k

CONflIOL SY5T

Generaily speaking, automatic control systems are devised to regulate or

govern a flow of energy and, therefore, can include electronic, electro­
mechanical, pnhumacic, hydraulic and mechanical devices. Their arrangement
and complexity varies with the function they have been designed to perform,
together with the required speed and accurac. ‘The output to be controlled
cán take many forms; it could be for ex&uiple the automatic piloting or
stabilizing of an aircraft, the precise positioning of a radar aerial, or
maintaining the position of an inertial platform, regardless of any
manoeuvres the vehicle to which it is mounted performs. Disregarding the
nature of the Casks involved, the basic components and their arrangements
have a strong family likeness and they behave in similar ways. A common
theory can, therefore, be appliedto all 5rms of automatic control.

A SERVOMECHANISM is a particular type of automatic control system. It is

h1’ action of the control system causing tte jtpuc (the position or
velocity of a shaft) to slavishly follow an input dmand. that has given the
‘device its name of servomechanism (from the Latin wordservus — a slave).
This chapter will be confined to the basic principles of servomechanism
operation.

TYPES OF SERVOECHANISM

Servomechanism may be classified according to two main categories; these

are the OP’i LOOP and CLOSED LOOP systems. An input transducer will
generate an electrical equivalent of the demanded angular position, the
demand voltage; chi voltage is amplified to a power level sufficient to
enable the monitor to.drive th load. The output shaft velocity in a rate
servo, or the final oput sitiori in a remote position control (RPC)
servo, will depend on the factors:—

Variation of load condijons

Frictional forces within the motor and its load, and the mechanical
interconnection (gear trains, clutches, linkages, drives etc.).

Variations of powe.r supply

1/
Value of demd voltage

Variations of amplifier gain

 oP LOP ssr
Figure 1 shows such a system. The open loop system suffers from the major
disadvantage that the above—mentioned factors do not rpmIn constant. For
example, for a given demarKi, the value of output voltage wiil vary as the
gain of the amplifier alters with time and temperature. The frictional
forces within the motor and load will change with velocity, temperature and
load. Variations of supply and frequency will cause variation of the speed
1C ç ‘ p the motor and u1Uuately of the load speed and position, even if the load
torqüe remains constant. There is no means of precisely controlling these
factors and, therefore, the open loop system is not good enough for close
tolerance control. To remove the variable and uncertainties present in open
loop, it is necessary to obtain information about the behyurof the (ttC vaLG
OUTPUT shaft and to compare this with the INJT demand. A control system
that does this is said to be operating under closed loop conditions.

-e-- ra(c4)
-E

demand

,1 Op.. loop wom.Waisa

2
GTOSED LOOP CONOL SYSTF2A

If an operator observes what the load is doing az makes the appropriate

corrections at the input, the system is no longer open loop; it is now, in
fact, a closei loop system, the human operator completing the loop between
output and input. He compares the desired effect with the actual effect aixi
adjusts the system so as to reduce the error between then. He is thus, in
the context, an ‘error detector’, and the amount of error which he observes
determines how he adjusts the input to produce the desired results.

However to measure the error and take the necessary action, we have ‘built
in’ the hi.n operator as an essential elexnt • A more effective and.
effIcient control can be obca.ined by replacing the htnnan operator with art
automatic control system. The response of the automatic system is generaily
quicker and more accurate than that of the hi.mian operator, and the automatic
arrangement is riot subject to fatigue. In addition, of course, the
automatic system gives a saving in manpower. The essential features of the
closed loop system are as foilows:—

The feedback of information concerning the behaviour of the load

The cxparison of this information with the behaviour demanded by the

input

The production of an error signal proportional to the difference between

the desired behaviour and the actual behaviour.

The amplification of the error signal to control the power into a

servtor.

The moveint of the load by the servaotor in such a direction as to

reduce the error signal to zero, at wh.ich point the output is the sane
as that demarKled by the input. The block schematic diagram of a basic
closed loop control system is illustrated in Fig. 2.

proaofl’f tO e

feidbac valtlgq poatti..uI ii 90

F1 2 aisad h.p ser,..echnia

In this arrangement:

9i is the input demand, which is in the form of a shaft angle

6° is the angle of the output load shaft

The input transducer converts the demand (si) into a form suitable for
operation of the error detector, eg. produces a voltage proportional to
ei.
The feedback transducer does the same for the output angle (0°), eg.
produces a voltage proportional to 6°.

The error detector has two inputs applied to it, one due to e° and the
other due to ei; it produces an error signal e proportional to the
difference between the two inputs, ie (9i -0°).

The error signal operates the amplifier which, in turn, causes the motor
to rotate until e° equals 9i (output equals demand); at this point the
error signal is zero and the drive from the motor ceases, the output
load having taken up the position demanded by the input.

4
 0
PCtICAL CLOSED LOOP CONTROL sys
The control synchro System which was discussed in an earlier Chapter is a
good example of the closed loop control system. The arrangement is shown in
Fig.3.

The input demand (Oi) sets the angle of the control transmitter (CX) rotor.
The resulting alternating field in the control transformer staror induces in
the control transformer (CT) rotor, a voltage which is fed as an error or
misa]Jgxit signal to the amplifier. The amplifier output is used to drive
an ac. se.rvomotor which turns both the output shaft and the rotor control
transformer through output angle 00. When the output shaft is turned into
alignment with the setting of the input shaft (0° = ei) the transformer
rotor is now at right angles to the transmitter rotor and there is no input
to the amplifier or servomotor, and the motor stops. The output has now
taken up the position demanded by the input. The control transformer (CT)
performs the role of output transducer and error detector in the
application.

U
d

Fig 3 C’osed loop conirol

 LASSE$ OF SVt1EANISM

There are two main ci

These are used to control the angular or transverse position of a load. The
feedback element, therefore, must be a nasure of the output shaft position.
A convenient method of providing this feedback is to produce a voltage that
is proportional to the position of the shaft at any instant, and the usual
ocedure in a dc system is to use a potentioecer as shown in Fig. 4. In
both examples the potential arid polarity of a point ‘A’ relative to earth
wiil give a measi.e of a shaft position arid direction. Feedback derived in
this niamr is Iaiown as POSITION FEEDBACK. The requirPnt of a RPC is that
the position of the output shaft should confo that of the
input shaft. Fig 5 shows, in block form, the ess of a closed
loop system for position control.

-,-v -v
ANGULAR
A —1-- E’-
TRANSVERSE - (_

Fi 4 Prodwcoa e( vottig.

- —

II’

Ion
ach
meter

Fi S Cossd loop positi.. cntrol systin.

6
 S

0
‘n wiper of a potenticzter is positioned by the movement of the input
shaft. The voltage potential and polarity on the wiper is, therefore,
proportional to the input shaft angle Oi. As mentioned earlier, this
voltage is known as the demand voltage. The output shaft similarly controls
a potentiometer Chat provides a voltage proportional to the angle 0°, the
output shaft angle. The voltage proportional to 0° (the position feedback
voltage) is fed back to an error detector where it is compared with the
demand voltage Oi. Thjolarity.....of the .position feedback voltage is such
that i sLways in opposition to the demand voltage and, therefore,
constituce&..atiegatlve feedback. The output from the error detector, the
error voltage ),is 2oportional to the difference between and,..,..
giyeeq4tign; e=9L
This error signal is amplified and applied to the motor which then turns the
load in a direction depending on the sense of the error signal. The
direction of rotation is always such as to tend to reduce the error voltage
to zero; that is, to drive the output shaft intoalignment with the input
shaft. When the voltage proportional to. equals that due to ei, the error
-
signal is zero: the motor stops at this point, with input and output shafts
aiied.

This particular type of closed loop automatic control system defines a true
servomechanism ‘an error—activated, power amplifying control system’. For
—

a servomechanism to fulfil its function it must have ‘follow up’ properties,

ie. the output rnu.st be capable of following random variations of input
demand over a very wide range.

RAIE SERVOS

The RPC system discussed sc far produces a change in ctie position of a load
00 in response to a change in input shaft position Oi. The rate servo
(velocity control servo) uses he input demand Oi; to control the angular
velocity (speed and direction) of the output sbaft The output shaft
velocity is therefore the behaviour that is required to be measured to
provide the feedback element which is necessary in a closed loop
servomechanism. The device used to obtain this information is the
tachogenerator (an electric tachometer). A typical example of the use of a
rate servo is the control of a radar scanner which is required to rotate
with a constant angular velocitof rotation. The rate servo must be
capable of doing this and maintaining any new velocity set by the input
demand. Rate servos will be covered later in this module. -
-

•‘
-

—-——.—

—
- —
A-

c1
 L j4)
This form of damping is similar to viscous friction damping in one respect;
the canpensation pr to the elocity, or rate of
movement, of the output shaft. Velocity feedU5ãák damping has the advantage,
ver, that ft cons very little power. —

In a RPC servo we are required to move the load from one position to another
as quickly as possible without causing instability (J)NTING) or wasting
power. We have already seen that a step input applied to a servo causes the
servomotor tä apply a torque which accelerates the load. As the load
gathers speed arxi approaches the desired position we require some
arrangement that will ‘anticipate’ that the load is going to oversiloot and
so reverse the motor torque before the desired position is reached. If the
arrangennt is adjusted correctly the result is that the load comes to rest
just as it reaches the required position; overshooting and hunting are
therefore prevented.

For a servocchanism, cachogenerat­

this arrangnent is achieved by attaching a
or (TG) to the output shaft as shown in Fig. 9.
i:)
A tachogenerator is a sm1I ac or dc generator C
____
ng on whether the
servoaechanism is ac or dc operated) which, as already nntioned, produces a
voltage proportional to the angular velocity of the output shaft. A
suitable fraction of this voltage is fed back to the input of the amplifier
in opposition to the error signal (negative feedback) to provide the
necessary ccxnpensation; this is known as velocity feedback damping, because
the voltage fed back is proportional to the velocity of the output shaft.

ou
shalt a
load

posiUa t.tdback ftag. ao

Fig S V.ocity 1mbc dampi.g
 1 ‘t­
0
_
• Initially, the error signal pre&àinates and the load accelerates.
___
As the
velocity rises and the error falls, the net input to the amplifier drops
site sense, If the amt of feedback
-edôii fairly easily by means of.a
the rtor, acting against the forward
tuomenttma of the load, causes the load to rest just as it reaches. the
The action is ii itrted by the graph in Fig. 10.

Initiaily, when the step input is applied, the output shaft does not move
and the fuil amplified error is applied to the motor (velocity feedback
being zero since the load is at rest). The macor accelerates the load arid,
as the input and output shafts begin to came into alignment, the error
fails. At the s time, because the load is now moving rapidly, .a large
velocity feedback voltage is applied in opposition to the error voltage.
The net input to the amplifier therefore drops rapidly ax then increases in
the -opposite direction as the velocity feedback becomes larger than the
error signal. A decelerating torqt is thus applied to the load before it
reaches the t1pm’Md position. As the motor slows down, the velocity
feedback voltage fails as does the error signal, because the output and
input shafts are caning more into alignment. When the required position is
reached, the motor stops. Velocity feedback is then zero as is the error
signal, the input and output shafts are now aligned. Velocity feedback also
has self-adjusting characteristics in response to a larger step input, the
—

output shaft velocity will be higher, and hence the feedback will be
greater. This will ptovide a greater reverse corq and hence give the
increased braking required:

Velocity feedback has the adrtage over a friction damping system of not
only using less energy, but possessing the important practical advantage
that the a.rit of voltage .eed back, arid hence, the degtee of damping, can
be simply controlled by inserting a potentiomece n the velocity feedback
path. This is a method of damping frequently used iñ R systems.

input demand e

auw thaft te1Ie

t
I

uqai
e

to pq ip

Fig
10 Valucity feedback curves
 In practice the amplitude of velocity feedback is adjusted to bring the
system to its demanded position in the least possible time, without
‘excessive overshoot; usuaily one U overshoot is necessary to give a
short response time. We thus achieve rapid response and accurate
positioning without the disadvantages of viscous friction damping.

RATE SVOS

The types of servomechsni.in discussed so far have been RPC systems in which
a change in the demand angle ( Gi) produces a correspnnritii change i the
positiöñThgie( eo ) of the load. In the rate servo the input demand is
used to control the angn1 velocity of the output shaft instead of its
position. To make the speed of the driving motor exactly proportional to
the demaxids (usually a voltage) a servomechanism is essential, otherwise the
speed varies with changes in power supply voltage and with changes of
friction in the motor and its load.

The block diagram of a basic rate servo is shown in Fig. 11. Note that here
is no positiotal feedback information.

vement of the wiper of Rv produces a voltage at A proportional to the

deniMed speed. The voltage applied to B is derived from a tacho—generator
mounted on the output load shaft; this voltage is therefore, proportional to
the angular velocity of the load. If there is any difference between the
voltages representing the demanded speed and the actual speed, the error
detector produces an error signal equal to the difference between the two
voltages. This signal, after amplification, accelerates the motor until the
feedback voltage is equal and opposite to the demand voltage. At this point,
the actual speed of the output shaft is the same as that demanded and the
motor will continue to run at this speed until there is a change in input
demand. If the input increases, the motor speeds up, if the input
decreases, the motor slows down, if the input is reversed in polarity the
motor runs in the opposite direction.

Because of Lntierent frictional aixi d losses, some torque is always

required to turn the motor and load at a constant speed. Hence some output
erom the amplifier wiil always be required to provide this power to the
servomotor. This entails s differential between the demanded speed and
the actual speed. However, by using a high gain amplifier, this can be kept
very 11.

II TQ4UqI Fo9.°
I to dtmanded see

+ aupu

vIQCdV teedbaC
-. oIIZge

Fig itRatssano
fRANSIIt

Velocity feedback can provide a dampingffecrn. without the heat dissipation

associated with frictional damping However,theprobremi5f the steady
state error (velocity lag) is introduced and methods need to be employed to
reduce the error to a minimum. The value of velocity feedback voltage could
easily be reduced and hence the velocity lag, but this has the disadvantage
that the damping effect is also reduced and the settling—down time becomes
excessive. This can represent as much an undesirable feature as a small
aLpfsca4Y state error. C - -

cing zero
is constant IfchIs ouldThe arranged thëe would
bno velocity feedback signal at the amplifier input under conditions of
steady rotation and, therefore, no error signal would be required to offset
it, ie the velocity lag would be zero (neglecting inherent friction). This
can be achieved by means of a CR differentiating network as shown in Fig.
13.

A voltage proportional to the velocity of the output shaft is produced by

the cacho—generator and applied to the CR network. That part of the
velocity feedback signal appearing across R is applied to the amplifier
input in opposition to the error signal. The time constant of the CR
circuit is such that under steady conditions, the voltage across R is zero.
The differentiating network only develops a voltage across R in response to
a change in rotational speed. In other words, the tacho—generacor output is
differentiated by CR so that velocity feedback damping is effective only
during the time that the outpUt_shaft_velocity ischanging, ie during the
settling—down or transient period. Velocity rag is nâveiy small resulting
fran inherent friction.

Transient velocity feedback does, however, reduce the transient response of

the system to a step input. This is due to the voltage developed across Ri
containing a component which is proportional to the derivative of the
applied voltage, ie a coaiponezlt which is proportional to the output shaft
acceleration. The CR network has, therefore, introduced an acceleration
feedback, the presence of which reduces the net torque available to
accelerate the load, effectively making the system more sluggish.

a
— netwark

Fg I 3 Trniqmt nI.city ndback d.mprng

 0

The above neritioned requiruts are satisfied by en electronic integrator.

A servanechanism utf l{7irg a proportional ax integral method, i.e a i-t
controiler, is shown in Fig. 15. In this configuration, the integrating
circuit would be built around an operational amplifier. This wiil maintain
an output voltage when the input voltage (error signal) falls to zero; this
is a requirezment for integration.

The integrator must be designed so that its output does not rise too rapidly
nor too slowly in response to an error, compared with the speed of response
for the rest of the system. If the integral, control is too rapid, over
correction y result causing oscillation of the output shaft. If the
action. is too slow, then the system will take a comparatively long time to
reach a steady state, the output shaft slowly creeping into the demended
position after a fairly fast initial movement.

Fg IS Onmlopmut of litegril input

a
Canbined systems. two or more of the feedback and control systems described
in previous paragraphs may be combined to produce the desired
characteristics in a particular servomechanism. Integral control is
essential in removing steady state errors but de—stabilizes the system due
to the phase lag introduced. To counteract this, phase advance circuits are
added ar this combination can be considered as proportional plus integral
plus derivative; hence forming the basis of the three term controller. Fig
19 illustrates such a combination.

Output

to load

osii.an Ieedbacb vOIt1qe

Fig 19 Three term controller

J-3
I’?
Gloseaty of Teru. Listed below are some terms particular to
servomechanisms. For a complete listing British Standard 1523 should be
referred to.

Response Tine. The tine duration for the first incidence of the output
response to the final steady state value, to a step functional input signal.

Settling Tim. The time taken for the output reponse to reach the demanded
final steady state, rithin specified limits.

Transient response. The output signal time variation when an input signal
of a specified value is applied.

Stei- state. The final value the output shaft attains when the effects of
oscillation have stopped.

Stable state. A system is judged stable if the deviations of the output

shaft are directly related, within limits, to the output demand.

Unstable state. If the deviations of the output shaft are unrelated to the
input demand, either limited by the system or urLlimited, the system is said
to be unstable.

Stabi if 7tion. The term used to describe either the attenuation of

undesirable and unrelated. oscillations occurring in a control system, or the
process of affecting a change of. state frc unstable to a stable condition.

I)inping. (i) The continuoiis-attenuacion of system oscillations, (ii) the

methods used for osciilatjn suppression.

Overstxot. The ins tantaneous: difference between. the output shaft response
to a step fwction input, ar the final steady state value.

Hzmting. Undesirable self-sustained oscillations Gf ai outrruc shaft.

Tao—term cocitroller. A system which utilizes a ccn&ihtion of proportional

action with either integral or derivative action.

Three-tern controiler. A systen which utilizes a combination of

proportional, integral and drivative action. -

Dwped oscillation. An osculation of continually reducing amplitude, due

to sane atbod of damping.
 SVOMHANISM 1ETS

Introdimtii

In the preceding Chapter a broad outline of the basic principles governing

the operation of servomechanisms was discussed, together with the steps
taken to improve stability and reduce steady state errors • To complete a
basic understmling of servomechanisms, it is necessary to look in detail at
the essential elements comon Co ail servomechanisms. The main topics
considered in this Chapter are:

Input Transducers Error Detectors Servo Amplifiers

H3brid AC-DC Servos Servo Motors Tachogenerators

INPUt TRDUCS

Purpose ari cLffn1 tion. The input transducer translates the input demand i
which is camzmly in the form of a shaft angle or linear movement, into the
demand voltage. This voltage must provide an indication of both the
direction and magnitude of an input demand.

‘R—pots’ helical potenticters. Potentiometers are widely used as

input transducers especially in dc systems. They are reliable enough for
rist applications and are, easy to adjust as well as being relatively
inexpensive. One example of a high grade pocenticxicer is known as an
pot’.. It is normally connected across a dc si.ply and the voltage Ei
‘picked off’ by the wiper depends simply upon the angular displacement of
the input shaft angle ej to which it is corniected (see Fig la). For
example, if it is assumed that the potentiometer has 100V applied across it
and that it is capable of rocatin through a full 360°,. then the output
voltage Ei for each degree demanded is 277 mV; this is known as the voltage
gradient of the potentiometer. For a 120 tnput demand, the output voltage
is 3.3V arid for 24° demand, it.would be 6.6V etc. In practise, of course, a
level plane circular potentiometer cannot give a full 360° coverage because
there [mist be a break in the resistance winding across which the supply
voltage is applied. Helical potentiometers, giving a full 360° coverage,
may be used instead (Fig Ib).

El
onal ta 91

a R-pQt

b helical atenflometIt

I Ptantiom.tir: as input raesducers

I-
Potentiaters c.heracteristics. For accuracy, precision—wound potentioaters
are essential; expensive ntals such as platinum and iridium may have to
withstand contact wear, and correcting devices may have to be incorporated.
In addition, the derived voltage Ei must be applied to a high impedance
load in the following error detector; if any current is drawn from the
potencioter, the voltage Ei will fail. To reduce the effects of
temperature on the value of the resistance, heat dissipation is kept to a
low level by using low supply voltages and low values of track resistance.
But with a supply voltage of 28 volts for example, the voltage gradient
falls to 77mV per degree for a 360° movement • It follows that the servo
amplifier must have sufficient gain to boost the error signal to the
required level to drive the load. Angular and linear displacement
potentiters are available in a wide range of track resistances and body
profiles to suit differing applications (see Fig 2). The potentioneters
selected to perform a specific function must have a suitable working
temperature range and power dissipation, other parameters which include
madAt.un wiper current mechanical travel of the wiper and rotational life
must also be taken into account

Roay patintiometi RectiIn.u poe.Ometeri

Fi1 2 Aqub, ud hear apaceme.t potaitiometirs

A potentiometer is characterised by its total resistance R and by its
accuracy. Accuracy is usually defined as the deviation of the resistance at
any point related to the ideal value at that point. For example, a
potentiometer with a total resistance of lOOK and with an accuracy of 0.1%,
the maximum possible difference existing between the theoretically exact
value and the actual value measured between the wiper and the ground
terminal will be 100 . This means that if the two ends of the
potentiometer are connected across a 100V dc supply, then the error of the
output voltage will not exceed lOOinV. It should be noted that the accuracy
and the total resistance of a potentiometer are not related. The accuracy
of the potentiometer is dependent upon a nunber of factors some of which
will nàw be discussed:—

Wear due to friction between the wiper and the track can impair accuracy.

The accuracy of the resistive output is dependent upon the degree of no­
nlinearityof the track material.

Backlash may exist between the wiper and the track.

The homogeneity of the track material may not be constant.

Potentiater noise. The electrical noise generated within a potentiometer

can be a very important factor in some applications. It has several
sources —

If the wiper vibrates as it passes over the crack it will result in

component of noise. This can be related to the velocity at which the wi1
traverses the track and can cause substantial errors. This component can
reduced by careful design of the wiper and by choosing the
pressure between the wiper and track.

Oxidation at the surface of wirewound resistors, and dirt on any type of

track material, will generate some degree of noise. Its magnitude usually
increases with age, especially if it is operated in extreme environmental
conditions.

Galvanic and thermoelectric voltages generated between the wiper and the
crack introduce a noisy component. This can be reduced to very low levels
if the wiper is made from certain alloys.

It should be realied that the sources of noise generated in a potentionter

are various and for this reason it is difficult to qualify their total
amplitude.

Potentiters in an ac systa. The aforementioned discussion on

potentiometer accuracy has been related to dc systems. However, their
accuracy could be seriously reduced if used with ac voltages. This is
dependent upon a number of factors, the most important of which is the
capacitance chat exists between the individual turns of resistive winding
(for wirewound potentiometers), and also between the track and the metallic
shaft (or spindle). The inductance of the resistive winding of wirewound
potentiometers also represents a substantial source of error. Usually, ac
systems utilize inductive transducers to translate the input demand; these
viii now be discussed.

17-
Ci IZ
 .

Tiiiwtjv sdiira

Operating priiwtp1ø. Synchros and other types of differential tranafornr

are used to triiimi t linear and angular data for the remote control of
sermne’Jism_s. Their fwiarnental operating principle is based on that of
the conventional transformar, in which a cn magnetic circuit links both
the primary and secondary windings. For example, if a fixed voltage (vi.) is
applied to the transfornr primary, the secondary voltage (V2) will vary in
sympathy with the angler displacemant (G) of the primary with respect to the
secondary, (Fig 3 refers). This is because when the coils lie parallel,
madnxi.nu magnetic coupling is produced and hence, the maximum voltage is
induced into the secondary. At any angle B from 00 the output is
proportional to Vi. Cos 0; hence V2 is zero when 9 = 900.

Pnmasy Sicndavi
.01

max coupiinq

part2*l coapIrn

coupling
mu mum
1800 .

macaup4enpit18O

Fi 3 R.Iaohip betwe..
anqular dbpaceae.t ted caeplwq

I
The K a I bar LLm.j!er — operating primiples. The. arrangement of this
input transducer is shown in Fig 5. The primary coil is wound arowid the
centre limb of the E—shaped core aixi it is supplied with the excitation
voltage.. The outer linth are wound with secondary coils connected in series
opposition. The ‘I’ bar which is pivoted at its centre is connected to the
input demand shaft so that the air gap between it and the outer limb of the
‘E’ bar can be varied. When the I bar is deflected through angle , the air
gaps become unequal, thus changing the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
The flux in one outer limb of the ‘E’ bar wiil, therefore, increase whilst
the flux in the other decreases. These changes will produce an output
signal voltage, the amplitude of which is proportional to the ‘I’ bar
deflection. The direction of the deflection will determine whether the
signal voltage is in or out of phase with respect to the supply voltage.
When the ‘I’ bar is in its neutral position, the same magnetic flux flows in
each limb since the air gaps are equal. The induced voltages are equal and
opposite resulting in no output signal from the coils. The demand shaft,
therefore, controls the, magnitude and phase of the output signal.

secondy ojtput

Output
naa

Fig 5.E and I bar triasducar

Practical applicatis. As well as converting angular movements, the ‘I’ bar
can also be displaced from its null position by a linear displacement. For
such an application the ‘I’ bar is not pivoted but mounted longitudinally on
an input shaft so that it moves across the faces of the ‘E’ bar. One such
example of the application of an ‘E’ & ‘I’ bar transducer is in an autopilot
altitude lock system (Fig 6 refers). Basically it consists of an evacuated
capsule, similar to that used in a barometric altimeter, mechanically
coupled to the ‘I’ bar of an ‘E’ & ‘I’ transformer. The capsule is mounted
inside a sealed case and. connected to the aircraft’s static system so that,
as the air pressure changes with altitude, the capsule will expand and
contract producing proportionate signals from the ‘E’ & ‘I’ bar, As the
aircraft changes altitude, the signal is amplified and used to ,drive a
chaser motor in such a sense as to alter the position of the capsule and
reduce the signal to servo.

The angular rotation of the motor is, therefore, a direct function of height
and may be used to drive an output transducer.

movrnqpi&-aftrb — U aftiw4i nutesti

Otstput 1tT
ratlion

diaser motor.
scapsue&r bat.
: ampuiea ana..
reducing peck-oft sgnaI to zero

Fig 6 ApphcatoQ at a. E & 1 bar aaducsr

Hybrid AC-DC Servchanins

Gerral points. It has already been noted that ac systems can utilize
conventional RC coupled amplifiers which offer high gain and stability,
without the drift problem inherent in dc amplifiers. It is partly for this
reason that input transducers and error detectors are now predominantly ac
operated. Conversely, major disadvantages associated with wholly ac systems
are the difficulties in producing derivative and integral signals, and
designing compensating networks. These are used to reshape the response of
a servomechanism, if necessary, to suit a specific application. For
example, if the adjustment of the amplifier gain alone cannot satisfactorily
meet both steady and transient requirements, a compensating network is
necessary. As far as motors are concerned, the reliability of the brushless
ac types is an important factor in low power applications, although their
torque characteristics are inferior to dc machines of similar dimensions.
Where very heavy loads are involved, an amplidyne dc servorxtor is
essential.

A hybrid ac—dc system retains the advantages of both ac and dc

servomechanisms. The early stages of the servomechanism consisting of the
error-detection syscn and the voltage amplifying section of the servo
amplifier, are ac operated; the latter stages, consisting of the power
amplifier section of the servo amplifier and the servomotor, are dc
operated. The only remainin problem is the conversion of the amplified ac
error signal to dc for operation of the dc servoinotor. A typical block
diagram is illuscratedin Fig 12.

IC uøIy Ot vamtrn iIh nitiI nrd h.I,

Fig 12 Hybrid higb-,owir servomicWsm

2±
SERVOKYIORS

CHOICE OF SERVOMOTOR. Once the fundamental decisions have been taken

regarding the design of a servomechanism, eg whether it is to an ac, dc or a
hybrid systen, a servomotor can be chosen whose performance will satisfy the
system requirements. The choice will depend upon a number of factors which
include:

Naximum value of acceleration required.

Maximum values of torque and velocity. (Although these two parameters

may not occur simultaneously, their product determines an expected power
output which the motor must be capable of supplying).

Load characteristics — its dampening, inertia, stiffness etc.

Duty cycle —The percentage of the total running time that the system
will be running at maximum velocity.

• Gear Ratio. Although the type of motor and gear ratio are inter—
dependent, gear ratio maybe decided upon after the motor type has been
chosen.

Thermal characteristics, ie its maximum and minimum winding temperatures

Availability of motor, alsd weight, size, pocer consumption and cost.

A choice is made from a range of suitable motors, the chosen one normally
being the smallest and lightest with the highest speed. The maximum motor
speed attainable divided by the gear ratio should be equal to or greater
than the maximum required load speed. Also, the maximum motor torque
multiplied by the gear ratio should result in sufficient torque to give the
maximum load acceleration required.

AC MOTORS

INDUCTION MOTOR. By far the most popular ac motor found in

servomachaaisnis is the induction macor. Their common use stems from the
ease in which both torque and direction rotation of the output shaft can be
controiled by the amplified error signal. Their brushless operation, and
hence no commutator, results in a relatively simple construction, with an
armature having considerably less inertia than a comparable dc machine. AC
motors designed specifically for servomechanisms differ considerably from
general purpose motors in that their speed/torque curve is approximately
linear. Two—phase and three—phase induction motors are in common use in ac
servo systems; the two—phase type is mare usual.

22
The two—phase induction motor (Fig. 14) requires two ac supply voltages 90
out of phase with each other. One phase is fed to the control system an
then through the servo—amplifier to one stator winding of the motor; this
supply is controlled by the error signal. The other phase known as the
‘reference phase’, is fed directly to the other phase of the motor.
When the reference phase to one stator winding and the ecror—controlled
phase to the other winding are both present, a rotating magnetic field is
produced; the squirrel—cage rotor follows this field and so rotates. The
direction of rotation depends upon the sense of the error signal, ie. on the
direction of misalignnnt between input and output shafts of the servo. As
the misalignnEnt signal passes through the zero error signal position, the
phase’ of the error—controlled voltage reverses, and this reverses the
direction of rotation of the motor. When the error is zero, the error—
controlled phase voltage is zero and no rotating magnetic field is produced;
the motor thus stops. The torque developed by the motor depends upon the
magaitude of the error signal; thá greater the error, the larger is the
torque. Therefore by varying the supply to the control winding a linear
speed/torque characteristic can be obtained.

efennce
pbasç
tupply

erTor controlled
pba*e wppty

Fig 14 Two-phase inducaa motor

23
 a

AC sexvtor trtwtixt. Induction rixtors manufactured as servomotors are

produced in starxlardized frame sizes, having a similar profiles to
sync.hros. The servomotor housing is cylirzirjcal in form and is normajjy
made from stainless steel with accurately machined spigots and a groove for
rnomting purposes. The stator consists of laminations of iron cemanted
together, into which, slots are cut to house the two—phase (or three phase)
winding (see Fig 16). These slots may be skewed (cut at an angle to the
spin ans) to reduce ‘slot effect’ (the unwiUingness of the rotor to move
away from the rest from one of a ni.miber of positions).

It can be observed that the rotor dimter is relatively small in comparison

to its length. This configuration allows the ratio between the torque and
the inertia of the rotor to be as large as possible, thereby enabling it to
accelerate quickly from standstill in the required direction. The rotor
consists of iron laminations mounted on the shaft, with the s forming
the squirrel cage cast around this central core in ali.initin; this improves
running efficiency azzi starting torque.

The air gap between the rotor and stator must be kept to a miriimtin because
all of the enerr has to be transferred magneticaily to the rotor. The
radial clearance is conly of the order of O.O25an and therefore,
considerable precision is required during manufacture. The rotor shaft may
be cut w-i.th an accurate involute gear tooth form, to enable the first gear
in the gear train to mesh directly with it. This reduces backlash and
inertia by dispensing with a separate pinion.

housrnq beanng

t.munal caQ

Fi I 6 Typical ac smrv.iiotor ca.struc1aa

24
 —

Autopilot svaaeters. One application in which hysteresis motors are found

is in autopilots, to convert the drive signals from the servoanipUfier into
mechanical movements of the appropriate control surface. Each servotor
consists of a cast housing containing a hysteresis motor, a tachogeneracor,
a reduction gear train, and an electromagnetic clutch (see Fig 18).

The hysteresis ntor provides the motive power for operating one control
surface, the tacho—generator providing the velocity feedback. The clutch
enables the pilot to disengage the servomotor from the control surface which
it operates, if, for example, motor rxiway occurs. The reduction gear train
provides the required output torque.

tireephas. sta( cabilt 1tU

rat

hift cit
N—

F IS Aitepdot sirvamator itiIisaog a kitsrws motor

c2As-
Hysteresis itors. These motors are also fourd in servomechanisms arxi may
be described as 2 or 3 phase self-starting synchronous machines • A typical
arrangement is shon in Fig 17.

In this example, a two—phase supply is required, the reference phase voltage

being applied to phase wixxilngs A and Al, and the error-controlled voltage B
and Bi. At one instant, A wiil act as a N—pole and Al as a S—pole; B and Bi
will be neutral. The rotor — a cobalt steel, ring will therefore have a S—
—

pole induced at X and a N-pole at Y. A quarter of a cycle later, B will act

as an N—pole and Bi as a S—pole; A and Al will be neutral. However, the
rotor material has a high level of retentivity and, therefore, will have
retained its S—pole at X and its N—pole at Y. So point X on the rotor is
attracted to the B stator ‘
and Y is attracted to Bi. Since a torque
is being exerted on the rotor it will turn to follow the rotating maeric
field and will continne to do so until the error signal. falls to zero. The
direction of rotation depends upon the phase of the error—controiled voltage
relative to the reference voltage and this, in turn, depends upon the sense
of the error. The torue developed depends upon the magnitude of the error.
The main virtue of the hysteresis motor is that, with suitable rotor
construction, this torque can be kept constant over a wide speed range.

eference
phase

e.T centrallia
phate supply

Flq 17 Hyztsrws sirvootor

26
 i. II vrL3
WARNING: DO NOT CONNECT THE ELECTRICALPOWR.

Use the following text for the batteries:

WARNING: DO NOT CONNECT THE BATTERIES

A. Radar Systems

Supervisory personnel must inform personnel of the dangers when a radar

system is operated on the ground. Warig signs rnus be put in the
affected areas to alert personnel.

A radar s’sern must be operated on the ground only by ua]ifid

persoe. Do oc operate the radar system in a hangar or other
enciosuras inDess the radar transmitter is inhibited or energy is
direcced roward an absorption shDed which dissipates ode radio requenc
energy. D:herwise, radiation w:hn enclosure can be reZec:-e throughou
the arso

damage to the eyes and testes),

must be taker:
— Do no stand near and in frDn of a radar an:emra ü:n rarsnits.
When che antenna is noc scar.n:c, the danger ircreases reter to
fioure 1 fr cafe distance,
— Stay awa he end of an open waveguide and :ne open end of a
coaxial r unless the radar system is switcned off.
- Wooden w igns must be put around the dancer area eh::n can
have che ng warnings:

WARNING: KEEP CLEAR - DAR TEST IN PROGRESS.

— Access co he danger are.a cus: cc prevented by ropes, see core 1.

— Put che aircraft in posit:o so that the forward l5D erees sector
is free of large metallic ccects (hangars, aircraft etc.) for a
ds:arce of lOOm (300 ft)

Do no oorate the radar system miuring refueL1in and etue11n

prevent ie1 ignition.
 - -.

I —

6
I

.— —

28201301005

:gure 1 Safe Distance Around the Aircraft when the Radar Operates
B

If maintenance must be done on an unit which can cause ignition of a

flammable vapour or liquid, a member of the local fire—fighting crew or a
person repsonsible for aircraft fire safety must monitor the work and
orher nearby activities (inside and outside the aircraft)

Work must never start on any fuei system component if an unit which carl
cause ignitIon of a flammable vaocir or liquid is energized or rnegger
res:scance rneasuremencs are done. Th such hazardous areas, aci ohmmeter
whcN uses a iow measuring current must be used.

The amount of tools, emergency and fire-fighring equipment must be given

by either of he following authorities:
- the local fire-fighting personnel
- rther authoriries resoonsible for the fire sofet.’ ar.d who are CaCCD
to judge the aegree of risk :n the work wnc-. .s acne.
/ :

N!anv eiecronc units have mcro—crciis and ocher sens:;e devices

h:ch car be dacaged 5,’ elec:rc-s:a:ic discharges. These unecs are
:deniied as iectro—Statc D:schare Sensitive (SSDS) Decais are
s:]ed on t tha: spea
dbng is necessary Ksee igre 2,.

a unit with ESDS decais is handled, cake great care that the
electrical pins are not touched and thac conducci’ie dust caps and
:ornector covers are installed or, each electrical connector.

eore anj ESDS nrin:ed—circuit Dcar is removed or installed all

eecrrcai power must be removed from the unic. The unit rnusc be placed
on a conducting work surface. Before the printed-circuit board is
::uched, a conductiue wrist stroo rsusc be connected to the units
eec:ro—s:atic grounc ack or an other alternacive unit ground point. Pu
:te opposite end of toe strap around the wrist to make skin contact. T9e
cable must have a series ress:or 1ohm) co protect the person against
-
h:gN voltages.
-

A1 removed ESDS orinced—circu: coaras must immediatly be puc into

conductive bags identified withi an ESDS label, refer to E’igure 3. Pu
:or,ductive dust caps and connector covers on electrical connectors. Do
no use staples or adhesive tapes to close the conductive bags. Any
damage to :he bag will cause electro—static discharges. The close the
conductive bag use an ESDS labei or lOO cotton twine. The conductive oag
iust then be put in a rigid conraner to orevenc any damage to the bag c
cr:c:ed—crrcui: coard.
 132)130305

Figure 2 Decals
 OJCTIVE AG ..ECTRO -
H ESOS LA8E. STATIC CJNO
iCK D3O1OC6 -

igure 3 Use ot Conductive Wrist strap

Do ouc D:to eds arid angle of atcack varies irnmediatly after

fi:;d: arid durang oa:n:erianze. This eoucment can be verj noc and burn
:he skin.

The 3irline is responsible for the use of any heatiflg devices and
soldering devices.
1. INTRODUCTION

Many aircraft cmponents, divided over various positions in the airframe,

need to be controlled remotely from the cockpit.
In principle there are various ways to transfer the energy ‘input, given
through an action in the cockpit, to the component which needs to be
operated.
In aircraft the following ways of component operation are commonly used.

1. Mechanically: operation of components through manual inputs via cablec

push—pull rods, links and levers.
2. Hydraulically or pneumatically: operation of components through hydra!.
( fluid) or pneumatic (= air) pressure.
3. Electrically: operation of components through electrical energy.

In principle these three ways of energy transfer do not differ from eacn
other. For the mechanically operated rudder the energy source is the pilc
whose feet push the rudder pedals and via a cable system the rudder is
operated. The pneumatically operated landing gear is somewhat more compl
cated. It needs besides the pilot’s action (operating the landing gear
selector handle) also a pneumatic pressure source. The pressure is trans
ferred to the landing gear retraction ram via piping and the landing gea1
selector handle. The electric motor driving the aileron trim actuator re
quires also an energy source i.e. electrical power. Whether the electrlcc
power is connected to the trim actuator depends on the operation of the
aileron trim control knob, operated by the pilot.

The widesread use of electricity in aircraft systems emphasizes the impc

tarice of a minimal electrical background in order to fully comprehend to
days sophisticated aircraft systems.
via a

Tt(
SURE

I
7-.

REMOTE CONTROLLED COttPQNENTS tC-O

ManEenance ranny

1.1
—

The first electrical systems on board aircraft were very sirnple because
only a few components were electrically operated: mainly lights. These
lights required so little electrical energy that it could be delivered
by a battery, also due to the relatively short flight duration. Sometimes
after the flight the battery was charged on the ground in order to have
sufficient capacity for the next flight.
The continuing development in aviation required more complicated systems ard
a wider use of instruments radio equipment. These systems required more
electrical energy and as f’iight duration was ncreasLng the battery beca.’e
discharged too rapidly. This situation requird the installation of engIne
driven generators; generators to provide electrical current for the aircraf
systems and charging current for the battery. The battery had now only a
available
function as a standby—power source in case the generators were not
(e.g. on theground when the engines are stationary).
Up to this stage most of the electrically operated components on board

were supplied by direct current (DC) , but later also alternating current
(AC) components became irportant, especially whr more navigation equipmer
was installed. In order to supply the AC operated components with correct
electrical energy, part of the available power from the DC generators Was
converted into ACpower by so called inverters which supplied AC power WI

regulated voltage and constant frequency.

When efficient AC generators became available their output was mainly used
for heating purposes since a constant output frequency, required for most
AC operated equipment, could not yet be guaranteed.
However, the use of transistors and the development of so—called constant
speed drives made it possible to use AC generators as main sources of elec—
trical energy to supply the AC operated equipment. Generating AC power
could be done more efficiently than generating DC power and the conversior
from AC to DC by so—called transformer rectifier units was simpler than tne
DC to AC conversion via iriverters.
The intention of this section is to tell something about the generation of
electrical.power including the way in which the electrical power is con—
trolled and monitored.
 I
S IN 3 NO d O D
a3.L’d3dO ii

OICVd
flhIIfl?1 r., • .
.LN3Wd I fl03
NOI.LV9IMN

oIQv
SIH9I1 SW3ISAS

Ii.

1
II

I!

)NIIH9I1

a iuiw
 2. GENERATING ELECTRICITY

2.1 Ma netisrtt
Magnetism is so closely related with electricity that it can be stated that
without magnetism the electrical world would not be possible. Therefore a
study of magnetism and its phenomena is required in order to understand the
process of generating electricity.
Magnetism is an invisible force which can best be described by the effects
it produces. Examination of a simple magnet, suspended to swing freely,
will learn that the magnet will align itself with the magnetic poles of the
earth. One end of the bar magnet is labeled N meaning that it is the north
seeking end or pole of the magnet. The opposite end of the bar magnet is
marked S and is the south—seeking end and points to the magnetic south pole
Since the earth is a giant magnet its poles attract the ends of the bar
magnet.

The force of a magnet to attract other ferrous materials depends on a

magnetic field that surràunds the magnet.
This magnetic field can be made visible by the experiment illustrated in
the adjacent drawing. As shown, the field of a magnet is made up of many
individual farces that appear as lines in the iron—filing demonstration.
Although they are not “lines” in the ordinary sense, this word is used to
describe the individual nature of the forces making up the entire magnetic
field. These ljne o force are also referred to as magnetic flux.
The demonstration with iron filings further shows that the magnetic field
of a magnet is corcentrated at the ends of the magnet (the poles) . The
characteristics of patte­
the magnetic fluic can be seen by tracing the flux
rns of two bar magniets with unlike poles together, separated by an air
gap. The lines of iorce hve re—arranged their paths so, that most of the
flux leaving the north pole of one magnet enters the south pole of the
other. -

There is no known insulator for magnetic flux, or lines of force, since

they will pass through all materials. However, it has been found that they
will pass through some materials more easiIythn others. Thus, it is
possible to shield certain areas, such as instruments, from the effects of
the flux by surrounding them with .a material that offers an easier path for
the lines of force.

Magnets are either natural or artificial. Since naturally occurring magnets

have no pract.cal use all magnets considered further in this course are
artificial or manmade. Artificial magnets can further be classified as per
manent magnets, which retain their magnetism long after the magnetizing
force has been removed and temporary magnets, which quickly lose most of
their magnetism when the external magnetizing fotce is removed. The ability
of a magnet to hold its magnetism varies greatly with the type of metal.
Magnets made of soft iron are very easily magnetized but quickly lose most
of their magnetism when the magnetizing force is removed. The small amount
of magnetism remaining, called xesidual magnetism is of great importance in
such electrical applications as generators.
Maintenance Tra n ng

NORTH POLE

IRON FILINGS : :

EFFECTS OF MAGNETISM
I__I •CI a ‘c a

2.2 Electroma netism

It has been discovered that a compass needle (magnet) would be deflected

when brought near a conductor which was carrying an electrical current.
When the current flow stopped, the compass needle returned to its oriqi.nal
position. This demonstrated the relation between electricity and magnet.sm
The magnetic field arthind the conductor was created by the current flow
through the wire. The strength of the generated magnetic field was in dire
relation with the electrical current and when the direction of the current
was changed also the direction of the lines of force was changed. The
relation between the direction of the current and the direction of the un
of force is given by the so—called corkscrew rule as illustrated in the
adjacent figure.

Although it has been stated that the lines of force have direction, this
should not be construed to mean that the lines have motion in a circular
direction around the conductor, or in other words, although the lines of
force tend to act in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction they are no
revolving around the conductor.
Ma iit Train ng

+
CURRENT

CONDUCTOR
COMPASS
c )/
7 ( ‘—

i )
c) — —
IL —

CONDUCTOR

CURRENT

1
CURRENT

— CONDUCTOR

/z/

,1

LI
I
—
4—

__-

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETISM
Ma nrenance Tfl ning

2.3 The electromacnet

When a wire is bent into a ioop and an electric current flows through it,
the corkscrew rule remains valid.
If the wire is coiled into two loops, many of the lines of force become lar
ge enough to include both loops. Lines of force go through the loops in the
-
sanie direction, circle around the outside of the two coils, and come in at
the opposite end.
When a wire contains many of such loops, it is called a coil. The lines or
force form a pattern through all the loops, causing a concentration of flux
lines through the centre of the coil, but also many of the lines of force
are dissipated between the icops of the coil.
The addition of a soft iron core inside the coil will concentrate the lines
of force in the centre of the coil and will increase the magnet flux. This

combination of an iron core in a coil of wire loops is called an electrcmag

net, since the poles (ends) of the coil possesses the characteristics of a
bar magnet.
When direct current flows through the coil, the core will become magnetized
with the same polarity (location of north and south poles) as the coil woul
have without the core.
If the current is reversed, the polarity will also be reversed.
The polarity is still determined by the corkscrew rule in the same manner
as the polarity of the coil without the core was determined.
The strength of the magnetic field of the electromagnet can be increased by
either increasing the current flow, or the nuntber of loops in the wire and
finally, the type of metal in the core is a factor in the field.
LO DI LNYWO1D27 SHJ O S1diDNIa
MO1 1N3flD
MOld IN3flD
IN3 flD
MOl
N3flD
6uuejLa 1uIeb
A soft iron bar is attracted by either pole of a permanent magnet and, ].ike
wise, is attracted by a current—carrying coil. As shown in the adjacent fi
gure, the lines of force extend through the soft iron, magnetizing it by in
duction and pulling the iron bar towards the coil. If the bar is free to
move, it will be drawn into the coil to a position near the centre where th
field is strongest.
Electromagnets are used in electrical instruinent, motors, generators,
relays and other devices. Some electromagnetic devices operate on the prin
ciple that an iron core, held away from -the centre of a coil, will be rapia
ly pulled into a centre position when the coil is supplied with current
(energized).
This principle is used in the solenoid in which an iron core is springJ.oade
off—centre and which moves when the coil is energized. The movement of the
core can be used to operate valves, switches, and all sorts of mechanical
devices.
The advantage of solenoids is that they can be placed almost anywhere in
the aircraft and c-an be controlled remotely by small switches or electronic
control units, hwever, the use of solenoids is limited to operations where
only a small amount fovement is required.
Aoplication of the s].enoid as an electrically ooerated switch, now called
relay, is shown in. ti aa3acerit drawing. When the cockpit switch is closed,
the energized coil pi.iIIs the core—switch down, which action completes the
circuit to the motor. Since this solenoid.-lay -operates on low current, it

eliminates high—amperage wiring in the cockpit when the relay is positioned

close to the motor. When the relay is made as a sea.ed unit it can also re
duce the effect of sparking.
In many relays the electromagnet does not only operate one contact but
several sets of contact points simultaneously, controlling several circuits
From the sytnbol, through which the relay is represented in electrical dia
grams, can be seen how ntany of those contacts are controlled and what their
position will be when the relay is energized.
 to Fokker Aircraft
Maintenance Training
—---— %
1— ——
I’1
II
CURRENT FLOW
FIXED CORE
MOVABLE CO
)IL
SOLENO ID
/I1JIiiii/Ii.I
D3
IA Dl
C3
C2
A
B3
B2
A Bi
A2
Al Al
2.4 Generator orinci les

After the discovery that an electric current flowing through a conductor

creates a magnetic field around the conductor, it was expected that also a
magnetic field could create a current flow in a conductor. With a demonstra
illustrated in the adjacent drawing, the presence of
tion similar to that
the electrical current was indicated by the deflection of the needle of a
direction
galvanometer (a very. sensitive aruneter to ixdicate presence and
of electrical current).

The same result as indicated in the drawing was obtained by holding the
magnet stationary and moving the coil over the magnet, indicating that a
current is flowing when there is relative r’otion between the wire coil and
the magnetic field.
When a conductor is moved through a riagnetic field an electromotive force
(EMF) is induced in the conductor.
The direction of thecurrent ((polarity of the .nced EMF) is determined
-

by the lines of £ the direction in which the conductor is moved

through the magne The generator right—h-and rule can be used to
determine the direction o.f the induced EMP.
 DN I
JhLD D’I
iN3nDa3DnQN!
-4 iS3 iv
1NW3AOW 13 NO
3i3 WON WV9
i3NVW ______
O .LN3W3AOW
6u,ueji aueua.u’ew
Ma ntenance Tra n ng

When a loop conductor is rotated in a magnetic field a voltage is induced

in each side of the loop. The two sides cut the magnetic field in opposite
directions and although the current flow is continuous, it moves in opposite
directions with respect to the two sides of the loop. If sides A and B of
the loop areexchange­
rotated half a turn and the sides of the conductor. have
d positions, the induced voltage in each side reverses its direction,
since the wire formerly cutting the lines of force in an upwards direction
is now moving downwards.
The value of the induced voltage depends on three factors:
a. The number of loops moving through the magnetic field.
b. The strength of the magnetic field.
c. The speed of rotation.

The simple generator shown in the adjacent drawing consists of a rotatIng

loop, placed between two magnet.ic poles N and S. The ends of the loop are
connected to two netal sliprings (collector rings) and current can be taken
from the collector rings by brushes. As the loop is rotated (clockwise
or counterclockwise), varying values of voltages are induced in it.

A/P