = ĵ · ĵ =
1 × 1 × cos 0◦ = 1.
î and ĵ form a so-called orthonormal base in xy-plane (from orthogo-
nal meaning perpendicular and normal normalized to unit length)

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 y
2î
3
−2ĵ
2 ⃗
A

⃗
A 1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
⃗
A
−2

−3 any specific position in xy−plane.

Figure 3.2. Vectors do not have
⃗ = xî + y ĵ = 2î + −2ĵ.
All three arrows represent the same vector A

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Let P = (x, y), where x, y ∈ R, be a point in the xy-plane. Then,
the position vector of P is defined as a vector arrow that emanates
from origin O and ends at point P .

In terms of base vectors î and ĵ, the position vector is

−→
OP = xî + y ĵ (9)
where x and y are the x and y coordinates of point P = (x, y).

−→
The length of OP is the distance between the origin O and
point P
√
−→
|OP | = x2 + y 2 (10)

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The concept of position vector is fundamental in physics where
displacement is defined as the change in position (the first subtopic
in Topic 5.1 in IB mathematics).
During this course we learn how to construct lines and planes us-
ing position vectors.

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 y
3 P = (4, 3)

−→
2 OP
y ĵ
1
O x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4

xî
−1

Figure 3.1. A position vector representation, where point P =

−→ −→ −→
ĵ. The length of OP is |OP | =
√ 3) and OP√ = xî + y ĵ√= 4î + 3−
(4,
2 2 2 2 →
x + y = 4 + 3 = 25 = 5. OP is an example of a displace-
ment vector (in artificial units).

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3.6 Vector between Two Points

We can construct a vector using two points in xy-plane. In such a

case we talk about the vector between the points, even though a
vector does not have a specific position in space.

−→ ⃗ −−→
Let ⃗a = OA and b = OB be the position vectors of points
A = (x1, y1) and B = (x2, y2). The directed line segment from A to
B represents the vector
−→ ⃗
AB = b + (−⃗a) = ⃗b − ⃗a = (x2 − x1)î + (y2 − y1)ĵ. (11)

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The distance between A and B is then
√
−→
|AB| = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 (12)

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 y
3
B = (x2, y2)

−→ ⃗
b − ⃗a 2 −−→B
AB = O
⃗b =
−→
⃗a = O 1
A = (x1, y1) A
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4
−1
−→
Figure 3.3. In the figure A = (−4, 1) and B = (4, 3). Vector AB =
⃗b − ⃗a = (x2 − x1)î + (y2 − y−2
1)ĵ = (4 − (−4))î + (3 − 1)ĵ = 8î + 2ĵ.
The length
√ of the vector (and the distance
√ between the points) is
−→ −3 √ √
|AB| = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 = 82 + 22 = 68 = 2 17.

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3.6 Scalar Product in xy-coordinate system
⃗ = x1î + y1ĵ and B
If vectors A ⃗ = x2î + y2ĵ, the scalar product is

⃗ ·B
A ⃗ = x1 x2 + y 1 y 2 . (13)

Exercise 3.1. Prove Equation 13.

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