2015 International Conference on Energy Systems and Applications (ICESA 2015)
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Engineering and Technology, Pune, India 30 Oct - 01 Nov, 2015
A review on wood downdraft gasifier plant design
for Biomethane gas production
Sunil Kumar
Centre for energy and resources development
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT (BHU)
Varanasi, India
sunilkumardin@gmail.com
Abstract— Gasification is a thermo-chemical process for
converting a solid fuel into a mixture of combustible gases known
as “product gas”. Product gas contains carbon monoxide,
Hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrogen, tar
(Heavy Hydrocarbons), sulphur compounds, and particulate
matter etc. Although the potential of the process is high in terms
of uses and expenditure but the problem is to eradicate the
hazardous contents present in the form of residues. Emission has
also become the main drawback in the uses of product gas. The
quality of the product gas depends on design and operating
parameters of the gasifier. The idea of gasifier design should be
in such a way that it can convert the solid biomass like wood
particulate, organic and inorganic wastes into the form clean
product gas. Tar can be removed either through physical
techniques or by catalytic cracking or by thermal cracking or
combination of these. A suitable composition of the syngas has to
be collected which will be useful for extracting bio-methane gas.
This paper reviews extensively on techniques to obtain a clean
product-gas and ways to extract Bio-methane to use it directly or
as a supplement with diesel to run a diesel generator for
electricity generation.
Keywords—Gasification; Syngas; Biomass; Tar; Filtration;
Design parameters; Diesel blending; Biomethane
I. INTRODUCTION
In a country like India, where agriculture industry
influences larger part of the economy, amount of biomass like
wood, bio-waste are also available in large quantities. At
present, power generation system like Diesel generators are
used extensively in rural and hilly areas as an alternative to the
shortage in power supply. The emissions from these generators
are affecting the surrounding environment. The need of the
hour is usage of clean and eco-friendly fuel which has zero
GHG (Green house gas) emissions and help in generating
electricity independently without relying on the external power
supply sources.
In a period of fast growing era of human evolution, man’s
dependency on various forms of energy forms like Electricity,
Thermal, Mechanical, Hydro is increasing exponentially.
Simultaneously, conventional energy resources are depleting at
faster rate. This realization has lead to focus on developing
technology to draw energy from renewable energy sources, an
effort to save the nature or rather safeguard our present and
coming generation’s lives from getting destroyed. Though we
978-1-4673-6817-9/15/$31.00 ©2015 IEEE
S.K.Shukla
Centre for energy and resources development
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT (BHU)
Varanasi, India
shuskla@gmail.com
have Solar, Hydro, Wind energy in abundance, it is not easy to
convert those into useful form immediately. Therefore, here
comes the use of biomass energy in our daily life. In recent
years, extensive research and development is invested in
promoting the use of Gasification technology in large and
small scale power generator plants.
II. BIOMASS
Biomass is a collection of organic and inorganic materials
mostly consisting of bi-products and wastes from Agriculture
and Animals. Biomass is considered renewable because unlike
Fossil fuels, there is continuous reproduction of plants through
crop harvesting and consumption of food by the animals. At
present 450 – 500 million tons per year of biomass is produced
in India and provides 32% of all the primary energy in the
country [2]. For production of Bio-Methane following biomass
fuels were tested successfully, they are wood, sewage sludge
and lignite. Farm products like Corn, Sugar, Wheat, Rape
seeds, Soybean, Palm sunflower seeds etc. are consumed daily.
Hence, has attracted as the source of energy generation.
Biomass is considered as “Carbon Neutral fuel” because the
amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the plants for their
growth are again released back to the atmosphere, not
disturbing the carbon-dioxide levels in the atmosphere [1]. If
grains and crops are used as biomass for energy generation like
palm oil for biodiesel, corn for ethanol to replace fossil fuels,
then controversial discussion may arise on fuel over food. In
such case wood and other bio-waste from agriculture sector are
suitable for thermal gasification.
III. DOWNDRAFT GASIFICATION
One of the technologies involved in energy production
using biomass is Gasification. Gasification is the process of
converting complex class of solid or liquid feedstock into a
useful and convenient gaseous or liquefied fuel that can be
burned to release energy [1]. In recent decades, many gasifier
reactor designs were introduced depending on several aspects.
Mainly there are three types of gasifiers namely – Fixed-bed
type, Fluidized-bed type and Entrained-flow type. This paper
deals with gasification using Downdraft Gasifier. The
feedstock is fed from the top and Air or Steam is supplied
inside from the sides of the reactor at combustion zone. In
57
general the process involves complex combination of TABLE I. Names of The Parts of the Gasifier Unit
pyrolysis and oxidation reactions. When the biomass is
gasified under limited oxygen supply and high pressure, the 1- Hopper 19- Cyclone Separator
resulting gas released out consists of CO, H2O, CH4, CO2 ,H2 , 2- Hopper balance 20- Cyclone drain pipe
3-Reactor first 21- Catch pot
NOx, tar.
4-Firing nozzle 22- Fire valve
5-Stair for feeding biomass 23- Chimney
6- Reactor second 24- Gas testing point
7-Grid 25- Three way gas filter
8-Water seal 26- Dry filter using wood dust
9-Water Suction pump 27- Dry filter using rice husk
10- Thermocouple 28- Cotton filter
11- Down draft 29- Manometer
12-Up draft or Pack Column 30- Moisture drain valve
13-Shower wash control valve 31- Producer gas outlet
14- Steam jet control valve 32- Tar collecting pot
15-Venture 33- Water talk
16- Drain box
17- Blower band
Fig. 1. Typical outline sketch of gasification process 18- Blower
A typical gasification process involves four stages –
Drying, Pyrolysis, Partial Combustion and Reduction. In brief, Power Output = 14kW
Drying and Pyrolysis zones comprise of heating of the biomass
at temperature ranging from 100qC – 200qC and 300qC – V. DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
650qC respectively under the absence of air or pure oxygen [1]. Extraction of biomethane depends on the quality of the gas
Pyrolysis involves thermal breakdown of larger hydrocarbon produced by the gasifier. If the yield of methane in the product
molecules into smaller gas molecules. Most of the moisture is gas is high then it will be easier for extracting the methane
removed and the main product obtained in this process is Tar,
product. The quality, yield and composition of the product-gas
formed through condensation of the water vapor produced in
depend largely on the gasification process design. Based on
the process. The heat required for drying and pyrolysis to take
place is acquired from the combustion zone, where due to fast the literature survey, following parameters are reviewed which
oxidation reactions between the carbon compounds and oxygen help in constructing a process plan to obtain a purified SNG.
in air release large amount of heat. Temperature in the The parameters are classified as follows.
combustion zone ranges between 1000qC and 1200qC. CO2 A. Biomass
and H2O are the major compounds released after combustion.
1) Biomass Type: Wood is chosen because of its
These gases are later on passed through reduction zone availability and various advantages explained in paper [3].
where reduction or gasification reactions take place to form CO 2) Ash content: Amount of ash present in the biomass is
and H2 . The resulting gas coming out of the reactor will be the determined while performing proximate analysis of the
product gas. The operating temperature of the gas in the reactor biomass. If ash content is less then it will help in improving
will be around 800qC [1]. the gasifier performance and also on quality. On observing the
values given in the TABLE II show that only wood materials
IV. URJA - 14 KW DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER are having lower ash content compare to other biomass fuel.
This proves that wood type biomass is more favorable [1].
TABLE II. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF FEW BIOMASS (DRY BASIS)

Fuel C H N S (%) O Ash HHV

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (kJ/kg)
Redwood 53.5 5.9 0.1 0 40.3 0.2 21,028
Redwood 53.4 6.0 0.1 39.9 0.1 0.6 21,314
(waste)
Sewage 29.2 3.8 4.1 0.7 19.9 42.1 16000
Sludge
Rice 39.2 5.1 0.6 0.1 35.8 19.2 15,213
Straw
Rice 38.5 5.7 0.5 0 39.8 15.5 15,376
husk
Sawdust 47.2 6.5 0 0 45.4 1.0 20,502
MSW 47.6 6.0 1.2 0.3 32.9 12.0 19,879
Fig. 2. URJA - 14kW Downdraft gasifier system installed at IIT (BHU)
3) Moisture content: Presence of moisture affects the
gasifier performance, calorific value of the product-gas, heat

58
input and CO, H2, CO2 concentration. TABLE III shows that TABLE IV. LHV OF THE PRODUCT GAS [1]
when moisture content in the biomass increases the Gasification medium Range of Heating Value of the
concentration of CO decreases whereas CO2 and H2 increase, Product gas (MJ/Nm3)
there is no effect on CH4 production. Maximum of 40% of Air gasification 4-7
moisture content is permissible in wood when used in Steam gasification 10-18
downdraft gasifier [1,3,4]. Oxygen gasification 12-28

TABLE III. MOISTURE CONTENT INFLUENCE ON PRODUCT-GAS

COMPOUNDS USING DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER. [3]
C. Gasifier Design Parameters
Moisture CO CO2 H2 CH4 Max. 1) Gasifier type: Downdraft Gasifier is preferred
content Limit (% because of its simplicity, low cost and better efficiency (70 –
w.b)
Increases Decreases Increases Increases No <40 85%), suitable for wood gasification.
change 2) Reactor height: This parameter refers to the total
length from top to bottom. It depends on SGR, operating time
and density of the fuel. The expression for calculating the
B. Product gas reactor height is given as [5].
1) Desired Composition: Main constituents of the clean SGR uT
producer gas are CO, H2O, CH4, CO2, H2. The composition of (2)
Ur
the syngas depends on the chemical composition of the
feedstock fed into the gasifier. The typical composition of 3) Reactor diameter: The diameter of the reactor is
syngas is CO (35% – 40%), H2 (20 – 40%), CO2 (25 - 35%), calculated using the following expression given [6].
CH4 (0 – 15%), N2 (2 – 5%). Objective is to possess large 1.27 u FCR
(3)
amounts of bio-methane (Natural gas). When the product gas SGR
is filtered and purified properly, clean syngas (SNG) can be 4) Throat design: In a throated gasifier, due to the
obtained. The advantage of SNG is that it has high conversion reduction of the area just before the Oxidation zone, the
efficiency and through methanation process SNG can be devolatilized or pyrolized biomass will be able to move in a
converted to bio-methane. Negligible amount of N2 and uniform manner, allowing uniform distribution of temperature
proportionally high amounts of CH4, H2 and CO is desirable. and provides sufficient time for cracking the tar into smaller
2) Product-Gas flow rate: The volume flow rate of the molecules of hydrocarbon. Throat dimensioning is related to
product gas (Nm2/s) is determined by the following expression the “Hearth Load” concept.
[1]. 5) Hearth load (Bg): It is expressed as the amount of
Power output (MW) fuel consumed divided by the surface area of the throat (BS),
(1)
Lower heating value MJ/Nm 
3 expressed as Kg-m3/cm2-h. It is given that for one kilogram of
This parameter is useful in finding out other parameters like
mass flow of fuel gas species. Values of the mass flow rate of
the species are required to calculate mass balance and energy
balance of the gasifier [7].
3) High Heating Value: HHV is the amount of heat
released during combustion of specified amount of the fuel.
Data provided from the paper [8], provides details of lower and
higher heating values of various fuels. Among the gaseous,
liquid and solid fuels, Natural gas has 52.225 MJ/kg, Diesel
has 45.766 MJ/kg, Gasoline has 46.536 MJ/kg, and Hydrogen
has 142.18 MJ/kg. This clearly shows that after Hydrogen,
Natural gas has the potential compare to the other conventional
fossil fuels. [8]
4) Gasifying agents: They are Air, Steam and Oxygen.
Selection of the agent depends on the desired composition of
the product-gas and the heating value of it. TABLE IV shows
the typical HHV values of the product gas produced using
different gasifying agents. In ideal cases, air has 79% of N2,
21% of O2. Though O2 in the air takes active part in
combustion, at high temperatures N2 gets oxidized and forms
NOx . Presence of N2 lowers the calorific value of the final
product gas than the product-gas obtained through steam or
pure Oxygen quantity.
59
dry fuel under normal conditions produces about 2.5 m3 of
producer gas. Relation between Bg and BS is given by: Bg =
2.5 BS . Hearth load depends on the heat insulation of the hot
zone and temperature of the zone. A maximum value of 0.9
indicates that the gasifier is in good operation. High value of
Bg gives rise to extreme pressure drop over the reduction zone
of the equipment. With provision of good insulation gasifiers
can be operated with tar-free at Bg values between 0.15 and
0.18. [6]
Gross volume
Max B g (4)
Surface area of the throat
From this expression throat diameter can be obtained.
Further standard calculations for reactor dimensions are
provided in paper [6].
6) Insulation: Temperature plays major role in the
gasification process. Fluctuation in temperature ranges will
affect the quality and composition of the product gas. Active
oxidation reactions takes place between 200qC to 800qC and
from 800qC to 1200qC tar is cracked into smaller gaseous
molecules. Average of 1000qC temperature is maintained
continuously. Loss of heat results in improper reactions,
consumption of more biomass fuel and gasifying medium
leading to decrease in gasifier efficiency [9].
D. Turn-down ratio:
1) Gasifier Operating Parameters:
a) Air flow rate: It is the rate of air flowing into the
combustion zone to partially oxidize the devolatilized biomass.
This parameter is useful for determining the size of the fan or
blower needed to be fixed along side of the reactor. it depends
on the equivalence ratio, fuel consumption rate, stoichiometric
rate of the fuel and density of air. Air flow rate is obtained by
calculating the expression given below:
H u FCR u SR
(5)
Ua
b) Operating Temperature: Operating temperature is the
function of amount of oxygen fed to the gasifier. Oxidation
reactions are exothermic reactions. The heat energy released
become the source for the whole gasifier to work properly and
for the reactions taking place in pyrolysis and reduction zones.
Once the gasifier temperature reaches the self igniting
temperature of the biomass then the gasification process
becomes self sustaining and solely depends on the oxygen
source [9].
c) Equivalence ratio: It is the ratio of actual air-fuel ratio
to the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. This parameter comes under
notice if air or oxygen is used as the gasifying agent. This ratio
determines the concentration of Tar content during
gasification. Tar formation in the product gas is reduced by
increasing the ER. High ER means greater oxygen content
allowed to react with the volatiles present in the combustion
zone. ER ranging between 0.25 to 0.3 is said to be an
appropriate value for air gasification. From the observations
made in paper [9], variation in equivalence ratio affects the
energy in the product gas, gasification temperature, gas
composition, conversion of energy from char to gas. For
complete oxidation of biomass with oxygen a weight ratio
(mass of oxygen / mass of the biomass) of 1.476 is required,
whereas with air, a weight ratio of 6.36 is needed. Equivalence
ratio of 0.25 has been given more preference to convert all the
char into gas.
VI. TAR FORMATION
Tar is an undesirable aromatic byproduct of thermal or
partial oxidation reactions of biomass material. It is a complex
mixture of condensable hydrocarbons, oxidized 1-5 ring
aromatic and complex polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Tar is
classified into four major types [10].
1) Primary products: Levoglucosan
hydroxylacetaldehyde, furfurals, analogous hemicellulose-
derived products and lignin-derived methoxyphenols.
2) Secondary products: Phenolics and olifins.
3) Alkyl tertiary products: Include methyl derivatives of
aromatics, acenaphthylene, methylnaphthalene, toluene and
indene.
4) Condensed tertiary products: PAH series like benzene,
naphthalene, acenaphthylene, anthracene/phenanthrene, and
pyrene.
60
The transformation of these tar products is a function of
temperature and gas phase residence time. A schematic
relation of Tar formation at different temperatures is shown in
the below equation. After the biomass reaches its igniting
temperature an average of 250 qC, due to partial oxidation
reactions, under low pressure and 400qC temperature a part of
biomass fuel is transformed to primary vapors (oxygenates), at
500qC these oxygenates change to light hydrocarbons,
aromatics like phenolic ethers, then later to alkyl phenolics at
600qC, then to heterocyclic ethers at 700 qC, in the next stage
at 900qC and above large complex polyaromatic hydrocarbons
are formed. These large molecules get cracked down to CO,
H2 , CO2 , H2O and upon condensation form soot and coke.
Mixed Phenolic Alkyl Heterocycl ic L arg e
oxygenates
o
Ethers
o
phenolics
o
Ethers
o
PAH
o
PAH
(6)
400
0
C 500
0
C 600
0
C 700
0
C 800
0
C 900
0
C
From the results shown in the paper [11] it is inferred that
Tar cracking was possible when the vaporized form of gas
with tar was allowed to send through the char bed, it results in
less formation of tar and increase in yield of was observed.
VII. WAYS TO CLEAN THE PRODUCT GAS
Tar Reduction Techniques or method to eliminate Tar can
be divided into two types: Primary method, an approach to
reduce tar production inside the gasifier and Secondary
method, an approach to treat the product gas outside the
gasifier either by apply physical separation or thermal
cracking or plasma assisted cracking or catalytic reforming.
Paper [12] suggests few strategies to reduce tar production.
A. Primary technique:
1) Apply staged gasification systems: To improve the
gasification efficiency and reduce the tar content, multistage
downdraft gasifier is a good option to start with. It is a
strategic approach, where the 4 reaction zones drying followed
with pyrolysis, combustion and reduction are separated from
each other. Viking Gasifier, TK Energi AS, Clean ST Gas,
Xylowatt are few staged gasifiers to name. The concentration
of the tar content in these gasifiers was comparatively very
low. The performance details of the Viking Gasifier are given
in [13,14]. The gasifier efficiency is 93%, Tar level and the
dust levels are less than (5mg/Nm3).
2) Use catalytic active bed materials as additives in the
biomass: Additives or catalysts like dolomite, limestone,
olivine sand, bauxite, lanthanum, alumina, nickel aluminate,
cobalt, natural clay minerals and iron minerals [16]. Many
catalyst were investigated by different visitors, but active
carbon, calcined dolomite, Y-zeolite at 550qC are best suited
for tar removal [16]. A thorough mixing of the additives with
the biomass is needed before starting with pyrolysis process.
Paper [15] deals with In-situ catalysis using Silica – Based
nickel nanoparticles embedded in rice husk char. Various
proportions of nickel catalysts embedded rice husk are
prepared and tested during gasification. Small amounts of
PAHs were formed, main tar compounds were in simple
molecular structure which makes things easier for the Ni tested to sequester CO2 . Carbon dioxide scrubber is one such
catalysts to eliminate or reduce the tar formation. The above device which uses catalysts like amines, minerals – zeolites,
given approaches are bit expensive as the additives have to be sodium hydroxide, lithium hydroxide and activated carbon to
replaced after few hours of operation with new bed. Instead, absorb CO2. Among these catalysts activated carbon is a cheap
Bio-char as In-situ catalyst can be beneficial, cheaper and source available in abundance. It can be used to absorb CO2
efficient enough in removing heavy PAHs like toluene, and after getting saturated it can be regenerated by blowing
benzene. The activated carbon proves to have higher removal ambient air to collect the accumulated CO2 and reuse it as a
efficiency of 69 to 92% because it has higher surface area. At scrubber [20].
higher temperature at around 800qC potentiality to remove
toluene was increased by 10% [17]. VIII. METHANATION - BIOMETHANE EXTRACTION
This is the final stage process in purifying the product gas.
B. Downstream utilization technique
The product gas has to be tar free and has less concentration of
1) Cyclone Separator: A standard hot gas cyclone CO2. The remaining CO and CO2 left in the gas will undergo
separator can be installed at the outlet of the gasifier to catalytic reaction with hydrogen to form methane.
remove the dust particles and other solid impurities greater CO 3H o CH  H 2O , 'H - 573
0
K - 51.8 k cal/mole (7)
2 2 4
than 10Pm size [9]. This apparatus is simple in design and
0
inexpensive, can be scaled to the desired dimension according CO 2  4 H 2 o CH 4  2 H 2 O, ' H -573 K(8) 41 . 9 kcal/mole
to the gasifier size. According to paper [21] nickel based catalyst is used. The
2) Bag house filter: These filters are widely used in process is operated at temperature about 300qC, converting all
capturing fine dust particles. The gas is passed through the oxides of carbon to methane and water. Since, the reactions
fibrous bag which is enclosed inside the metal caged chamber. are exothermic in nature, the temperature rise for the
The deposits are accumulated in the bag. Once the bag is filled methanation reaction is around 35qC. Paper [22] presents a
with dust cake then the cake is either removed manually or by Direct Methanation process to convert synthesis gas to natural
gas pressure. gas directly without involving any more complex cleaning
3) Char Catalytic reforming: The bio-char catalyst which technology. This process uses new family of catalysts named
is used in the reduction bed can be used outside the gasifier as GRI 400 and GRI 500, work as a substitute for the water-gas
a downstream catalytic converter. Char supported catalysts shift reaction. The method has many advantages like it reduces
have been proven to show high potentiality for reforming of the overall unit cost of production of the product gas. But this
biomass tar. Nickel additive has been efficient enough in process is under development stage and not many
reducing tar, nickel based char can be arguably good enough developments have been found in later stages.
in tar reforming but a comparison study from paper [18] IX. SCOPE OF DEVELOPMENT
shows that char supported Iron catalyst is better for tar
reforming application than Ni supported char catalyst.
4) Gas washing / scrubbing system: Wet scrubbing system
has been in use for quite some time. This scrubbing system is
built on the basis of Brownian motion principle of the particles
with diameter between 0.1 and 1 Pm. This system is able to
eliminate 49% of heavy tar, 62% of light tars and 79% of
heterocyclic content with dew point at around 180qC [19]. The
problem with this system is that the tar and water get mixed to
form sticky polymeric liquid which cannot be decomposed
anywhere.
5) Catalytic NOx Absorber: If has been used as the
gasifying agent, due to high temperature oxidation reactions
oxides of nitrogen are formed. Catalyst converters like SCR,
EGR and Adsorption techniques were used to remove NOx
molecules from exhaust gases. Few papers have reviewed on Fig. 3. Proposed pilot plan of Multistage Downdraft Gasifier
methods to filter NOx. Paper [19] presents a research results
on absorption of Nitrogen oxides in alkaline solution of 1 - Feedstock 2 - Hopper
sodium hypochlorite in a packed column. The results have 3 – Drying zone 4 – Pyrolysis zone
5 – Air Filter 6 – Oxygenated Air
shown absorption works efficiently depending on parameters
7 – Combustion zone 8 – Residue collector
like gas velocity, spraying density, concentration of nitrogen
9 – Reduction Chamber 10 – Cyclone
oxides in gas and concentration of spraying solution.
11 – Bio-Char filter 12 – Bag house filter
6) CO2 Sequestration: Technology to capture and store
13 - Sequestration 14 – Heater - 300qC
CO2 is still under research phase. Several methods have been 15 - Methanation 16 – Bio-methane

61
 X. GAP IN LITERATURE REVIEW AND FUTURE RESEARCH
DIRECTION
Authors hereby proposed some important directions in Tar
reduction and the formation of Biomethane.
x Various methods for tar elimination from the product
gas has been organized by different academician and
research scholars but still facing some problems for
cleaning product gas to be used in diesel engine.
Therefore, it is necessary to design filter to clean the
product gas that is why it is found to design a catalytic
convertor in which catalyst is used to remove
contaminant present in product gas.
x In the past research on the production of product gas,
generally single feed stock has been used and due to
large moisture content, the probability of presence of
tar in the product gas is very high. Therefore, it is
needed to test more than one feed stocks at a time so as
to minimize the production of tar and maximized the
clean Biomethane.
XI. CONCLUSIONS
After reviewing many papers, a proposed pilot plan has
been designed to obtain the required Bio-methane gas. To
understand the dynamic reactions happening inside the 14kW
gasifier, multistage has been proposed to have a controlled
gasification observation. All operating and performance
parameters of gasification process have to be examined at
every inlet and outlet of the respective zones so that
production of tar and other impurities are reduced to
negligible proportion and possess more volume fractions of
CH4 , CO, CO2 , and H2 components in the gas.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the MHRD New Delhi for
financial support under Centre for Energy and Resources
Development (CERD) to perform this study.
NOMENCLATURE
Bg Hearth load
Bs Surface area of gasifier throat, (kg/cm2-h)
FCR Fuel Consumption Rate, (kg/hr)
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
SNG Syngas
SR Stoichiometric rate
SGR Specific Gasification Rate , (kg/hr × m2)
T Operating time , (Minute)
ε Equivalence ratio
ρa Density of air, (kg/m3)
62
ρr Means density of the fuel (kg/m3)
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