Jutgrds (p.g. bd oarej)= JFOJIDED, E. H. y EAXJFFD[, S.

Råtufg= ‖Anstruedntgs bd dvjfujkaûn pjrj kdntrjr nudstrj dnsdújnzj dn df jprdnbazjmd bd fgs dstubajntds―
Xdo. Xdvastj/fahrg= Åhdr. Babêktakj bd fjs Kadnkajs [gkajfds, Idgirjoåj d @astgraj
Kfjvd= J _gfuedn= ?3 Sêianjs, anakajf= Oanjf= Odk`j= 8331

AN[RXTEDNRG[ BD D_JFTJKAÛN SJXJ KDNRXJX NTD[RXJ DN[DÚJN]J

DN DF JSXDNBA]JMD BD FG[ D[RTBAJNRD[ :
E. Hdigúj Jfojided Ignzêfdz
Sdbrg Earjffds Ejrtåndz
Tnavdrsabjb bd Eurkaj

 Xdsuedn
Dstd jrtåkufg sd kdntrj dn df jnêfasas bd unj sdrad bd anstruedntgs bd dvjfujkaûn qud utafazjbgs
kgrrdktjedntd ojkafatjn un prgkdsg bd dnsdújnzj-jprdnbazjmd kdntrjbg dn df jfuenjbg. Ordntd j fj
utafazjkaûn kjsa dxkfusavj bdf dxjedn, sd prgpgnd df usg bd anstruedntgs kgeg df kujbdrng bd kfjsd, fj
kjrpdtj bd trjhjmgs rdprdsdntjtavgs, df pgrtjogfag y fgs ejpjs kgnkdptujfds, kgnsabdrjbgs kgeg
`drrjeadntjs anngvjbgrjs dn df jufj. Dstgs anstruedntgs ng sûfg eabdn fj trjnseasaûn bd
kgngkaeadntgs, tjehaán pdreatdn kgeprghjr sa sd dstên jbquaradnbg fjs kgepdtdnkajs qud bdhdn
fgirjr fgs dstubajntds, pgtdnkajn fj jutgrrdiufjkaûn bd fgs jprdnbazjmds y prgpgrkagnjn unj ejygr 
antdrjkkaûn dntrd jfuenjbg y prgodsgrjbg.

 Sjfjhrjs kfjvd= anstruedntgs bd dvjfujkaûn, kujbdrng bd kfjsd, pgrtjogfag, ejpj kgnkdptujf.

 Jhstrjkt 
R`as jrtakfd ogkusds gn t`d jnjfysas go j sdrads go jssdssednt tggfs t`jt usdb kgrrdktfy prgvabd j
tdjk`ani-fdjrnani prgkdss ogkusdb gn stubdnts. Ojkdb wat` t`d jfegst dxkfusavd usd go t`d dxjes,
suiidstdb t`d usd go anstruednts suk` js ngtdhggl kfjss, t`d ogfbdr go rdprdsdntjtavd wgrls, t`d
 pgrtogfag jnb kgnkdpt ejps, rdijrbdb js anngvjtavd tggfs an t`d kfjssrgge. R`dsd tggfs ngt must
edjsurdb t`d trjnseassagn go lngwfdbid, jfsg t`dy jffgw tg vdraoy ao t`drd jrd jkquardb t`d
kgepdtdnkd t`jt t`d stubdnts eust jk`advd, t`dy prgegtd t`d sdfo-fdjrnani jnb prgvabd irdjtdr 
antdrjktagn hdtwddn stubdnts jnb tdjk`drs.

 Ldywgrbs= jssdssednt tggfs, kfjss ngtdhggl, pgrtogfag, kgnkdpt ejps.

:. Antrgbukkaûn

Fj dvjfujkaûn ogrej pjrtd bdf prgkdsg bd dnsdújnzj-jprdnbazjmd y bdhdråjegs

kgnsabdrjrfj kgeg fj jktavabjb ounbjedntjf qud kgnbakagnj bak`g prgkdsg. Ds usujf qud df

bgkdntd gfvabd jbjptjr fj dvjfujkaûn j fj ogrej bd dnsdújr, `dk`g qud ng pjsj bdsjpdrkahabg

 pjrj df jfuenjbg. Sjrj euk`gs dstubajntds ds su praedrj y kjsa ýnakj prdgkupjkaûn burjntd

tgbg su jprdnbazjmd.

Dn fgs ýftaegs tadepgs fj dvjfujkaûn sd `j kgnvdrtabg dn un tdej rdkurrdntd, tjntg dn

df bdhjtd babêktakg kgeg dn fjs prdgkupjkagnds bd fgs bastantgs navdfds qud antdirjn fj vabj

1 de 15    
dskgfjr. [adnbg fj dbukjkaûn unj prêktakj sgkajf y fj dvjfujkaûn ung bd sus prankapjfds jktgs,

bdhdegs jhgrbjrfj bdsbd bastantgs jspdktgs= abdgfûiakgs, sgkajfds, pdbjiûiakgs, psakgfûiakgs

y táknakgs. Bd dstj ejndrj, fg qud sd dvjfýj jkjhj bdtdreanjnbg fg qud sd dnsdúj, y fgs

dstubajntds tdreanjn trjhjmjnbg jqudffg qud antuydn qud ds rdfdvjntd dn fj dvjfujkaûn (Edrk`ên,

8334< [jnejrtå, 8339). Fjs prêktakjs bd dnsdújnzj sd dstrukturjn, kgn fgs radsigs y pdfairgs

qud dffg ffdvj kgnsaig, dn ounkaûn bd fj dvjfujkaûn.

Fj dvjfujkaûn ds fj padbrj jniufjr bgnbd bdskjnsj, dn hudnj pjrtd, tgbg kjehag y tgbj

anngvjkaûn dbukjtavj, bd kujfquadr egbdfg pdbjiûiakg, bd kujfquadr edtgbgfgiåj. Jså jutgrds

kgeg Mgrhj y [jnejrtå (8333) sdújfjn df kjehag dn fj prêktakj dbukjtavj ndkdsatj df kjehag

dn fj prêktakj bd fj dvjfujkaûn= su oanjfabjb, df quá y df kûeg sd dvjfýj. Kgeg sdújfj Jfgnsg

Rjpaj (:119, p. :1)=

 sa qudrdegs edmgrjr fj ogrej dn qud dvjfujegs fg qud nudstrgs jfuengs sjhdn y ng

 sjhdn dn un egedntg bjbg, ds ndkdsjrag rdvasjr quá ds fg qud supgnd tgbg df prgkdsg

bd dvjfujkaûn, dstg ds, quá bdkasagnds aepfakj, quá ojktgrds jodktjn j dsjs bdkasagnds y

quá dodktgs d aepfakjkagnds tadnd dvjfujr bd un egbg u gtrg.

Dn fj jktujfabjb, sd dstên prgbukadnbg aepgrtjntds kjehags dn fgs kurråkufgs bd tgbgs

fgs navdfds bd dnsdújnzj. Fj Tnaûn Durgpdj `j dstjhfdkabg, pgr vdz praedrj, fj ankfusaûn bd

unjs kgepdtdnkajs hêsakjs pjrj ojkafatjr df jprdnbazjmd pdrejndntd. Dn Dspjúj dstjs

kgepdtdnkajs `jn pjsjbg j sdr dfdedntgs antdirjntds bd fgs nudvgs kurråkufgs. Dn fjs bastantjs

ejtdrajs, sd bdhd prdstjr unj jtdnkaûn dspdkajf jf bdsjrrgffg bd bak`js kgepdtdnkajs qud df

jfuenjbg bdhdrê `jhdr jbquarabg jf oanjfazjr fj dnsdújnzj ghfaijtgraj. Dstgs kjehags

jodktjrên prankapjfedntd jf sastdej bd dvjfujkaûn= sd `jkd ndkdsjraj fj hýsqudbj bd nudvgs

kratdrags, prgkdbaeadntgs d anstruedntgs bd dvjfujkaûn, qud j pjrtar bd j`grj ng pudbdn

kdntrjrsd sûfg dn fj dvjfujkaûn bd kgntdnabgs y dn fj utafazjkaûn bd ungs anstruedntgs

bdtdreanjbgs.

8
 …Df kjehag bd unj dnsdújnzj kdntrjbj dn fj jbquasakaûn bd kgntdnabgs `jkaj unj

dbukjkaûn gradntjbj jf jprdnbazjmd bd kgepdtdnkajs ngs ghfaij j kgnvdrtar fj

dvjfujkaûn bd kgepdtdnkajs dn puntg bd earj bd fj dvjfujkaûn bdf jprdnbazjmd

(]jhjfzj, 833;).

Gfvabênbgsd bd gtrjs euk`js ounkagnds qud fj sgkadbjb fd gtgrij, sd tadnbd j bdoanar fj

dvjfujkaûn bd fgs jprdnbazjmds kgeg fj ogreufjkaûn bd un muakag bd vjfgr kgn df oan bd

edmgrjr. Q dn dodktg ds un muakag bd vjfgr qud rdjfazj df prgodsgr sdiýn su prgpaj kjpjkabjb y

rdspgnsjhafabjb prgodsagnjf, pgr tjntg ds unj jktavabjb suhmdtavj qud vadnd kgnbakagnjbj pgr 

euftatub bd ojktgrds. [jfanjs (8338) anbakj dn dstd sdntabg qud hêsakjedntd vadnd bdtdreanjbj

 pgr fgs saiuadntds= nudstrg kgngkaeadntg y ogrejkaûn dn df êehatg bd fj dvjfujkaûn< nudstrj

dxpdradnkaj kgeg bgkdntds< fjs rdiufjkagnds anstatukagnjfds g ngrejtavj, y fj kufturj

 prgodsagnjf bdf pudstg bd trjhjmg. [jntgs Iudrrj (833;) bdstjkj gtrgs kujtrg, jfig baodrdntds=

j) Fjs prdskrapkagnds fdijfds= fj oafgsgoåj sghrd fj dvjfujkaûn, fgs egedntgs dn fgs qud sd

dvjfýj, fj ngednkfjturj qud sd bdhd utafazjr y fgs kgntdnabgs qud sd dvjfýjn.

 h) Fjs supdrvasagnds anstatukagnjfds g kgntrgfds qud sd rdjfazjn pjrj sdiuar fj ngrej.

k) Fjs prdsagnds sgkajfds, jf dntdnbdrsd qud, pgr un fjbg, dvjfujr df kgngkaeadntg ds hudng

 pudstg qud ngs jyubj j kjehajr, eadntrjs qud, pgr gtrg, fjs kjfaoakjkagnds ngs ffdvjn j

kgepjrjr y mdrjrquazjr j fgs sumdtgs dvjfujbgs.

b) Q fjs kgnbakagnds grijnazjtavjs dn fjs qud sd rdjfazj= tadepg baspgnahfd, pdrsgnjs

dvjfujbjs, dståeufg prgodsagnjf, trjbakaûn anstatukagnjf, dxaidnkajs bdf kurråkufg, dtk.

Rgbgs dstgs ojktgrds, muntg j gtrgs kgeg df tapg bd gpdrjkagnds antdfdktujfds qud

qudrdegs pgtdnkajr dn df jprdnbazjmd bdf jfuenjbg, vjn j kgnbakagnjr kûeg pfjntddegs fj

dvjfujkaûn.

Sjrj Mgrhj y [jnejrtå (8333) tgbj jktavabjb bd dvjfujkaûn ds un prgkdsg qud sd rdjfazj

dn trds dtjpjs= rdkgiabj bd fj anogrejkaûn (anstruedntjbj g ng)< jnêfasas bd dstj anogrejkaûn y

;
…muakag sghrd df rdsuftjbg bd dstd jnêfasas, y tgej bd bdkasagnds bd jkudrbg kgn df muakag

deatabg. Dn dstd sdntabg, dstê kfjrg qud dvjfujr kgn unj antdnkaûn dbukjtavj g ogrejbgrj ng

 pudbd sdr saepfdedntd kjfaoakjr g pgndr ngtjs, na pudbd sdr sanûnaeg bd dxjedn (Jniufg,

:112< Mgrhj y [jnejrtå, 8333).

Fj dvjfujkaûn ds un prgkdsg dn df qud sd rdkgid anogrejkaûn, y dn df qud sd kgngkdn

fgs prgkdsgs y rdsuftjbgs bdf prgkdsg bd dnsdújnzj-jprdnbazjmd, y j pjrtar bd dstj sd egbaoakj,

kgrraid y sd tgejn bdkasagnds dn dstd prgkdsg. Sdrg fj dvjfujkaûn ng sûfg tadnd unj ounkaûn

kjfaoakjbgrj, sang gtrj sdrad bd ounkagnds kgeg sgn fj gradntjkaûn, fj egtavjkaûn, dtk.

Kujnbg `jhfjegs bd dvjfujkaûn bdf jprdnbazjmd bd fgs dstubajntds, tdndegs qud

`jkdrfg bd fj ounkaûn qud tadnd dn df sastdej dbukjtavg. Ounbjedntjfedntd fj dvjfujkaûn

jsued bgs tapgs bd ounkagnds= unj bd kjrêktdr pdbjiûiakg y gtrj bd kjrêktdr sgkajf (Mgrhj y

[jnejrtå, 8333), bastrahuabjs j fg fjrig bdf prgkdsg bd dnsdújnzj-jprdnbazjmd (kujbrg :).

Fj dvjfujkaûn bd kjrêktdr pdbjiûiakg ds fj qud rdjfedntd sarvd jf jfueng dn su

jprdnbazjmd, pdrg ng pgbdegs gfvabjr fj ounkaûn bd ‖kdrtaoakjkaûn― bdf jprdnbazjmd jsainjbj j

fgs bgkdntds y qud ds unj bdejnbj bd fj sgkadbjb jf sastdej dbukjtavg ([jntgs Iudrrj, 833;<

[jfanjs, 8338< Mgrhj y [jnejrtå, 8333).

Fj dvjfujkaûn ogrejtavj rdofdmj dn dsdnkaj fj ounkaûn rdiufjbgrj dn fjs jktujkagnds

 pdbjiûiakjs, fgs prgkdbaeadntgs antdrdsjn eês qud fgs rdsuftjbgs y, pgr tjntg, sd antdntj

idstagnjr fgs drrgrds bdf jfuenjbg y kgnsgfabjr fgs áxatgs, jehgs ngs sarvdn pjrj bajingstakjr 

fgs ghstêkufgs y fjs baoakuftjbds dnkgntrjbjs jf jprdnbdr. Ffdvjr j fj prêktakj fj dvjfujkaûn

ogrejtavj sainaoakj qud df prgodsgrjbg jsuej tgbj fj rdspgnsjhafabjb y df trjhjmg bdf

sdiuaeadntg bd tgbg su jfuenjbg, `dk`g aeprjktakjhfd dn jfiungs kjsgs kujnbg fgs

2
dstubajntds jsainjbgs j un bgkdntd sgn nuedrgsgs g kujnbg ástd tadnd qud rdjfazjr df

sdiuaeadntg bd baodrdntds irupgs.

[an bubj fj dvjfujkaûn ogrejtavj sainaoakj un irjn trjhjmg pjrj df bgkdntd, pdrg j dffg

ngs pudbdn jyubjr fj utafazjkaûn bd dstrjtdiajs babêktakjs jftdrnjtavjs qud ojkafatdn fj

jutgdvjfujkaûn bdf jfuenjbg. Jså sd rdbukd df tadepg bd bdbakjkaûn j fj tjrdj bd dvjfujr y sd

 pgtdnkaj fj jutgngeåj bdf dstubajntd, sadnbg aeprdskanbahfd qud ástd sdpj rdiufjr su prgpag

jprdnbazjmd, j fj vdz qud sd prgbukd unj kgeunakjkaûn kgnstjntd dn df jufj qud jyubd jf

jfuenjbg j kgnorgntjr abdjs.

Fj jutgrrdiufjkaûn bd fgs jprdnbazjmds  `jkd rdodrdnkaj dxpfåkatj j fj pjrtakapjkaûn bd

fgs dstubajntds dn fgs ghmdtavgs babêktakgs< fj rdkgnstrukkaûn bd sus dxpdradnkajs< fj

rdjfazjkaûn bd prgpudstjs bgnbd sd bdsjrrgffd df pdnsjeadntg jutûngeg, rdofdxavg y kråtakg<

fjs jkkagnds bd kggpdrjkaûn d antdrjkkaûn dntrd df irupg y fjs jprgxaejkagnds vjrajbjs j fgs

sjhdrds hjsjbjs dn fjs baodrdnkajs anbavabujfds y kgfdktavjs. Dn bdoanatavj, fj jutgrrdiufjkaûn

 prdtdnbd kgnsdiuar qud df jfuenjbg kgnstruyj su prgpag sastdej bd jprdnbazjmd y qud fg

edmgrd prgirdsavjedntd (Mgrhj y [jnejrtå, 8333< [jnejrtå, 8339).

8. Jntdkdbdntds= fj dvjfujkaûn bd fjs kadnkajs sgkajfds dn Dbukjkaûn [dkunbjraj

Kdntrênbgngs dn Dspjúj y dn df êehatg bd fjs kadnkajs sgkajfds ng dxastdn bdejsajbgs

dstubags jkdrkj bd fj dvjfujkaûn dn dstj dtjpj. Srdbgeanjn fjs rdofdxagnds ordntd j fgs trjhjmgs

 hjsjbgs dn anvdstaijkagnds, dntrd fgs qud bdstjkjegs j kgntanujkaûn jfiunjs jpgrtjkagnds.

Fgs trjhjmgs bd Fûpdz Ojkjf (:11;, :119) sd dnogkjn bdsbd un jnêfasas bd fj prêktakj

bgkdntd bdf prgodsgrjbg bd Idgirjoåj d @astgraj. @j dstubajbg fgs prgkdbaeadntgs bd

dvjfujkaûn dstjhfdkabgs qud jpjrdkdn faijbgs j unjs oanjfabjbds kufturjfastjs bd fj dnsdújnzj

bd fj `astgraj, j unj prdtdnbabj ‖ghmdtavabjb― y kjrêktdr tdreanjf bd fj dvjfujkaûn y j un usg

kjsa dxkfusavg bdf fahrg bd tdxtg kgeg ejtdrajf babêktakg. [an dehjrig, fjs nudvjs

 pdrspdktavjs pjsjn pgr unj dvjfujkaûn ogrejtavj faijbj j un prgkdsg bd dnsdújnzj-

4
jprdnbazjmd hjsjbg dn df bdsjrrgffg bd fjs kjpjkabjbds bdf jfuenjbg, df kjehag kgnkdptujf,

fgs prghfdejs sgkajfds rdfdvjntds y fj aepgrtjnkaj bd fj dvjfujkaûn anakajf y prgkdsujf muntg

kgn fj ghsdrvjkaûn bdf trjhjmg dn df jufj.

Fjs anvdstaijkagnds sghrd dvjfujkaûn dn `astgraj ffdvjbjs j kjhg dn fj Tnavdrsabjb bd

Hjrkdfgnj pgr df irupg B@AIDK[ `jn jnjfazjbg fjs rdfjkagnds dntrd fj ordkudnkaj bd fjs

 prudhjs bd dvjfujkaûn ghmdtavj, dntdnbabjs sghrd tgbg kgeg jktavabjbds bd jprdnbazjmd, y fgs

rdsuftjbgs bdf jfuenjbg, kgnkfuydnbg qud dstd tapg bd dmdrkakags edmgrjn fj doakadnkaj bdf

jprdnbazjmd y sgn un aepgrtjntd anstruedntg babêktakg ([jns y Rrdpjt, 833?< Rrdpjt d Ansj,

8330).

Fgs trjhjmgs rdjfazjbgs bdsbd df prgydktg Idj-Kfåg `jn pdreatabg jhgrbjr df dstubag bd

fgs anstruedntgs bd kjfaoakjkaûn bdf jprdnbazjmd dn bavdrsgs trjhjmgs depårakgs bdsbd fgs

anakags bd su jktujkaûn kgeg irupg bd rdngvjkaûn pdbjiûiakj dn fj dnsdújnzj bd fj idgirjoåj

y fj `astgraj ([gutg dt jf., :11?< @drnênbdz, Xjeårdz y [gutg, 833:). Bd dstj ejndrj, fgs

kujbdrngs bd fgs jfuengs sd dnkujbrjn dn df prgkdsg kgeunakjtavg bdf jufj y dn unj

bdtdreanjbj edtgbgfgiåj bd jprdnbazjmd.

Fgs trjhjmgs bd Edrk`ên (833:, 8334 y 8339) dn dstd kjepg sdújfjn fjs rdfjkagnds

dntrd dstubajntds y prgodsgrjbg dn fjs jufjs bd [dkunbjraj. Sjrj áf fj baspgsakaûn bdf

jfuenjbg dn fj kfjsd bd @astgraj kgntrahuyd j kgnbakagnjr fj jktujkaûn bdf prgodsgrjbg y, bd

dstj ogrej, fjs kjrjktdråstakjs bdf kgngkaeadntg qud sd aepjrtd y df tapg bd tjrdjs qud sd

bdsjrrgffjn dn df jufj, dntrd fjs qud sd dnkudntrj fj dvjfujkaûn. Dstj anofudnkaj tjehaán sd

 prgbukd dn sdntabg anvdrsg, bdf prgodsgrjbg `jkaj df jfuenjbg. Jbdeês df dxjedn kgnstatuyd,

 muntg kgn fj dxpfakjkaûn bdf prgodsgr y df trjhjmg bdf jfuenjbg, irjn pjrtd bd fj banêeakj bd

fjs kfjsds, sadnbg df prgtjignastj y kgnvartaánbgsd dn un rdodrdntd qud egbaoakj fj jktavabjb

bdf jufj.

 Fj rdfdvjnkaj qud jbquadrd fj kjfaoakjkaûn bd fgs jfuengs, edbajntd df dxjedn u gtrgs

?
 anstruedntgs bd rdkgiabj bd anogrejkaûn, aeprdinj fg qud jkgntdkd dn df antdragr bd

fjs jufjs y dn hudnj edbabj jrtakufj fj vabj bd sus prgtjignastjs (Edrk`ên, 8334, p.

::1).

;. Anstruedntgs bd dvjfujkaûn dn kadnkajs sgkajfds

Fgs anstruedntgs bd dvjfujkaûn sarvdn pjrj ghtdndr anogrejkaûn dn fj qud jpgyjrngs

 pjrj dvjfujr, ‖pjrj dnraqudkdr nudstrg muakag, ng pjrj sustatuarfg g `jkdrfg supdrofug―

(Jniufg, :112, p. 814) . Sjrj [jfanjs (8338) un anstruedntg ds ýtaf kujnbg ng bastgrsagnj

nudstrj jprdkajkaûn bd fj rdjfabjb qud sd dvjfýj. Sgr dffg tdndegs qud pdnsjr dn su

 pgtdnkajfabjb pjrj prgpgrkagnjr anogrejkaûn sghrd fg qud sd dvjfýj y fj pgsahafabjb rdjf bd sdr 

 hadn utafazjbg, pudstg qud `jy unj faeatjkaûn dvabdntd= tdndegs qud rdkgpafjr jqudffj

anogrejkaûn qud pgbjegs sastdejtazjr dn df tadepg bdf qud baspgndegs, pdrg ng tjn vjrajbj

qud ngs ffdvd j kgntrjbakkagnds dn nudstrjs jprdkajkagnds.

Sjrj dvjfujr dn kadnkajs sgkajfds sd utafazjn prankapjfedntd dxêednds y dstg ng bdhdråj

kgnstatuar pgr så easeg unj ejfj prêktakj. [gn fgs anstruedntgs eês utafazjbgs dn kjsa tgbjs

fjs êrdjs bd kgngkaeadntg y ounbjedntjfds pjrj kgngkdr quá kgngkaeadntgs `jn jbquarabg fgs

jfuengs, junqud su ejf usg sûfg ngs pdreatj rdjfazjr unj dvjfujkaûn suejtavj. Fj irjn

vjradbjb bd dxêednds dxastdntds (kujbrg 8) pudbd y bdhd pdreatar jf prgodsgr rdogrzjr df

kjrêktdr pdbjiûiakg bd fj dvjfujkaûn y fj rdiufjkaûn bd fgs jprdnbazjmds.

9
 Kujbrg 8. Dxêednds kgnvdnkagnjfds
[an dehjrig, pjrj pgbdr dvjfujr fjs kgepdtdnkajs, y ng sûfg fgs kgngkaeadntgs,

ndkdsatjegs tjehaán bd gtrgs anstruedntgs qud ngs jyubdn j pgtdnkajr fj jutgrrdiufjkaûn bd

fgs jprdnbazjmds, qud pdreatjn jf dstubajntd kgeprghjr sa ds kgepdtdntd dn jqudffg qud sd fd

dstê prgpgnadnbg jprdnbdr. Rgbgs dffgs sgn anstruedntgs qud prgvadndn bd fj tdgråj

kgnstruktavastj bdf jprdnbazjmd, y trjtjn bd pgtdnkajr unj dnsdújnzj qud pgsahafatd fj

kgnstrukkaûn bd sainaoakjbgs jbdkujbgs dn tgrng jf kurråkufg dskgfjr. Bdstjkjegs df kujbdrng

bd kfjsd, fj kjrpdtj bd trjhjmgs rdprdsdntjtavgs, df pgrtjogfag y fgs ejpjs kgnkdptujfds kgeg

`drrjeadntjs anngvjbgrjs dn df jufj qud pdreatdn pgbdr kgeprghjr sa sd dstên jbquaradnbg

dsjs kgepdtdnkajs pgr fgs dstubajntds, y ng sûfg fj trjnseasaûn bd kgngkaeadntgs, j fj vdz qud

 pdreatdn fj antdrjkkaûn dntrd baskdntd y bgkdntd.

Fgs ejpjs kgnkdptujfds  sgn anstruedntgs bdsjrrgffjbgs pgr Ngvjl y Igwan (:102)

 pjrj dstubajr fj ogrejkaûn bd kgnkdptgs y sainaoakjbgs dn fgs naúgs. Radndn pgr ghmdtg

rdprdsdntjr rdfjkagnds sainaoakjtavjs dntrd kgnkdptgs dn ogrej bd prgpgsakagnds, sadnbg ástjs

bgs g eês táreangs kgnkdptujfds unabgs pgr pjfjhrjs y qud dn kgnmuntg ogrejn unj unabjb

kgn un sainaoakjbg dspdkåoakg. [gn rdkursgs dsqudeêtakgs pjrj rdprdsdntjr un kgnmuntg bd

sainaoakjbgs kgnkdptujfds ankfuabgs dn unj dstrukturj bd prgpgsakagnds  .

Fgs jprdnbazjmds sgn eês sainaoakjtavgs kujnbg fgs kgnkdptgs nudvgs sd dnifghjn hjmg

gtrgs kgnkdptgs eês jepfags, eês ankfusavgs, yj kgngkabgs. Q pgr dffg, fgs ejpjs
0
kgnkdptujfds sd kgnsabdrjn ýtafds pjrj rdkgpafjr anogrejkaûn jkdrkj bd fg qud df dstubajntd

sjhd, yj qud prdsdntjn unj rjbagirjoåj bd fg qud kgngkd jkdrkj bd un kgnkdptg bdtdreanjbg,

egstrjnbg fjs kgndxagnds qud `j fgirjbg dstjhfdkdr dntrd dstd kgngkaeadntg y gtrgs qud

 pgsdd. Bd `dk`g fjs anvdstaijkagnds rdjfazjbjs pgr dstgs jutgrds bdegstrjrgn qud unj vdz

kgepfdtjbj unj tjrdj bd jprdnbazjmd, fgs ejpjs kgnkdptujfds prgpgrkagnjn un rdsuedn

dsqudeêtakg bd tgbg fg qud sd `j jprdnbabg. Sgr tjntg, su usg ds jepfag jf pdreatar jnjfazjr 

bdtjffjbjedntd fj dstrukturj kginatavj bdf jfuenjbg y su banêeakj.

Df ejpj kgnkdptujf sarvd pjrj trjhjmjr bd ogrej anbavabujf y irupjf. Dn idndrjf, ds

eês kgnvdnadntd `jkdrfg dn irupg pgr fj raqudzj qud prgbukd fj baskusaûn dn tgrng j fj

kgnstrukkaûn bdf ejpj, junqud tjehaán ds eês baoåkaf ffdijr j jkudrbgs pjrj kgnstruarfg.

Rjntg j fj `grj bd rdjfazjr jktavabjbds dn kfjsd kgeg j fj `grj bd dvjfujr sgn euk`js

fjs jktavabjbds qud ngs pdreatdn fgs ejpjs kgnkdptujfds bdpdnbadnbg bdf navdf dskgfjr y bd fj

jsainjturj dn fj qud ngs satudegs (kujbrg ;).

Kgn rdfjkaûn j fj dnsdújnzj bd fj `astgraj, Sjbaffj y gtrgs (833?, p. 830) sdújfjn qud ds

un anstruedntg vjfagsg pjrj sjkjr j fj fuz kadrtjs gpdrjkagnds pjrj prgbukar kgngkaeadntgs.

‖ Dn dsd sdntabg, df ejpj kgnkdptujf ‐bdskuhrd‑ fj rdb bd kgnkdptgs qud `jn sdrvabg pjrj

antdrprdtjr y kgnstruar unj njrrjtavj―.

Dvjfujr y kjfaoakjr df trjhjmg bdf dstubajntd kgn fgs ejpjs kgnkdptujfds pudbd ffdijr j

sdr kgepfakjbg pjrj df bgkdntd. Dn dstd sdntabg, sadnbg kgnsdkudntd kgn fgs pfjntdjeadntgs bd

 Ngvjl y Igwan `jy qud dvjfujr kjntabjb bd kgnkdptgs y pjfjhrjs bd dnfjkd, fj dstrukturj

 mdrêrquakj, df nýedrg bd navdfds bd mdrjrquåj y bd rdfjkagnds kruzjbjs, fj kjfabjb bd fjs

 prgpgsakagnds y bd fjs rdfjkagnds kruzjbjs.

1
 …Ngsgtrgs prgpgndegs dstjhfdkdr unj sdrad bd kjtdigråjs y kratdrags bd bdsdepdúg bd fj

fjhgr rdjfazjbj pgr df jfuenjbg, kgeg prgpgnd Hjrtdfs (:114). Dstd jutgr trjhjmj dn df êrdj bd

ejtdeêtakjs y pfjntdj fgs ejpjs kgnkdptujfds kgeg `drrjeadntj pjrj bdtdreanjr df irjbg bd

kgeprdnsaûn qud fgs jfuengs `jn jfkjnzjbg dn sus prgkdsgs bd jprdnbazjmd y fj ogrej kgeg

`jn krdjbg vånkufgs nudvgs kgn fgs qud prdvajedntd `j dstrukturjbg. Srgpgnd pjrj dvjfujr 

trds kjtdigråjs, kjbj unj bd dffjs kgn kujtrg navdfds bd rdjfazjkaûn g bdsdepdúg j fgs kujfds

jsainj unj puntujkaûn. Tnj jbjptjkaûn bd fg dxprdsjbg pgr dstd jutgr pjrj df êrdj bd kadnkajs

sgkajfds ds fj qud prgpgndegs dn df kujbrg 2.

Gtrj `drrjeadntj kgeýnedntd usjbj dn fj dvjfujkaûn bd fjs ejtdrajs bd kadnkajs

sgkajfds ds df kujbdrng bd kfjsd  g fj kjrpdtj bd trjhjmg. [aiuadnbg j [jfanjs (8338), df

kujbdrng bd kfjsd ds un kgnmuntg bd rdjfazjkagnds bdf jfueng qud, prdsdntjbjs pgr dskratg y

grijnazjbjs dn un ogrejtg bdtdreanjbg, vadndn j afustrjr fgs prgirdsgs bdf easeg dn su

jprdnbazjmd. [d trjtj bd rdprdsdntjr df dsoudrzg bdf dstubajntd, jqudffg qud `j jprdnbabg y,

sghrd tgbg, fg qud ds kjpjz bd `jkdr bdsbd fg qud `j jprdnbabg. Bdhdråj bd rdofdmjr ng sûfg

:3
kûeg `jkd dmdrkakags jutgbaraiabgs, sang tjehaán kûeg padnsj, kudstagnj, jnjfazj, rdsued,

krdj, ankfusg kûeg kgfjhgrj y trjhjmj kgn gtrgs, bd tjf ogrej qud rdprdsdntd df trjzjbg bdf

 prgirdsg bdf dstubajntd dn df jprdnbazjmd.

[u vjfgr sd dstjhfdkd j pjrtar bd fg qud pudbj sainaoakjr bd antdrkjehag dntrd prgodsgr 

y jfueng. Radnd qud sdr ýtaf kgeg dfdedntg bd jprdnbazjmd, y ng sûfg kgeg unj rdodrdnkaj bdf

 prgbuktg bd jprdnbazjmd. Dffg sainaoakj ankfuar ng sûfg rdsýednds, dsqudejs, rdsgfukaûn bd

 prghfdejs, jpuntds..., sang tjehaán rdofdxagnds y vjfgrjkagnds pdrsgnjfds sghrd fgs

kgngkaeadntgs.

Tnj vjradbjb bdf kujbdrng bd kfjsd ds fj kjrpdtj bd trjhjmgs rdprdsdntjtavgs, qud

[jfanjs (8338) bdoand kgeg unj kgfdkkaûn grijnazjbj bd dvabdnkajs utafazjbjs pgr prgodsgr y

jfueng pjrj ghsdrvjr df jvjnkd bdf jprdnbazjmd dn kujntg j kgngkaeadntgs, `jhafabjbds y

jktatubds dn unj jsainjturj dspdkåoakj, kuyj kgnstrukkaûn y grijnazjkaûn ds rdspgnsjhafabjb

bdf jfuenjbg. Jså, ástd sdfdkkagnj d ankfuyd jfiunjs bd fjs rdjfazjkagnds qud áf easeg

kgnsabdrj vjfagsjs y, jbdeês, dxpfakj fgs kratdrags pgr fgs qud fjs muzij kgeg vjfagsjs<

 pjrtakapj dn fj bdoanakaûn bdf vjfgr g eáratg bd su jprdnbazjmd, y ngs prdsdntj y vjfgrj su

 puntg bd vastj sghrd su prgpaj dvgfukaûn y sus jprdnbazjmds. Dstj vjrajkaûn pdreatd unj

 pdrspdktavj kujfatjtavj d anbavabujfazjbj bd fj dvjfujkaûn, pudstg qud kjbj dfdkkaûn y

 mustaoakjkaûn bdf dstubajntd pgnbrê bd ejnaoadstg sus prgpajs pgsahafabjbds, ndkdsabjbds y

faeatjkagnds.

Dn fgs ýftaegs tadepgs sd `jhfj bdf  pgrtjogfag  kgeg `drrjeadntj anngvjbgrj. Df

 pgrtjogfag sd jsdedmj euk`g j fj kjrpdtj bd trjhjmgs rdprdsdntjtavgs. Euftatub bd jutgrds fg

`jn trjhjmjbg (dntrd fgs eês rdkadntds= Hjrrjiên, 8334< Lfdngwskla, 8334< Kjng, 8334< Sgzg

y Ijrkåj, 833?). Df pgrtjogfag ds unj rdkgpafjkaûn bd dvabdnkajs, kgnsabdrjbjs bd antdrás pgr 

fgs sainaoakjbgs kgnstruabgs kgn dffjs, ds un egbg bd dntdnbdr df prgkdsg bd dnsdújnzj j fj

vdz qud pudbd sdr un rdofdmg idnuang bd un prgkdsg bd jprdnbazjmd y, pgr tjntg, unj nudvj

::
ejndrj bd dvjfujr. Sgbråjegs bdkar qud rdofdmj fj dvgfukaûn bd un prgkdsg bd jprdnbazjmd< df

baêfgig kgn fgs prghfdejs, fgs fgirgs, fgs tdejs..., fgs egedntgs kfjvds bdf prgkdsg< df puntg

bd vastj bd fgs prgtjignastjs, y dstaeufj fj dxpdraedntjkaûn, fj rdofdxaûn y fj anvdstaijkaûn.

Dn dstd sdntabg, Lfdngwskla (8334) ngs `jhfj bd fj dxastdnkaj bd baodrdntds tapgs bd

 pgrtjogfags usjbgs pjrj bastantgs prgpûsatgs= jprdnbazjmd, dnsdújnzj, dvjfujkaûn, prgegkaûn y

bdsjrrgffg prgodsagnjf. Kgnsabdrj qud un pgrtjogfag pudbd kuepfar tgbgs fgs prgpûsatgs

dvjfujtavgs= rdnbaeadntg bd kudntjs bd fg qud sd `j `dk`g pjrj rdogrzjr fgs prgkdsgs bd

dnsdújnzj-jprdnbazjmd, dvjfujkaûn suejtavj y ogrejtavj, kdrtaoakjkaûn, sdfdkkaûn, prgegkaûn,

vjfgrjkaûn, junqud kjbj ung bd dstgs ghmdtavgs ngs vj j dxaiar un tapg baodrdntd bd pgrtjogfags

y bd rdkgiabj y sdfdkkaûn bd prudhjs. Dxpfakj bd dstd egbg su usg dn fj dvjfujkaûn suejtavj,

kgeg hjsd pjrj fj kdrtaoakjkaûn bd kgepdtdnkajs y fj sdfdkkaûn bd kjnbabjtgs, kgn oands

vjfgrjtavgs y bd prgegkaûn, kgeg jpgyg pjrj fj dnsdújnzj y df jprdnbazjmd, y su usg dn df

bdsjrrgffg prgodsagnjf, junqud tgbgs fgs pgrtjogfags kgntadndn dfdedntgs qud dvabdnkajn df

jprdnbazjmd sainaoakjtavg.

Sdrg sa jfig jpgrtj df pgrtjogfag j fj dvjfujkaûn ds pgtdnkajr fj `jhafabjb bd

jutgdvjfujkaûn, fj kgnvdrsjkaûn, jså kgeg df pdnsjeadntg rdofdxavg kgn fj prêktakj bd quaán fg

rdjfazj=

 Df bdsjrrgffg bd un pgrtjogfags rdquadrd sdfdkkagnjr, bd un kgnmuntg bd trjhjmgs, jquáf 

qud bdeudstrd fj kgepdtdnkaj fgirjbj rdspdktg j un dstênbjr pjrtakufjr, fg kujf 

rdquadrd qud fgs dstubajntds rdofdxagndn bd ogrej kråtakj sghrd su jprdnbazjmd y su

rdnbaeadntg (Lfdngwskla, 8334, p. 2:).

Sgr dsg Lfdngwskla (8334, p. :22) sdújfj sdas prankapags qud sustdntjn su usg=

 prgeudvd unj nudvj pdrspdktavj sghrd df jprdnbazjmd, ds un prgkdsg dn bdsjrrgffg,

ankgrpgrj df jnêfasas bd fgs fgirgs y df jprdnbazjmd, rdquadrd jutgdvjfujkaûn, egtavj

fj dfdkkaûn bdf dstubajntd y su rdofdxaûn sghrd df trjhjmg, y pgr ýftaeg aepfakj j fgs

:8
 …prgodsgrds g j fgs tutgrds kgeg ojkafatjbgrds bdf jprdnbazjmd.

Df pgrtjogfag bdhd dstjr dn pgbdr bdf dstubajntd, puds ds áf quadn bdhd bdkabar quá

kgsjs kgfgkjr y kuênbg. [an dehjrig, df prgodsgr bdhd rdvasjr df pgrtjogfag kgn rdiufjrabjb,

 pjrj gradntjr df prgkdsg y ndigkajr fj dvjfujkaûn kgn df dstubajntd. Jså sd kgnvadrtd dn un

anstruedntg ‖banêeakg―, dn unj kgfdkkaûn sdfdkkagnjbj bd bgkuedntgs kgn dvabdnkajs bd fj

jktujkaûn qud rdofdmjn df navdf bd dmdkukaûn y prgbuktgs jfkjnzjbgs bdntrg bd un pfjn bdoanabg

(Sgzg y Ijrkåj, 833?). Sraej, pgr tjntg, df jprdnbazjmd sghrd fj dnsdújnzj, rdsjftjnbg fj

aepgrtjnkaj qud bdhd tdndr fj dbukjkaûn dn df nudvg egbdfg dbukjtavg dn táreangs bd

jbquasakaûn pgr pjrtd bdf dstubajntd bd unjs kgepdtdnkajs qud fd pdreatjn unj prgirdsavj

jktujfazjkaûn bd fgs kgngkaeadntgs. Q pgr dffg fj rdspgnsjhafabjb bd fj dvjfujkaûn y bdf

jprdnbazjmd rdkjd dn df prgpag dstubajntd.

2. Hahfagirjoåj katjbj
Jfgnsg Rjpaj, M. (bar.) (:119).  Dvjfujkaûn bdf kgngkaeadntg y su jbquasakaûn . Ejbrab= KABD.
Jniufg, M. O. (:112). ·J quá ffjejegs dvjfujkaûn7 Fjs bastantjs jkdpkagnds bdf táreang
‐dvjfujkaûn‑ g pgr quá ng tgbgs fgs kgnkdptgs sainaoakjn fg easeg. Dn Rdgråj y bdsjrrgffg bdf 
kurråkufue. Eêfjij= Jfmahd.
Hjrrjiên, X. (8334). Df Sgrtjogfags, edtgbgfgiåj bd dvjfujkaûn y jprdnbazjmd bd kjrj jf nudvg
Dspjkag Durgpdg bd Dbukjkaûn [updragr. Tnj dxpdradnkaj prêktakj dn fj Tnavdrsabjb bd
[dvaffj. Dn PAAA Mgrnjbjs Tnavdrsatjrajs bd Rdkngfgiåj Dbukjtavj- MTRD 8334 , Kêbaz. TXF=
6`ttp=//www.ukj.ds/kgnirdsg/mutd34/kgeunakjkagnds.`te> \kgnsuftj= jigstg 8334U.
Hjrtdfs, H. @. (:114). Srgegtani ejt`dejtaks kgnndktagns wat` kgnkdpt ejppani.
 Ejt`dejtaks Rdjk`ani an t`d Eabbfd [k`ggf , :, 428-421.
Kjng, D. (8334)=  Df pgrtjogfags bdf prgodsgrjbg unavdrsatjrag. Tn anstruedntg pjrj fj
dvgfukaûn y pjrj df bdsjrrgffg prgodsagnjf . Hjrkdfgnj= Gktjdbrg-AKD TJH.
@drnênbdz, M.< Xjeårdz, [. y [gutg, P. E. (833:).  Dvjfujkaûn y jprdnbazjmd. Tnj prgpudstj
 pjrj edmgrjr df rdnbaeadntg dskgfjr. _jfdnkaj= Nju Ffahrds.
Mgrhj, M. y [jnejrtå, N. (8333). Fj ounkaûn pdbjiûiakj bd fj dvjfujkaûn. Dn  Dvjfujkaûn kgeg
jyubj jf jprdnbazjmd . Hjrkdfgnj= Irjû.
Lfdngwskla, _. (8334).  Bdsjrrgffg bdf pgrtjogfags pjrj df jprdnbazjmd y fj dvjfujkaûn.
 Srgkdsgs y prankapags. Ejbrab= Njrkdj.

:;
Fûpdz Ojkjf, X. (:11;). Jprgxaejkaûn j fj dvjfujkaûn bd fjs Kadnkajs [gkajfds dn fj
Dnsdújnzj [dkunbjraj. Dn  Srgydktgs Kurrakufjrds bd Kadnkajs [gkajfds. [jntajig bd
Kgepgstdfj= AKD, :0;-830.
Fûpdz Ojkjf, X. (:119). Fj prêktakj bd fj dvjfujkaûn jpfakjbj jf êrdj bd Kadnkajs [gkajfds dn
fj dnsdújnzj sdkunbjraj. Dn  Dvjfujkaûn dbukjtavj. Rdgråj, edtgbgfgiåj y jpfakjkagnds dn
êrdjs bd kgngkaeadntg.  Irjnjbj= Irupg Dbatgrajf Tnavdrsatjrag, vgf. :, ;9:-;19.
Edrk`ên, O. M. (833:). Df dxjedn dn fj dnsdújnzj bd fj `astgraj.  Babêktakj bd fjs kadnkajs
dxpdraedntjfds y sgkajfds, :4, ;-8:.
Edrk`ên, O. M. (8334).  Dnsdújnzj, dxjedn y kgntrgf= prgodsgrds y jfuengs dn fj kfjsd bd
`astgraj. Hjrkdfgnj= Gktjdbrg.
Edrk`ên, O. M. (8339). Df pjpdf bd fgs jfuengs dn fj kfjsd bd `astgraj kgeg jidntds bd fj
 prêktakj bd fj dnsdújnzj. Babêktakj bd fjs Kadnkajs Dxpdraedntjfds y [gkajfds, 8:, ;;-4:.
 Ngvjl, M. B. y Igwan, B. H. (:102).  Fdjrnani `gw tg fdjrn . Kjehrabid Tnavdrsaty Srdss.
Sjbaffj, J.< Jiuafjr, E. O. y Kudnkj, A. (833?). Df ejpj kgnkdptujf y fj njrrjtavj `astûrakj. Dn
Kgnkdpt Ejps= R`dgry, Edt`gbgfgiy, Rdk`ngfgiy. [dkgnb Ant. Kgnodrdnkd gn Kgnkdpt 
 Ejppani , 830-8:4.
Sgzg, E. R. y Ijrkåj, H. (833?). Df pgrtjogfags bdf jfuenjbg. Tnj anvdstaijkaûn-jkkaûn dn df
jufj unavdrsatjraj. Xdvastj bd Dbukjkaûn, ;2:, 9;9-94?.
[jfanjs, B. (8338). ¡Ejújnj dxjedn! Fj dvjfujkaûn= dntrd fj tdgråj y fj rdjfabjb . Hjrkdfgnj=
Irjû.
[jnejrtå, N. (8339). :3 abdjs kfjvd. Dvjfujr pjrj jprdnbdr. Hjrkdfgnj= Irjû.
[jns, J. y Rrdpjt, K. J. (833?). Fj dvjfujkaûn bd fj `astgraj dn df hjk`affdrjtg. Fj dvjfujkaûn
dn `astgraj kgn prudhjs bd kgrrdkkaûn ghmdtavj. Jfiunjs aepfakjkagnds babêktakjs.  Dnsdújnzj
bd fjs Kadnkajs [gkajfds, 4, ?1-0:.
[jntgs Iudrrj, E. Ê. (833;). Baed kûeg dvjfýjs y td bará quá tapg bd prgodsagnjf y bd
 pdrsgnj drds. Xdvastj Dnogquds Dbukjkagnjfds, 4 (:), ?1-03.
[gutg, P. E. dt jf. (:11?). Fgs kujbdrngs bd fgs jfuengs. Tnj dvjfujkaûn bdf kurråkufg rdjf .
[dvaffj= Båjbj.
Rrdpjt, K. J. d Ansj, Q. (8330). Fj dvjfujkaûn bd kgrrdkkaûn ghmdtavj kgeg anstruedntg bd
edmgrj dn df jprdnbazjmd bd fj @astgraj dn Hjk`affdrjtg.  Dnsdújnzj bd fjs Kadnkajs [gkajfds, 9,
49-94.
]jhjfzj, E. Ê. (833;). Kgepdtdnkajs bgkdntds bdf prgodsgrjbg unavdrsatjrag= kjfabjb y
bdsjrrgffg prgodsagnjf. Ejbrab= Njrkdj.

:2
:
 Df prdsdntd trjhjmg ogrej pjrtd bdf prgydktg bd anvdstaijkaûn « Fgs anstruedntgs bd dvjfujkaûn bd fgs kgntdnabgs `astûrakgs
dn 2.½ bd Dbukjkaûn [dkunbjraj Ghfaijtgraj ¼, oanjnkajbg pgr fj Kgnsdmdråj bd Dbukjkaûn, Kadnkaj d Anvdstaijkaûn bd fj
KJXE.