ELEJSGD
ED^D ELQD@JILHÇQGKJ AL@ ^LSß 3>4<

Ojril Dkjstd, Sdyejha Sgvlrd, Egkmdl` Rd`lhkgd, Mueclrtj Kmgrgb, Aghd Mudhdkuhg,
Gtd`j Sjaråiulz, Lalr Rg``drrld`, Alysg ^dgkj y D`lxdhalr [dhtgstlcdh.
Ghstgtutj Ilj`ûigkj Eghlrj y Eltd`ÿrigkj (GHILEELQ)
Dv. Kdhdaä 419>, [dh Cjrod, @ged 14, ^lrÿ. Ql`b.? <4-4-24=7=>>
 odkjstdNgh
 odkjstdNghile
ileel
elt.ij
t.ijc.pl
c.pl  

4. GHQSJA\KKGÛH

Alsal qul sl puc`gkû l` prgelr Edpd Eltd`jiçhgkj al` ^lrÿ d lskd`d 4?4 >>> >>> (Al @ds
Kdsds & ^jhzjhg, 4727), kjh duspgkgj al `d [jkglada Hdkgjhd` al Eghlråd y ^ltrû`lj, mdh
kjhtghudaj `js lstuagjs al eltd`jilhgd kjh hulvds vlrsgjhls al edpds pjr Cl``gaj, L.
(4793),
edrkj al`^jhzjhg, ^. (47=>)
^rjylktj y Kdhkmdyd
Eu`tghdkgjhd` Dhaghj,& sl
Drdhad (3>>4).
prlpdrû Lh l`eltd`jiçhgkj
uh edpd dôj 3>>4, alhtrj al`
d lskd`d
4?4>>> >>>, al `d rligûh brjhtlrgzd lhtrl Drilhtghd, Cj`gvgd, Kmg`l y ^lrÿ (_dpplttghg lt d`.,
3>>4). Eäs dal`dhtl, Kdrajzj (3>>3) prlslhtû uh edpd kjh brdhods eghlrd`gzdads cdsdaj
lh tgpjs al ydkgeglhtjs. Lh `js dôjs 3>>9 y 3>>=, Tugspl lt d` . prlpdrû uh hulvj edpd
eltd`jilhçtgkj qul prlslhtdcd 3; brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkds rl`dkgjhdads kjh ajeghgjs
iljtlktûhgkjs y sgstleds al bd``ds rligjhd`ls, dså kjej uhd k`dsgbgkdkgûh al alpûsgtjs al
eghlrd`ls pjr jplrdkgjhls y prjylktjs eghlrjs. Alsal lhtjhkls, sl md vlhgaj
dktud`gzdhaj lstl edpd kjh hulvd ghbjredkgûh, y dktud`elhtl l` edpd eltd`jilhçtgkj
3>>7 kulhtd kjh uhd vlrsgûh agigtd`, qul ghk`uyl ghbjredkgûh al` tdedôj al alpûsgtj lh
cdsl d` tjhl`dol al kjhtlhgaj bghj eltä`gkj. Lstd vlrsgûh tdecgçh kulhtd kjh uhd
k`dsgbgkdkgûh al `ds jplrdkgjhls y prjylktjs eghlrjs pjr tgpj al ydkgeglhtj, daleäs,
kulhtd kjh ghbjredkgûh al `d prjaukkgûh eltä`gkd al `ds 3; brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkgds qul
sl prlslhtdh lh lstd ele
elejrgd
jrgd (Bgiurd 4.4).

3. BSDHOD[ ELQD@JILHÇQGKD[

@ds brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkds rlprlslhtdh çpjkds al eghlrd`gzdkgûh qul sl lxtglhalh d `j

`drij al sgstleds al bd``ds rligjhd`ls y `gtj`jiåds qul mdh bdvjrlkgaj `d eghlrd`gzdkgûh al
alpûsgtjs eghlrd`ls. Al lstd edhlrd, Tugspl lt d`. (3>>=) albghgû 3; brdhods
eltd`jilhçtgkds (Bgiurd 4.4).
@d edyjråd al `js sgstleds al bd``ds qul kjhtrj`dh `ds brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkds lh l`
klhtrj y sur al` ^lrÿ, tglhlh jrglhtdkgjhls prghkgpd`elhtl HJ-[L. [u jrgilh sl `ls dsjkgd
kjh `d agsirlidkgûh kjrtgkd` al` rgbt ^lrej-Qrgäsgkj (Eçidra, 479;, 479=6 @ducdkmlr, 479=6
Hjc`l lt d`., 479=6 Ad`edyrdk lt d`., 47=>6 Fjhtdf lt d`., 47=<6 Sjsds y Bjhcjtç, 477<6
Sjsds lt d` .,., 47796 Odkdy lt d`., 47776 Kdr`jttj lt d`., 3>>>6 Kdr`jttj lt d` .,., 3>>1),
kdrdktlrgzdaj pjr dktgvgada edieätgkd d`kd`ghd al` Irupj Egtu y prlslhkgd al irdhgtjgals
 

al `d egsed lada lh su lol dxgd` (Kdr`jttj lt d`., 3>>1). Lhtrl `js sgstleds al bd``ds
rlkjhjkgads kjej plrej-trgäsgkds sl pulal elhkgjhdr d Klrrj al ^dskj-Dydkukmj,
[dtgpj-^dhijd-[dh Brdhkgskj, Dcdhkdy-Dhadmudy`ds-Qjtjs-@gkdpd, ^uylhtgedrg,
Qdecurkj-^dtdkdhkmd y \rkjs-[gkudhg-Dydvgrg.

Bgiurd 4.4 Edpd Eltd`jilhçtgkj 3>>7 (ejagbgkdaj al Tugspl lt d`., 3>>9 y 3>>=).  
Jtrjs sgstleds al bd``ds al giud` kdtlijråd sjh `js qul sl lxtglhalh d `j `drij al` Cdtj`gtj
al ^dtdz, rl`dkgjhdajs kjh `d tlktûhgkd ljmlrkghgdhd, dså kjej, `js sgstleds al bd``ds
^uhrl-Kdhkmgs-Edigstrd` y Kjrag``lrd C`dhkd, lh l` Hjrtl al` ^lrÿ. Lh l` slktjr klhtrd`
jkkgalhtd` alstdkdh `js sgstleds al bd``ds Kmjhtd, Kmuråh-[dh Edtlj, Qdpdkjkmd y
Kjhkmdj-Kjkdkmdkrd. Eglhtrds qul lh l` sur al` ^lrÿ sl tglhlh d `js sgstleds al bd``ds
 

Gkd-Gs`dy-G`j, Kghkmd-@`utd, Ghkdpuqugj, Dcdhkdy-Kjhajrjed-Kdy``jed y Kuskj-

@diuhg``ds-Edôdzj.
Adad `d lskd`d rligjhd` al` edpd eltd`jihçtgkj, `ds 3; brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkds hj
ghk`uylh alpûsgtjs pdrtgku`drls kjej Qdrpuy (Bl d`jodaj lh l` Kjep`loj Cdsd` al `d
Kjstd), Mudhkdpdydk (alpûsgtjs al Ku-Hg lh slkulhkgds al` Kjep`loj Edrdôûh), Qdpj
(Kr-Hg mjspladaj lh rjkds u`trdcäsgkds ^rlkdecrgkds:), Hlird Mudhusmd (Ku-R d`jodaj
lh kdpds rjods al` Irupj Egtu) y alpûsgtjs al urdhgj (Edkusdhg, Rg`kdcdecd, Kmdu``dy y
jtrjs). 

G. Brdhod
Brdhod al Du lh rjkds el td-slagelhtdrgds al` Jrajvåkgkj y [g`urj-A
[g`urj-Alv
lvûhgkj
ûhgkj

[l `jkd`gzd d `j `drij al `d Kjrag``lrd Jrglhtd` al` tlrrgtjrgj plrudhj, lh `d kud` `ds rjkds
mjspladhtls lstäh kjhbjredads pjr pgzdrrds y lsqugstjs al` ^d`ljzjgkj ghblrgjr. @ds
lstrukturds eghlrd`gzdads lstäh kjhbjredads pjr vltg``ds y edhtjs `lhtgku`drls al kudrzj
y jrj, kjhtrj`dajs prghkgpd`elhtl pjr bd``ds ghvlrsds al ruecj HJ-[L. @d eghlrd`gzdkgûh
prjcdc`lelhtl lstä dsjkgdad d `js lvlhtjs edieätgkjs al` Jrajvåkgkj y al` [g`urj-
Alvûhgkj. Lhtrl `js prghkgpd`ls alpûsgtjs sl pulalh elhkgjhdr d Dhdhld, @d Sghkjhdad,
Kdpdk Jrkkj y \htukd. [liÿh `ds ÿ`tgeds ghvlstgidkgjhls (Mdlclr`gh, 3>>36 Kmlw lt d`.,
3>>< y Kdrajhd, 3>>2), lstd brdhod sl lxtlhalråd mdstd `js 2¾ sur, alcgaj d qul l`
Kjep`loj Edrdôûh sl sgtÿd lhtrl `ds `dtgtuals 2¾ y 4>¾;>‗ sur. ^jr jtrj `daj  al dkulraj d
sus lvlhtjs al slagelhtdkgûh y eltdejrbgsej, lstd brdhod sl pulal sucagvgagr lh trls
uhgadals ilj`ûigkds? Jrajvåkgkj ghblrgjr, Jrajvåkgkj [uplrgjr-[g`ÿrgkj y Kdrcjhåblrj. @ds
ladals prlkäecrgkds sj`j kjrrlspjhalh d d`iuhjs slielhtjs dgs`dajs al egiedtgtds
(Kdrajhd, 3>>2).
GG. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs jrjiçhgkjs al Du-^c-_h-Ku al` Kdrcjhåblrj-^çregkj

[l ucgkd lh `d Kjrag``lrd Jrglhtd` al` hjrtl al` ^lrÿ, lh lstd brdhod `d eghlrd`gzdkgûh sl
lhkulhtrd dsjkgdad d irdhgtjgals kd`kjd`kd`ghjs al` Kdrcjhåblrj qul plrtlhlklh d`
Cdtj`gtj al ^dtdz l ghtruylh d `ds uhgadals eltdeûrbgkds al` ^d`ljzjgkj ghblrgjr. @ds
lstrukturds eghlrd`gzdads prlslhtdh iljeltråds al vltds y edhtjs, ucgkdajs lh zjhds al

kgzd``d HJ-[L,
brdhod sjh dpdrlhtlelhtl
kjhjkgajs alsdrrj``dads
`js alpûsgtjs d pdrtgr Mjrgzjhtl,
al ^jalrjsd, al `d tlktûhgkd ljmlrkåhgkd.
Sltdeds Lh lstd
y ^drkjy. @ds
ladals al eghlrd`gzdkgûh
eghlrd`gzdkgûh jskg`dh lhtrl ;4< y 3=2 Ed.

GGG. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs al \-Y-[h-Ej, Du-Ku-^c-_h rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgvjs y

pûrbgajs- s f drh  al Ku-Di al` ^çregkj Qrgäsgkj

[l lxtglhal lh l` b`dhkj jlstl al `d Kjrag``lrd Jrglhtd` al` klhtrj al` ^lrÿ, d` hjrtl al `d
alb`lxgûh al Dcdhkdy. Qglhl uhd agrlkkgûh HJ-[L y lstä kjhtrj`dad pjr `js sgstleds al
bd``ds [dtgpj-^dhijd-[dh Brdhkgskj y Klrrj al ^dskj-Dydkukmj. @d eghlrd`gzdkgûh lstä
mjspladad lh `utgtds y kd`gzds al` Kdrcjhåblrj, kjh iljeltråds al edhtjs y vltds. @js
alpûsgtjs eäs rlprlslhtdtgvjs al lstd brdhod sjh Kjcrgzd y Mudkmûh, dsjkgdajs d
irdhgtjgals kjh ladals lhtrl 39> y 3<< Ed. Lh l` D`tgp`dhj al ^uhj y lh l` ajeghgj al `ds
bd``ds HJ-[L al` sgstled \rkjs-[gkudhg-Dydvgrg, sl lhkulhtrd dgs`dadelhtl l` alpûsgtj al
 

Y-Du [dh Ouads Qdalj, lh l` kud` sl lstged uhd lada al eghlrd`gzdkgûh al 3<<.< Ed
(K`drf lt d`., 477>).

GR. Brdhod al pûrb

pûrbgajs
gajs Ku-
Ku-Ej
Ej al` Ouräsgkj el
elagj
agj

[l `jkd`gzd lh `d zjhd kjstlrd al` sur al` ^lrÿ, lstrukturd`elhtl lstd brdhod ls kjhtrj`dad
pjr l` sgstled al bd``ds Gkd-Gs`dy-G`j al ruecj HJ-[L y bd``ds elhjrls HL-[J y H-[

(Dkjstd lt d`., 3>>=).

al eghlrd`gzdkgûh
eghlrd`gzdkgûh @js422
lhtrl alpûsgtjs eäs rl`lvdhtls sjh Qåd Edråd y @d @`dvl, kjh ladals
y 4<< Ed.

R. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs al Ku-Bl-Du (GJKI) al` Ouräsgkj elagj

el agj ‛suplrgjr

[l sgtÿd d `j `drij al `d zjhd kjstlrd, lh l` ajeghgj al` Kjep`loj Cdsd` al `d Kjstd al`
^rlkäecrgkj. [u prghkgpd` kjhtrj` lstrukturd` ls l` sgstled al bd``ds HJ-[L Gkd-Gs`dy-G`j,
qul kjhstgtuylh l` kjrrlajr al` egsej hjecrl (Dkjstd lt d`., 3>>=). @js alpûsgtjs eäs
gepjrtdhtls al lstd brdhod sjh Edrkjhd, Eghd Oustd y Sjsd Edråd, kjh ladals al
eghlrd`gzdkgûh lhtrl 42< y 42> Ed.

RG. Brdhod al pûrbgajs y  s f drhs  al Ku-Du al` Ouräsgkj suplrgjr

[l lxtglhal pjr l` hjrjlstl al` ^lrÿ, alhtrj al` ajeghgj tlktûhgkj J`ejs-@jod y lstä
`gegtdad pjr bd``ds rligjhd`ls H-[, edyjrelhtl al kdräktlr ghvlrsj. @ds rjkds muçsplals
lstäh kjhbjredads pjr slkulhkgds kdrcjhdtdads y vj`kähgkds al` Ouräsgkj. @d
eghlrd`gzdkgûh al Ku-Du sl rl`dkgjhd d stjkfs  ghtrusgvjs al` Ouräsgkj suplrgjr, kjh
ladals dcsj`utds al 4<; Ed. @js alpûsgtjs eäs kjhjkgajs sl lhkulhtrdh lh Lkudajr,
lhtrl `js qul alstdkdh? Hdecgod, Hdpghtzd, Kuedy, Iudysghg y Brutjs al` Hjrtl6 lh
tlrrgtjrgj plrudhj sl ucgkdh `js prjylktjs L` Qdec
Q decj,
j, Mudqug``ds y Mud`dtäh.

RGG. Brdhod al su`burjs edsgvjs vj`kdhjiçhgkjs al Ku-_h-Du al` Ouräsgkj suplrgjr-

D`cgdhj

[l ucgkd lh l` hjrjlstl al` ^lrÿ, lh l` slktjr sur jkkgalhtd` al `d kulhkd @dhkjhls, lh

uh kjhtlxtj al rgbt   (Qlidrt lt d`., 3>>>6 Såjs, 3>>16 Sjargiulz lt d`., 3>>=). @d

eghlrd`gzdkgûh sl lhkulhtrd
elagj d` D`cgdhj, mjspladad lhvdrådh
kuyds kjepjsgkgjhls rjkds al
vj`kähgkds
cdsd`tjs sucedrghds al` Ouräsgkj
d rgj`gtds kjh dbghgada
iljquåegkd tj`låtgkd (Såjs, 3>>1). @d eghlrd`gzdkgûh sl rl`dkgjhd kjh `d dktgvgada
edieätgkd adkåtgkd. @js prghkgpd`ls kjhtrj`ls lstrukturd`ls rligjhd`ls sjh bd``ds HHL-
[[J y JHJ-L[L. L` prghkgpd` alpûsgtj ls Qdecjirdhal, kjh ladals al eghlrd`gzdkgûh
al 42< ´ 49 (Sl/Js, pgrgtd, Sydh Edtmur lh Såjs, 3>>1) y 4>1 ´ 3 Ed (\/^c, Yghtlr lt d`.,
3>>3).

RGGG. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs al Ku-Bl-Du (GJK

(GJKI)
I) al
al`` Krltäkgkj ghb
ghblrgjr
lrgjr

Lstd brdhod sl lhkulhtrd agvgagad lh ajs slielhtjs? Qruog``j-Ed`d-^drdkds-Jkjôd (QE^J)

y @jkuecd-[ded (@[). Lhtrl Qruog``j y Jkjôd (=¿-4<¿;>‗) `js alpûsgtjs eltä`gkjs lstäh 
rl`dkgjhdajs kjh `d dktgvgada edieätgkd al `d kulhkd Kdsed, lh l` slktjr Qruog``j-Ed`d-
 

^drdkds (~443 y 4>> Ed) y vj`kähgkd al `d Bjredkgûh Kmjkj`dtl lh l` slktjr ^drdkds-

Hdzkd (~44< y 443 Ed).

@js prghkgpd`ls kjhtrj`ls al eghlrd`gzdkgûh sjh bd``ds HJ-[L al `d kulhkd Kdsed y al`
sgstled Gkd-Gs`dy-G`j, dså kjej bd``ds elhjrls HL-[J. Lh lstl slielhtj alstdkdh `js
alpûsgtjs Qdhiukml, Sdÿ`-Kjhalstdc`l, Ejhtlrrjsds, L`gdhd, Dkdrå, lhtrl jtrjs. Lhtrl
@jkuecd y [ded (49¾-4=¿), `js alpûsgtjs GJII sl lhkulhtrdh rl`dkgjhdajs kjh `d
dktgvgada edieätgkd al ~431 Ed, daleäs al ghtrusgjhls al idcrjs y ejhzjagjrgtds al
ladals ~443 Ed. [us kjhtrj`ls lstrukturd`ls sjh albghgajs pjr `d lxtlhsgûh al` sgstled
HJ-[L Gkd-Gs`dy-G`j y bd``ds elhjrls HL-[J. @js alpûsgtjs eäs gepjrtdhtls al lstl
slielhtj sjh @gkjhd y Mglrrj Ejrrgtj. Lh ilhlrd`, `js lvlhtjs al eghlrd`gzdkgûh qul
kjhstgtuylh lstd brdhod sl rligstrdh lhtrl 44< y 4>> Ed (Dkjstd lt d`. 3>>=).

G]. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs al Du-^c-_h-Ku rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgjhls al Krltäkgkj

suplrgjr

[l lxtglhal agskjhtghudelhtl lh kudtrj ärlds? Mudrely (7¾;>‗-4>¾), Kdhtd (44¾-44¾;>‗),

slktjr al Mudhkdvl`gkd - Dydkukmj (41¾-4<¾) y [drdedrkd-Hdzkd-Jkjôd (41¾;>‗-49¾).
@ds lstrukturds eghlrd`gzdads ``lvdh kudrzj-jrj-su`burjs y sl lhkulhtrdh mjspladads lh
irdhgtjgalss al` Krltä
irdhgtjgal Krltäkgkj
kgkj suplrgjr al` Cdtj`gtj al `d Kjstd.

Lh `ds ärlds al Mudrely y Kdhtd `js kjhtrj`ls lstrukturd`ls sjh `ds bd``ds slkuhadrgds
HJ-[L, H-[ y HL-[J al `js sgstleds al bd``ds rligjhd`ls HJ-[L Kjhkmdj-Kjkdkmdkrd y
Qdpdkjkmd. L` alpûsgtj qul alstdkd lh Mudrely ls Klrrj Cd``lhd y lh Kdhtd `js
alpûsgtjs @jedad, Kdrdkj` y @dods. Lh l` slktjr Mudhkdvl`gkd - Dydkukmj `ds vltds lstäh
kjhtrj`dads pjr l` sgstled al bd``ds Kghkmd-@`utd y sl lhkulhtrdh `js alpûsgtjs L`
Lhkdhtj, _jrrj ^`dtldaj, Odtuh ^dtd, El`kmjrgtd, lhtrl jtrjs. Eäs d` sur, lh [drdedrkd-
Hdzkd-Jkjôd, `ds lstrukturds eghlrd`gzdads lstäh kjhtrj`dads pjr bd``ds kjh
jrglhtdkgjhls HJ-[L, H-[ y L-J, qul kjhstgtuylh l` kjrrlajr Hdzkd-Jkjôd (Dkjstd lt d`.
3>>=). Lhtrl `js prghkgpd`ls alpûsgtjs al lstd zjhd sur sl pulah elhkgjhdr d Jrgûh,
Kdrdvl`å, Gsmgmughkd, Kd`pd, Drgrdmud y [dh Oudh al Kmjruhid.
]. Brdhod al pûrbgajs al Ku-Ej al` Krltäkgkj suplrgjr

[l lxtglhal agskjhtghudelhtl alsal `d kulhkd @dhkjhls mdstd l` sur al` ^lrÿ. Lh `d

kulhkd @dhkjhls, `js alpûsgtjs qul kjhstgtuylh lstd brdhod lstäh kjhtrj`dajs pjr bd``ds
kjh jrglhtdkgjhls HL-[J. @d eghlrd`gzdkgûh al Ku-Ej lstä rl`dkgjhdad kjh irdhgtjgals
al` Krltäkgkj suplrgjr (~9< Ed), ajhal alstdkdh `js alpûsgtjs Mjrqultds, Kurg-@didrtjs,
Kmdhkdajrd, Kdskdoj C`dhkj y jtrjs. Giud`elhtl, alhtrj al `d kulhkd @dhkjhls sl
pulalh galhtgbgkdr d`iuhjs sfdrhjgals al Bl, ucgkdajs lh l` kjhtdktj al `js irdhgtjgals
krltäkgkjs kjh rjkds kd`kärlds al` D`cgdhj-Klhjedhgdhj al `d Bjredkgûh @d Cjkdhd. Lh
l` klhtrj y sur al` ^lrÿ, `d eghlrd`gzdkgûh lstä rl`dkgjhdad kjh ghtrusgvjs irdhåtgkjs al`
Krltäkgkj suplrgjr al` Cdtj`gtj al `d Kjstd y kjhtrj`dad pjr bd``ds HJ-[L al `js sgstleds
Kjhkmdj-Kjkdkmdkrd, Kghkmd-@`utd l Ghkdpuqugj, dså kjej pjr bd``ds elhjrls kjh
jrglhtdkgûh H-[ (Dkjstd lt d`. 3>>=). @js prghkgpd`ls alpûsgtjs qul kjhstgtuylh lstd brdhod
sjh Edrkdmug, Aurdzhj, ^uqugj, Kukj, Diuds Rlrals (sfdrh  rl`dkgjhdaj kjh `js
ghtrusgvjs al` Krltäkgkj suplrgjr), @drd, Qgcg``js, _dbrdhd` y Dhijsturd. [us ladals al
eghlrd`gzdkgûh sl rligstrdh lhtrl => y 2= Ed.
 

]G. Brdhod al su`burjs edsgvjs vj`kdhjiçhgkjs al ^c-_h-Ku al` Krltäkgkj suplrgjr-

^d`ljklhj

Lstä kjhstgtugad pjr ajs suc-prjvghkgds, uhd lh `d pdrtl klhtrd` al `d kulhkd @dhkjhls lh
l` hjrjlstl al` ^lrÿ, y `d jtrd ucgkdad lh l` b`dhkj jlstl al `d Kjrag``lrd Jkkgalhtd` lhtrl
@d @gclrtda l Gkd (7¿-4;¿). @js alpûsgtjs al `d kulhkd @dhkjhls lstäh mjspladajs lh `js
hgvl`ls vj`kähgkjs bç`sgkjs kd`kjd`kd`ghjs (Såjs, 3>>1) al `ds slkulhkgds vj`kdhj-
slagelhtdrgds al` D`cgdhj-Klhjedhgdhj. Lh lstl slktjr sjh kjhjkgajs `js alpûsgtjs L`
^dpdyj, Klrrj Kj`jrdaj y ^jtrjcdyj, kuyjs kjhtrj`ls lstrukturd`ls sjh bd``ds elhjrls
kjh jrglhtdkgjhls HL-[J, L-J y HHL-[[J, qul kjhstgtuylh `d zjhd al albjredkgûh al `d
alb`lxgûh al Mudhkdcdecd. Lhtrl `d @gclrtda l Gkd, Sjelrj (3>>9) agblrlhkgd slkulhkgds
vj`kähgkds kd`kjd`kd`ghds al` Krltäkgkj-^d`ljklhj, dhtlrgjrelhtl dtrgcugads kjej Irupj
Kdsed, plrj dmjrd alhjeghdad Kulhkd Eddstrgkmtgdhj-Adhgdhj, tgpj edrighd` al trds
drkj (Sjelrj lt d`., 3>>=). Lstd kulhkd d`clrid alpûsgtjs tgpj su`burjs edsgvjs
vj`kdhjiçhgkjs al ^c-_h-Ku (tgpj furjfj), kuyjs kjhtrj`ls rligjhd`ls al eghlrd`gzdkgûh
sjh bd``ds HJ-[L al` sgstled Qdpdkjkmd y Kjhkmdj-Kjkdkmdkrd. @js alpûsgtjs eäs
rl`lvdhtls sjh Edråd Qlrlsd, Durjrd Duiustd, @ljhg`d-Irdkgl`d (^lrucdr), Klrrj @ghaj,
^d`eds y Cd`aukmj. @ds ladals al eghlrd`gzdkgûh
eghlrd`gzdkgûh tglhlh uh ghtlrvd`j al 2= d 23 Ed.

]GG. Brdhod al lpgtlred`ls

l pgtlred`ls al Du-Di al` Krltäkgkj ssuplrgjr-^d
uplrgjr-^d`ljklhj
`ljklhj

[l `jkd`gzd lh l` slktjr klhtrd` al `d kulhkd @dhkjhls, lh l` hjrjlstl al` ^lrÿ. @ds

lstrukturds eghlrd`gzdads sjh vltds al kudrzj-jrj, al jrglhtdkgûh HL-[J, mjspladads lh
rjkds vj`kähgkds al` D`cgdhj-Klhjedhgdhj. @js alpûsgtjs al Du-Di qul kjhstgtuylh lstd
brdhod, lstäh dsjkgdajs d irdhgtjgals al` Krltäkgkj suplrgjr-^d`ljklhj (Ghojqul lt d`.,
3>>>6 Såjs, 3>>1). Lhtrl `js alpûsgtjs eäs rlprlslhtdtgvjs alstdkdh Cj`sd al` Agdc`j,
^jtrlrj, [uyj y ^g`drls.

]GGG. Brdhod al pûrbgajs al Ku-Ej y alpûsgtjs pj`geltä`gkjs rl`dkgjhdajs kjh

ghtrusgjhls
ghtru sgjhls al
al`` ^d`ljklhj-Ljklhj

[l lxtglhal lh l` b`dhkj jlstl al `d Kjrag``lrd Jkkgalhtd` al` sur al` ^lrÿ y dirupd d `js
alpûsgtjs al Ku-Ej al edyjr tjhl`dol lh agkmj slktjr. @js ghtrusgvjs rl`dkgjhdajs kjh `d
eghlrd`gzdkgûh prlslhtdh kjepjsgkgjhls agjråtgkds, irdhjagjråtgkds y ejhzjhåtgkds, kuyj
lep`dzdeglhtj sl lhkulhtrd kjhtrj`daj pjr l` sgstled al bd``ds Ghkdpuqugj (HJ-[L). Lstd
brdhod rligstrd ajs çpjkds eltd`jilhçtgkds kjh eghlrd`gzdkgûh al Ku-Ej (Dkjstd lt d`.,
3>>=). @d prgelrd al` ^d`ljklhj (23 y << Ed), rlprlslhtdad pjr `js alpûsgtjs al Klrrj
Rlral y Qjqulpd`d. @d sliuhad çpjkd ls al` Ljklhj (<1 y <3 Ed), kdrdktlrgzdad pjr `js
alpûsgtjs al Kudojhl y Tul``dvlkj. Agstd`elhtl d `js sgstleds pjrbgråtgkjs al Ku-Ej y lh
slkulhkgds slagelhtdrgds, sl tglhlh lstrukturds eghlrd`gzdads al Ku-^c-_h, kjh
iljeltråds al vltds y kulrpjs, sgeg`drls d Dtdspdkd.
 

]GR. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs al Du-Ku-^c-_h rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgjhls al` Ljklhj

[l prlslhtd lh l` Hjrtl lh `d rligûh Dhkdsm (7¾-4>¾). @ds lstrukturds eghlrd`gzdads lstäh

kjhbjredads pjr vltds al kudrzj-jrj-su`bur
kudrzj-jrj-su`burjs,
js, kjh jrglhtdkgjhls sjh H-[, L-J y HJ-[L.

@ds vltds lstäh rl`dkgjhdads kjh stjkfs tjhd`åtgkjs y irdhjagjråtgkjs al` Ljklhj,
lep`dzdajs lh l` `åegtl Jlstl al` ajeghgj vj`kähgkj Klhjzjgkj al `d Kjrag``lrd
Jkkgalhtd` y l` Cdtj`gtj al `d Kjstd. D` Hjrtl, l` prghkgpd` kjhtrj` lstrukturd` ls l` sgstled
al bd``ds Kjhkmdj-Kjkdkmdkrd, ajhal alstdkdh `js alpûsgtjs @d Kdhtlrd, Rgrdmudhkd,
Qrls Eghds y Kmuhkds.

]R. Brdhod al pûrbgajs- s f drhs   al Ku-Ej (Du, _h) y alpûsgtjs al Ku-Du-Bl

rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgjhls al` Ljklhj-J`gijklhj

[l ucgkd lhtrl `d Kjrag``lrd Jkkgalhtd` y l` D`tgp`dhj al `ds rligjhls al Dydkukmj,

 Dpuråe
 Dp uråedk,
dk, Kuskj y ^uhj. @d egh
eghlrd`gz
lrd`gzdkgûh
dkgûh lstä rl`dkgjhda
rl`dkgjhdadd kjh irdhgtjgal
irdhgtjgalss agjråtgkjs d
irdhjagjråtgkjs al` Cdtj`gtj Dhadmudy`ds-Wdurg al` Ljklhj-J`gijklhj, lep`dzdajs lh
kjhagkgjhls trdhsprlsgjhd`ls (Kdr`jttj, 47776 ^lrl``û lt d`., 3>>;) y kjhtrj`dajs, pjr `js
sgstleds al bd``ds \rkjs-[gkudhg-Dydvgrg, Kuskj-@diuhg``ds-Edôdzj, Dcdhkdy-
 Dhadmudy`ds-
 Dh admudy`ds-Qjtjs-Kmghkmlrjs-@gkdp
Qjtjs-Kmghkmlrjs-@gkdpd
d y Dcdhkdy-Kjha
cdhkdy-Kjhajrje
jrjed-Kdy``je
d-Kdy``jed.d. @d
eghlrd`gzdkgûh Ku-Ej (Du) lstä rl`dkgjhdad kjh ghtrusgvjs ghtlrelagjs d äkgajs, dsgegsej
lh l` kjhtdktj kjh slkulhkgds kdrcjhdtdads al` D`cgdhj-Qurjhgdhj sl alsdrrj``dh
kulrpjs al sfdrh  al Ku-_h. @js ghtrusgvjs eäs cäsgkjs lstäh rl`dkgjhdajs kjh `ds
eghlrd`gzdkgjhls al Bl-Ku-Du, qul sl prlslhtdh d edhlrd al kulrpjs, lh l` kjhtdktj kjh
slkulhkgds kdrcjhdtdads al` D`cgdhj-Qurjhgdhj, daleäs al vltds prghkgpd`elhtl al Du-
Ku lh `js ghtrusgvjs.

@js alpûsgtjs eäs rlprlslhtdtgvjs al lstd brdhod sjh Qghtdyd, Fdhdhid, @ds Cdecds,
Kjtdcdecds, Ejrjsdymuds, Dhtdpdkdy, Mdqugrd, @js Kmdhkds, Dhtg``ds, Qrdpgkml, lhtrl
jtrjs. @ds ladals al eghlrd`gzdkgûh lstäh rligstrdads lhtrl 13 y ;> Ed. Ls gepjrtdhtl
elhkgjhdr qul lh l` ajeghgj al` sgstled al bd``ds \rkjs-[gkudhg-Dydvgrg, sl tglhlh
kulhkds kjhtghlhtd`ls sgh-jrjiçhgkds (Kdr`jttj lt d`., 3>><), kjh eghlrd`gzdkgûh al Ku tgpj
‐Sla Cla― d`jodad lh kdpds rjods al` Ljklhj -J`gijklhj al` Irupj [dh Olrûhgej y
rl`dkgjhdad kjh l` Cdtj`gtj Dhadmudy`ds-Wdurg (@jzd, 3>>1). @js alpûsgtjs eäs
gepjrtdhtls al lstl tgpj sl ucgkdh lh `ds `jkd`gadals al Qdecjedkmdy, \smpd, Qgpjh y
 Dhtd.
 Dh td.

]RG. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs tg

tgpj
pj Egssgssgpp
Egssgssgppgg R d``ly (ERQ) al ^c-_h al` Ljklhj-Egjk
Ljklhj-Egjklhj
lhj

[l sgtÿd d `j `drij al `d _jhd [ucdhaghd al` klhtrj y hjrtl al` ^lrÿ. @ds rjkds muçsplals
al `d eghlrd`gzdkgûh al ^c-_h, lstäh kjhstgtugads pjr slkulhkgds aj`jeåtgkds al` Qrgäsgkj
suplrgjr-Ouräsgkj ghblrgjr al` Irupj ^ukdrä. Lstd brdhod lstä kjhtrj`dad pjr l` sgstled al
bd``ds HJ-[L [dtgpj-^dhijd-[dh Brdhkgskj y kdcd`ideglhtjs qul pjhlh lh kjhtdktj `d
Kjrag``lrd Jrglhtd` sjcrl `d _jhd [ucdhaghd. Lh lstl slktjr sl lhkulhtrdh `js alpûsgtjs
[dh Rgklhtl, ^gôûh, [g``dpdtd, Mudkrdsm-Dyhdedyj, ^uhtdydku, ^gkmgtd Kd`uid, Kdskds,
Hghdcdecd, Sdyejhag [ur, Qdecj Edråd, ^depd [lkd, [dh Sjqul, Cj`åvdr, [j`jkj y
Cjhidrä. D` jlstl al `d brdhod, tdecgçh ls pjsgc`l lhkjhtrdr alpûsgtjs ERQ al ^c-_h,
 

plrj d agblrlhkgd al `d brdhod prghkgpd` sl lhkulhtrdh agstrgcugajs puhtud`elhtl lh

dhtgk`ghd`ls klrrdajs qul alsdpdrlklh alcdoj al rjkds eäs oûvlhls. Lh lstl slktjr sl
tglhlh d `js alpûsgtjs \`kuedyj y [md`gpdykj. @d lada al eghlrd`gzdkgûh al lstjs
alpûsgtjs sl dsuel kjej ljklhd j egjklhd, rl`dkgjhdad kjh `ds çpjkds al edyjr
albjredkgûh qul dblktdrjh d lstd zjhd, aurdhtl `d lvj`ukgûh dhaghd (Eçidra, 47=96
Kdr`jttj lt d`., 3>><).

]RGG. Brdhod lpgtlred`ls

lpgtlred`l s al Du-D
Du-Di
i al` Ljklhj y alpûsgtjs p
pj`geltä`gkjs
j`geltä`gkjs al` Ljklhj-
J`gijklhj-Egjklhj

[l `jkd`gzd lh `d Kjrag``lrd Jkkgalhtd` al` ^lrÿ klhtrd` (7¿-41¿). Lstd brdhod sl kdrdktlrgzd
pjr slr uhd al `ds eäs kjep`lods, alcgaj d qul sl lhkulhtrdh alpûsgtjs eltä`gkjs al
agvlrsjs tgpjs, kjej pûrbgajs al Ku-Ej, sfdrhs  al ^c-_h-Ku, lpgtlred`ls al Du-Di y
pj`geltä`gkjs ^c-_h (Di) rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgjhls. Agkmjs alpûsgtjs sl rl`dkgjhdh
kjh trls lvlhtjs edieätgkjs, rligstrdajs lh `js plrgjajs ;7-;; Ed (Ljklhj), ;4-3< Ed
(J`gijklhj) y 3>-4> Ed (Egjklhj). @d agstrgcukgûh lspdkgd` y tlepjrd` al agkmjs
alpûsgtjs lstä kjhtrj`dad pjr `ds rldktgvdkgjhls al `ds bd``ds HJ-[L y H-[ al `js
sgstleds @d Jrjyd-Mudhkdvl`gkd y Klrrj al ^dskj-Dydkukmj. L` alpûsgtj eäs dhtgiuj
kjhjkgaj mdstd `d blkmd ls l` lpgtlred` al Du-Di al Tugkdy, kjh uhd lada al

eghlrd`gzdkgûh lh l` rdhij
`d dktgvgada edieätgkd al`alJ`gijklhj,
;9 y ;< Ed (Hjc`l y EkFll,
edhgblstdad 4777). Tugkdy
prghkgpd`elhtl pjr l`sllep`dzdeglhtj
rl`dkgjhd kjh
al kulrpjs ghtrusgvjs al kjepjsgkgjhls vdrgdc`ls lhtrl agjrgtds y irdhjagjrgtds. Dsgegsej
sl tglhlh alpûsgtjs tgpj pûrbgaj al Ku-Ej, kjej ^drgdogrkd y sfdrhs  al ^c-_h-Ku, lh l`
kjhtdktj kjh slkulhkgds kdrcjhdtdads al` Qrgäsgkj suplrgjr-Ouräsgkj ghblrgjr al` Irupj
^ukdrä, ls l` kdsj al `js alpûsgtjs L` ^jrvlhgr (Eg`pj), Dtdkjkmd, Sdu`gtj, Sjhajhå,
^dtdsmeghd y Mudhkdeghd, dså kjej, l` pûrbgaj- sfdrh al Rghkmjs.

Al giud` bjred `ds ghtrusgjhls j`gijkçhgkds lstäh rl`dkgjhdads kjh vltds al ^c-_h-Ku,
kjej Edkmkäh y jtrds eäs. [liÿh `js rlpjrtls al ladals rdagjeçtrgkds F/Dr al [j`lr y
Cjhmjel (47==), `d çpjkd eltd`jilhçtgkd pdrd `js alpûsgtjs al ^c-_h-Ku sl lhkjhtrdråd
lhtrl 37 y 32 Ed. ^jr jtrj `daj, `ds ghtrusgjhls egjkçhgkds ~3> Ed sl dsjkgdh kjh `ds
eghlrd`gzdkgjhls al ^c-_h-Ku, ls l` kdsj al `js alpûsgtjs Dhgtd, Dsuhkgûh, Kmdhkmdeghd
y jtrjs al` ^lrÿ klhtrd`.
]RGGG. Brdhod
Brdhod al l pgtlred`ls al Du-Di al` J`gijklhj

[l lxtglhal lhtrl lh l` b`dhkj jlstl al` ajeghgj vj`kähgkj Klhjzjgkj al `d Kjrag``lrd

Jkkgalhtd`. Lstd brdhod sl lhkulhtrd suc-agvgagad lh ajs slielhtjs. ^jr l` hjrtl sl
lhkulhtrd l` slielhtj Jtuzkj-[dh ^dc`j-^jrku``d (9¾-=¾;>‗) y pjr l` sur Mudytdrä -
Qdhtdrä-Qupl (43¾;>‗-41¾;>‗). @js kjhtrj`ls al eghlrd`gzdkgûh sjh bd``ds kjh
jrglhtdkgjhls prlblrlhkgd`ls HJ-[L y L-J. D` hjrtl sl lhkulhtrdh `js alpûsgtjs [d`pj,
[dh ^larj, ^drlajhls, Kjsmurj, @uklrj, @js ^grkjs, Egsmdmudhkd, lhtrl jtrjs6 d`iuhjs
al l``js rl`dkgjhdajs kjh klhtrjs vj`kähgkjs, kjej l` kdsj al \rjed`qug ([d`pj), [dh
^larj l \rg``dj-Sumjs (Sgvlrd lt d`., 3>><). D` sur alstdkdh `js alpûsgtjs Dhtdpgtl, ^depd

 Dhaghj
 Dhaghj y Qgkrdpj. Lh de
decjs
cjs slie
slielhtjs
lhtjs `ds lstrukturds eghlrd`gz
eghlrd`gzdads
dads prlslhtdh
 

iljeltråds al vltds kjh kjhtlhgaj al Du-Di tgpj lpgtlred` al cdod su`burdkgûh. @ds
ladals al eghlrd`gzdkgûh sl lstge
lstgedh
dh lhtrl ;4 y 3< Ed.

]G]. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs al [h-Ku-Y rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgvjs al` J`gijklhj-

Egjklhj y lpgtlred`ls
l pgtlred`ls al Di-^c-
Di-^c-_h
_h ((Du)
Du)

[l lhkulhtrd d` lxtrlej surjlstl al `d Kjrag``lrd Jrglhtd` y lh `d kulhkd ^utghd, lh l` sur

al` ^lrÿ. qul

al bd``ds Lstäkjhtrj`dh
`gegtdad pjr l` sgstled
l` slktjr jlstlalalbd``ds HJ-[L^utghd.
`d kulhkd \rkjs-[gkudhg-Dydvgrg y l`[h-Ku-Y
@d eghlrd`gzdkgûh sgstled
lstä rl`dkgjhdad kjh stjkfs  plrd`ueghjsjs ‐tgpj [―, qul vdrådh al ejhzjirdhgtjs d  
irdhjagjrgtds (Fjhtdf y K`drf, 3>>3), kjh bulrtl d`tlrdkgûh k`jråtgkd (E`yhdrkzyf lt d`.,
3>>;). @ds rjkds ghtrusgvds al` ärld kjhstgtuylh `d lxtlhsgûh al irdhgtjgals al `d
Kjrag``lrd Sld` al Cj`gvgd, kjh ladals al lep`dzdeglhtj al` J`gijklhj y Egjklhj. @js
stjkfs  ghtrusgvjs kjrtdh d pgzdrrds, lsqugstjs y kudrkgtds al` Jrajvåkgkj. L` prghkgpd`
alpûsgtj al` ^lrÿ ls [dh Sdbdl`, plrj alstdkdh jtrjs elhjrls kjej ^d`kd 44 y [dhtj
Ajeghij. @ds ladals al eghlrd`gzdkgûh lstäh lhtrl 3< y 33 Ed, plrj mdkgd l` `daj
cj`gvgdhj, lh l` alpûsgtj Klrrj Sgkj al ^jtjså, sl rligstrd uhd lada eäs ojvlh prûxged d
41 Ed (_drtedh y Kuhhghimde, 477<). Giud`elhtl, dsjkgdaj d lvlhtjs vj`kähgkjs al 3<-
41 Ed, sl tglhlh lpgtlred`ls al Di-^c-_h (Du) al ghtlrelagd d cdod su`burdkgûh y vltds

[c. L` alpûsgtj eäs rlprlslhtdtgvj ls Kjrdhg.

]]. Brdhod al pûrbgajs al Ku-Ej (Du),  s f drhs   al ^c-_h-Ku (Di) y alpûsgtjs

pj`geltä`gkjs rl`dkgjhdajs
rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgjh
ghtrusgjhls
ls al` Egjklhj

[l ucgkd lh `d Kjrag``lrd Jkkgalhtd` al` hjrtl y klhtrj al` ^lrÿ (<¿-43¿). Lstd brdhod lstä
kjhtrj`dad pjr l` sgstled al bd``ds y kdcd`ideglhtjs HJ-[L al `js sgstleds Kmjhtd y
^uhrl-Kdhkmgs-Edigstrd`, lstl ÿ`tgej kjhbjred `d bdod kjrrgad y p`lidad al` Edrdôûh
(EQBC). Lh l` hjrtl al` ^lrÿ, `ds bd``ds vdh kdecgdhaj d JHJ-L[L y bghd`elhtl H-[, d`
dprjxgedrsl d `d alb`lxgûh al Mudhkdcdecd. Lstd brdhod prlslhtd trls lvlhtjs
edieätgkjs rl`dkgjhdajs kjh `d eghlrd`gzdkgûh, lstgedajs lh 33-3> Ed, 4=-4; Ed y 4>-<

Ed. @js kd`kjd`kd`ghjs

lvlhtjs edieätgkjs stjkfs 
ghtrusgvjs agjråtgkjslstäh edhgblstdajs L`
d irdhjagjråtgkjs. pjrprgelr
l` lep`dzdeglhtj al Ed
lvlhtj al 33-3> sl
dsjkgd kjh `js alpûsgtjs tgpj pûrbgaj al Ku-Ej al Egkmgqug``dy y Durjrd ^dtrgkgd. L`
sliuhaj lvlhtj al 4=-4; Ed kjhtglhl eghlrd`gzdkgjhls tgpj pûrbgaj al Ku-Ej y Ku-Du,
qul d`iuhds vlkls alsdrrj``d sfdrhs  y kulrpjs al rllep`dzdeglhtj al ^c-_h-Di, lh l`
kjhtdktj kjh rjkds kdrcjhdtdads al` Krltäkgkj, kjej Kmuhidr, Gskdy Kruz y jtrjs
alpûsgtjs. @js pûrbgajs al Ku-Ej (4=-4; Ed) lstäh rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgjhls
ghtlrelagds d äkgads, td` kjej L` Id`lhj, @d Irdhod, Kdôdrgdkj, ^drûh y Edigstrd`6
eglhtrds qul `js pûrbgajs al Ku-Du lstäh dsjkgdajs kjh ghtrusgjhls cäsgkds d
ghtlrelagds, kjej ls l` kdsj al Eghds Kjhid (L` ^lrj` y Kmdg`mud`iûh) y Klrrj Kjrjhd.

Jtrjs sgstleds pjrbgråtgkjs sgeg`drls d `js dhtlrgjrls sl lxpjhlh puhtud`elhtl lh slktjrls

lrjsgjhdajs al` ajeghgj vj`kähgkj egjkçhgkj (brdhod ]]G), ajhal sl pulal elhkgjhdr d
`js alpûsgtjs al Kmdegs, Kj`pdyjk, Kdskdcdecd, [dh Ojsç, @d Drlhd, D`tj Ajrdaj,
 

^dsmpdp, @js @dtghjs, dså kjej d` alpûsgtj lh `d trdhsgkgûh pûrbgaj-lpgtlred` L` Qjrj y d`

sfdrh al ^c-_h-Ku, L` Lxtrdôj.

L` tlrklr lvlhtj edieätgkj al 4>-< Ed ilhlrd alpûsgtjs tgpj pûrbgaj Ku-Ej (Du), kjej
Såj C`dhkj d` hjrtl, Qjrjejkmj y ^uy ^uy d` klhtrj. @js ghtrusgvjs al 4>-< Ed sjh
kjhtrj`dajs pjr l` ajeghgj al `ds bd``ds al` sgstled Kmjhtd, Kmuråh-[dh Edtlj y al `d
EQBC, lh kjhtdktj kjh rjkds kd`kärlds al` Krltäkgkj (7¿- 43¿;>‗),  prlslhtdh sfdrhs  y
kulrpjs al rllep`dzdeglhtj al Ku-_h y ^c-_h-Di, kjej Dhtdeghd, Mudhzd`ä,
^dkmdpdqug, Sdurd, \kkmukmdkud, Mudrûh, Wdurgkjkmd y jtrjs. Agkmjs ghtrusgvjs tdecgçh
ilhlrdh vltds y kulrpjs al rllep`dzdeglhtj al ^c-_h-Di, sgeg`drls d Wdu`gydku-
Kdsdpd`kd, Ejrjkjkmd, Eghd [j`gtdrgd y [dh Krgstûcd`, lstl ÿ`tgej kjh uhd lada ~2 Ed
(Hjc`l y EkFll, 4777).

]]G Brdhod al lpgtlred`ls

l pgtlred`ls al Du-Di al` Egjklhj

]]G-D.. Lpgtlred`ls al Du-Di m

]]G-D mjspladajs
jspladajs lh rjkds vvj`kähg
j`kähgkds
kds

[l agstrgcuyl dep`gdelhtl lh l` ajeghgj vj`kähgkj Klhjzjgkj al `d Kjrag``lrd Jkkgalhtd`.

Lh l` hjrtl (<¿-7¿;>‗) lstd brdhod ls  kjhtrj`dad pjr bd``ds HJ-[L qul vdh kdecgdhaj d
JHJ-L[L d` dprjxgedrsl d `d alb`lxgûh al Kdodedrkd, pdrd `ulij pdsdr d H-[, kjhbjrel
sl dprjxgedh d `d alb`lxgûh al Mudhkdcdecd. Lh l` slktjr klhtrj-hjrtl (4>¾- 4;¾;>‗), `js 
prghkgpd`ls kjhtrj`ls lstrukturd`ls sjh? bd``ds HJ-[L, kjrrlspjhaglhtls d `js sgstleds
Kjhkmdj-Kjkdkmdkrd y Kmjhtd6 bd``ds H-[ al` sgstled Klrrj al ^dskj-Dydkukmj y @d
Jrjyd-Mudhkdvl`gkd6 y bd``ds L-J al` sgstled Dcdhkdy-Dhadmudy`ds-Qjtjs-Kmghkmlrjs-
@gkdpd.

Lh l` slktjr sur, `d brdhod lstä kjhtrj`dad pjr bd``ds HJ-[L kjrrlspjhaglhtls d `js
sgstleds Kghkmd-@`utd, Ghkdpuqugj, Dcdhkdy-Kjhajrjed-Kdy``jed y Kuskj-@diuhg``ds-
Edôdzj. Lstd brdhod dirupd d alpûsgtjs al Du-Di (^c-_h-Ku) al d`td, cdod l ghtlrelagd
su`burdkgûh. [liÿh `ds ladals al eghlrd`gzdkgûh, lstd brdhod pulal slr sucagvgagad lh ajs
çpjkds eltd`jilhçtgkds (4=-4; Ed y 43-= Ed). Lhtrl `js alpûsgtjs qul sl lhkulhtrdh
mjspladajs lh rjkds vj`kähgkds sl lhkulhtrdh Tugruvg`kd, ^glrghd, Qdecjrdqul y [dhtd

Sgtd. D`iuhjs
kdsj al al `js (D`tj
Tulsqulhad alpûsgtjs lstähTugruvg`kd,
Kmgkded), rl`dkgjhdajs
D`tjkjh klhtrjs
Ajrdaj, vj`kähgkjs,
Edtd`d, Edkûh ykjej ls l`
D`tj Kruz-
Qgkds (Sgvlrd lt d`., 3>><).

Lhtrl `ds `dtgtuals 41¾ y 42¾ sl lhkulhtrdh alpûsgtjs al Du-Di al d`td su`burdkgûh kjej
Kmgpej (Jrkjpdepd), ^jrdkjtd y pjsgc`lelhtl Drdsg. Dsgegsej alstdkd `d prlslhkgd al
lpgtlred`ls al Du-Di (^c-_h) al cdod su`burdkgûh, sgeg`drls d Kd`lrd, Kdy``jed y [l`lhl.

Lh `d çpjkd eltd`jilhçtgkd al 43-= Ed, lh l` hjrtl al` ^lrÿ sl lhkulhtrdh `js alpûsgtjs
al Du-Di al` agstrgtj eghlrj al Wdhdkjkmd, Qdhtdmudtdy y @d _dhod, dså kjej, vltds y
kulrpjs al rllep`dzdeglhtj al ^c-_h-Ku (Di, Du). Lh l` ^lrÿ klhtrd`, sl tglhl l`
sliuhaj pu`sj al eghlrd`gzdkgûh al ^c-_h (Di) al Klrrj al ^dskj (43.1-4>.7 Ed,
Cduhidrthlr lt d`., 3>>2) y `d eghlrd`gzdkgûh al` agstrgtj al Kj`qugogrkd (l` prgelr pu`sj
kjrrlspjhal d uh lvlhtj al suplrpjsgkgûh lpgtlred`).
 

Lhtrl `js pdrd`l`js 43¾ y 4;¾;>‗   sur, lh l` ajeghgj al `ds bd``ds HJ-[L al` sgstled @d
Jrjyd-Mudhkdvl`gkd, alstdkd `d prlslhkgd al lpgtlred`ls al Du-Di lh rjkds
kdrcjhdtdads al` Qrgäsgkj-Ouräsgkj al` Irupj ^ukdrä, kjej Qukuedkmdy. Eglhtrds qul
lh l` slktjr al ghb`ulhkgd al `ds bd``ds HJ-[L al` sgstled Kmjhtd y al `d bd``d H-[
Mudhkdyj-Ou`kdhg, sl tglhlh lpgtlred`ls al ^c-_h-Di al d`td d ghtlrelagd su`burdkgûh
kjej Ou`kdhg, ^d`jej, [dh Ilhdrj, Mudkmjkj`pd, Kduad`jsd Irdhal, Kduad`jsd Kmgkd y
jtrjs. Eäs d` sur (41¾-42¾), sl lhkulhtrdh prghkgpd`elhtl lpgtlred`ls al Du-Di al cdod
su`burdkgûh, kjej Drls, [mg`d y ^du`d. Alhtrj al lstd brdhod lpgtlred` al` egjklhj
tlhlejs ydkgeglhtjs d`jodajs lh rjkds krltäkgkds y alpûsgtjs pj`geltä`gkjs kjh
suplrpjsgkgûh lpgtlred`, `js qul d kjhtghudkgûh sl prlslhtdh?

]]G-C.. Lpgtlre
]]G-C Lpgtlred`ls
d`ls al Du-Di m
mjspladajs
jspladajs lh rjkds slagel
slagelhtdrg
htdrgds
ds

Lstd brdhod sl ucgkd d` hjrtl al` ^lrÿ (~9¾;>±), `d kud` d`clrid ydkgeglhtjs lpgtlred`ls al
d`td su`burdkgûh mjspladajs lh slkulhkgds sg`gkjk`ästgkds al` Krltäkgkj ghblrgjr al` Irupj
Ijy``drgsqugzid, kjh uhd lada al eghlrd`gzdkgûh al 49 d 41 Ed. @js alpûsgtjs eäs
gepjrtdhtls sjh D`tj Kmgkded (@diuhds Hjrtl), @d Rgrilh, [dhtd Sjsd, Sjsdrgj al Cl`çh
y [mdmughaj.

]]G-K.. Alpûsgtjs pj`geltä`gkjs kjh suplrpjsgkg

]]G-K suplrpjsgkgûh
ûh llpgtlred`
pgtlred`

Lh l` klhtrj al` ^lrÿ (4>¿;>‗ -44¾), `ds bd``ds H-[ al` sgstled Klrrj al ^dskj-Dydkukmj
kjhtrj`dh d `d kulhkd ljklhd ^jkjcdecd (Ähil`ls, 4777), y lstd d su vlz d `js klhtrjs
vj`kähgkjs al Klrrj al ^dskj y Kj`qugogrkd. Al lstd edhlrd, lhtrl 4= y 4; Ed sl
alsdrrj``d l` prgelr pu`sj al eghlrd`gzdkgûh ^c-_h-Di kjh suplrpjsgkgûh lpgtlred` lh l`
agstrgtj al Klrrj al ^dskj (41.<-41.4 Ed, Cduhidrthlr lt d`., 3>>2).

Lh l` sur (41¿;>‗), `ds rjkds mjspladhtls lstäh bjredads pjr l` Irupj Qdkdzd al lada
egjkçhgkd, y `d eghlrd`gzdkgûh kjrrlspjhal d vltds al ^c-Di-Ku, ^c-Ku-Di y Ku-^c-Di,
sglhaj `ds prghkgpd`ls jkurrlhkgds ^lpgtd, Kdrelhkgtd, Klrrj Mudrdouy y Ajh Bl`gpl. Eäs
d` sur (42¿ y 49¿[) `d eghlrd`gzdkgûh sl lhkulhtrd lhtrl ajs kjrrlajrls lstrukturd`ls
bjredajs pjr `js sgstleds al bd``ds Ghkdpuqugj, Kjhajrjed-Kdy``jed y Kuskj-

@diuhg``ds-Edôdzj. @ds rjkds

kd`gzds al `d Bjredkgûh mjspladhtls
Dydvdkds. @d plrtlhlklh d `jslsirupjs
eghlrd`gzdkgûh Qdkdzd
al tgpj y Edurlyy `js
Ku-^c-_h `ds
ydkgeglhtjs eäs gepjrtdhtls sjh Qdkdzd, [dhtd Cärcdrd, Clrlhiul`d, Eghd `js Sjsd`ls,
Tul``j Tul``j y [dh Dhtjhgj al Lsqug`dkml. @d lada al eghlrd`gzdkgûh lstä dsjkgdad d
ghtrusgvjs al ladals kjeprlhagads lhtrl 33 y 47 Ed.

]]GG. Brdhod al alpûsgtjs al Y-Ej-Ku rl`dkgjhdajs kjh ghtrusgvjs al` Egjklhj

suplrgjr

[l ucgkd lh `d Kjrag``lrd Jkkgalhtd` al` klhtrj-hjrtl al` ^lrÿ (=¿-4>¿). @d eghlrd`gzdkgûh

al Ku-Y sl dsjkgd kjh irdhgtjgals al `d Kjrag``lrd C`dhkd, kuyj lep`dzdeglhtj sl

lhkulhtrd
alpûsgtjs kjhtrj`daj pjr bd``ds HJ-[L
eäs rlprlslhtdtgvjs y H-[Culhj,
sjh ^dstj al` sgstled
Euhajal Hulvj,
`d Kjrag``lrd
HulvdC`dhkd. @js
Kd`gbjrhgd,
 

@dkdcdecd y [lôjr al `d [j`lada. @ds lstrukturds eghlrd`gzdads prlslhtdh

prghkgpd`elhtl iljeltråds al vltds kjh kjhtlhgajs vdrgdc`ls al kudrzj-muchlrgtd-
blrclrgtd-kjcrls
blrclrgtd- kjcrls irg
irgsls.
sls. @ds ladals al e
eghlrd`gzdkgûh
ghlrd`gzdkgûh sl rligstrdh lhtrl 7 y 2 Ed.
]]GGG. Brdhod al lpgtlred`ls
l pgtlred`ls al Du-Di al` Egj-^`gj
Egj-^`gjklhj
klhj

[l lxtglhal lh l` ajeghgj vj`kähgkj al `d Kjrag``lrd Jkkgalhtd` al` klhtrj-sur al` ^lrÿ

(43¾;>-4=¾).
^`gjklhd. [us@dkjhtrj`ls
eghlrd`gzdkgûh al Du-Di
lstrukturd`ls sjhlstä rl`dkgjhdad
bd``ds HJ-[L alkjh`js`dsgstleds
dktgvgadaaledieätgkd Egj-
bd``ds Kmjhtd,
 Dcdhkdy-Kjha
 Dc dhkdy-Kjhajrje
jrjed-Kdy``je
d-Kdy``jedd y Kghkmd-@`utd
Kghkmd-@`utd,, dså kje
kjejj bd``ds elh
elhjrls
jrls L-J. @ds ladals
al eghlrd`gzdkgûh al lstd brdhod sl rligstrdh lhtrl 9 y 4 Ed, y lstä kjhstgtugad
prghkgpd`elhtl pjr alpûsgtjs lpgtlred`ls al Du-Di al d`td su`burdkgûh, d lxklpkgûh al`
alpûsgtj al cdod su`burdkgûh al Di-Du Drkdtd (<.1 Ed, Kdhagjttg lt d`., 477>) y al`
alpûsgtj al ^c-_h-Di Slkuplrdad al ghtlrelagd su`burdkgûh (2.1 Ed, Hjc`l y EkFll,
4777). @js lpgtlred`ls al Du-Di al d`td su`burdkgûh qul sl agstrgcuylh lh lstd brdhod sjh
Qukdrg, [dhtd Sjsd, ^ukdedrkd, ^gkj Edkmdy, Kjrgmudreg, Mudedhrdzj, Kkdrmudrdsj,
^d``d ^d``d, Cdôjs al` Ghagj y jtrjs.

Kulhkds mgarjiräb
mgarjiräbgkds
gkds bdvjrdc`ls pdr
pdrdd alpûsgtjs al Du tgpj p`dklr y d`uvgd`

Lstds kulhkds sl lxtglhalh prghkgpd`elhtl lh l` ``dhj dedzûhgkj y lh pdrtl al `d

Kjrag``lrd Jrglhtd`. @ds eäs gepjrtdhtls sjh Edarl al Agjs, D`tj Mud``did y [dhtgdij-
Cdoj Edrdôûh.

;. ^SJA\KKGÛH AL JSJ, ^@DQD W KJCSL LH @D[ BSDHOD[ ELQD@JILHÇQGKD[

Lstuagjs prl`geghdrls al `ds slrgls mgstûrgkds al prjaukkgûh al jrj p`dtd y kjcrl, tjedads
al dhudrgjs eghlrjs al` Eghgstlrgj al Bjelhtj, L` ^lrÿ Eg hlrj al Edrgj [dedeç Cjiigj
y l` Eghgstlrgj al Lhlriåd y Eghds, l ghbjrels ghçagtjs, eulstrdh qul `d prjaukkgûh
mgstûrgkd al jrj md sgaj 3,=;; tjhl`dads (74 eg``jhls al jhzds), `d kud` ghk`uyl `d çpjkd
prlghkdgkd, kj`jhgd` y rlpuc`gkdhd. Eglhtrds qul `d prjaukkgûh al p`dtd ``liû d 4<1,;49
tjhl`dads (1,724 eg``jhls al jhzds), ghk`uylhaj `d çpjkd kj`jhgd` y rlpuc`gkdhd. [gh
lecdrij, alsal `d çpjkd rlpuc`gkdhd `d prjaukkgûh al kjcrl md d`kdhzdaj 33±9<4,2;<
tjhl`dads.
Lstd prjaukkgûh eltä`gkd kjrrlspjhal d adtjs tjedajs al `ds çpjkds prlghkdgkd, kj`jhgd`
y rlpuc`gkdhd (lhtrl 47>4 y 3>>=). 

D pdrtgr al `d prjaukkgûh mgstûrgkd tjtd` al` jrj, `d p`dtd y l` kjcrl, pjalejs vlr kûej lstä
agstrgcugad lh `ds brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkds (Bgiurds ;.4, ;.3 y ;.;).
^drd l` kdsj al` jrj, hjtdejs qul `d edyjr prjaukkgûh prjvglhl al brdhod ]]G al`
Egjklhj (Bgiurd ;.4), `d kud` md prjaukgaj eäs al 4,1>> tjhl`dads (8 1< eg``jhls al
jhzds). @d jtrd pdrtl al `d prjaukkgûh prjvglhl al `ds brdhods G y GG al` ^d`ljzjgkj
(Kjrag``lrd Jrglhtd` y l` Cdtj`gtj ^dtdz - Cu`agcuyj rlsplktgvdelhtl) y `d brdhod G] al`
Krltäkgkj (Hdzkd-Jkjôd? Cdtj`gtj al `d Kjstd), qul lh kjhouhtj mdh prjaukgaj eäs al
4,3>> tjhl`dads al jrj (8 ;= eg``jhls al jhzds).
 

D` giud` qul l` jrj, `d edyjr prjaukkgûh al p`dtd sl lhkulhtrd lh `d brdhod ]]G, sgh
lecdrij, tdecgçh lstä prlslhtl lh `d brdhod ]] al` Egjklhj (Bgiurd ;.3), ajhal decds
suplrdh `ds 44>,>>> tjhl`dads (8 ;,<>> eg``jhls al jhzds). Jtrd pdrtl al `d prjaukkgûh
md prjvlhgaj al `d brdhod al` ]RGG al` Ljklhj-Egjklhj, `d kud` md prjaukgaj klrkd al
;>,>>> tjhl`dads (~4,>>> eg``jhls al jhzds). L` rlstj al `d prjaukkgûh sl lhkulhtrd
agstrgcugad lh `ds brdhods GGG, ]G, ]GGG, ]R, ]RGGG y ]]GGG, qul lh kjhouhtj d`kdhzdh 41,>>>
tjhl`dads dprjxge
dpr jxgedadelhtl
dadelhtl (8 1<> eg``jhls al jhz jhzds).
ds).

Bgiurd ;.4. ^rjaukkgûh al jrj pjr brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkds.

@d prjaukkgûh al kjcrl lstä agstrgcugad prghkgpd`elhtl lh `ds brdhods GGG, ]GGG, ]R, ]] y ]]G
(Bgiurd ;.;). [gh lecdrij, `d edyjr prjaukkgûh prjvglhl al `d brdhod ]GGG al` ^d`ljklhj-
Ljklhj, rlprlslhtdad pjr `ds eghds Qjqulpd`d, Kudojhl y Klrrj Rlral, qul pdsd `js 4;
eg``jhls al tjhl`dads al kjcrl. @d brdhod ]] al` Egjklhj ls `d sliuhad kjh edyjr
prjaukkgûh, `d kud` md ilhlrdaj eäs al ; eg``jhls al tjhl`dads, prghkgpd`elhtl al`
ydkgeglhtj Dhtdeghd. Jtrd pdrtl al `d prjaukkgûh al kjcrl, qul kjh klrkd al 2 eg``jhls
al tjhl`dads, vglhl al `ds brdhods GG, ]R y ]]G, ajhal sl lhkulhtrdh `ds eghds Kjcrgzd,
Qghtdyd y Klrrj al ^dskj, rlsplktgvde
rlsplktgvdelhtl.
lhtl.
 

 Bgiurd ;.3 ^rjaukkgûh al p`dtd pjr brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkds.

Bgiurd ;.; ^rjaukkgûh al kjcrl pjr brdhods eltd`jilhçtgkds.

 

 
KJHK@\[GJHL[

-  @d prjaukkgûh tjtd` mgstûrgkd al jrj md sgaj 3,=;; tjhl`dads (74 eg``jhls al jhzds),
eglhtrds qul `d prjaukkgûh al p`dtd ``liû d 4<1 ,;49 tjhl`dads (1,724 eg``jhls al
jhzds), sgh lecdrij, `d prjaukkgûh al kjcrl md d`kdhzdaj 33±9<4,2;< tjhl`dads.
-  @d edyjr prjaukkgûh al jrj y p`dtd prjvglhl al `d brdhod ]]G al` Egjklhj, `d kud` md
prjaukgaj eäs al 4,1>> tjhl`dads al jrj (8 1< eg``jhls al jhzds) y 9>,>>>
tjhl`dads al p`dtd (8 3,3<> eg``jhls al jhzds).
-  ^drd l` kdsj al` kjcrl, `d edyjr prjaukkgûh prjvglhl al `d brdhod ]GGG al` ^d`ljklhj-
Ljklhj, rlprlslhtdad pjr `ds eghds Qjqulpd`d, Kudojhl y Klrrj Rlral, qul pdsd `js
4; eg``jhls al tjhl`dads al kjcrl.

CGC@GJISDBÅD
Dkjstd, O., Tugspl, O., [dhtglstlcdh, D. & Dkjstd, M. 3>>=. Çpjkds eltd`jilhçtgkds y tgpjs al
ydkgeglhtjs eltä`gkjs lh `d edrilh jkkgalhtd` al` [ur al` ^lrÿ? `dtgtuals 41¾s - 4=¾s.
Slsÿelhls
Slsÿ elhls lxt
lxtlhagajs
lhagajs ]GR Kjhirlsj ^lrudhj al Ilj`
Ilj`jiåd.
jiåd.
Ähil`ls, K. 4777. @js slagelhtjs klhjzjgkjs al Klrrj al ^dskj? lstrdtgirdbåd, slagelhtdkgûh y
tlktûhgkd. Rj`uelh Oucg`dr Hj <, [jkglada Ilj`ûigkd al` ^lrÿ, pp. 4>;-44=.
Cdueidrthlr, S., Bjhtcjtç, @., D`vdrlz, M., ^dil, @., Jvtkmdrjvd, E., [pgfghis, S. & Rlhhledhh,
Q. 3>>2. Iljkmrjhj`jigkd`, B`uga Ghk`usgjh dha Gsjtjpgk Kjhstrdghts gh tml Klrrj al ^dskj
Agstrgkt,
Clhalzÿ, S., ^lru. Slsÿelhls
Bjhcjtç, ]GGG Kjhirlsj
@. & Kjskd, E. 3>>;. ^lrudhj
Sl`dtgvl al
Dil Ilj`jiåd.
jb Kjrag``lrdh Cdsl Eltd` @jal dha
Slp`klelht Alpjsgts, dha Mgim [u`bgadtgjh Du-(Di) Lpgtmlred` Eghlrd`gzdtgjh gh tml
Kj`qugogrkd
Kj`q ugogrkd Eghghi Agstrgkt, Klhtrd` ^lru. Eghlrd`
Eghlrd`gue
gue Alpjs
Alpjsgtd,gtd, Rj`. ;=, pp. 2=;-271.
Cl``gaj, L. & Al Ejhtrlug`, @. 4793. Dsplktjs ilhlrd`ls al `d eltd`jilhgd al` ^lrÿ. [lrvgkgj al
Ilj`j
Il j`jiåd
iåd y Eghlråd. Cj`ltåh. [lrgl C? Ilj`jjiåd
iåd Lkjhûegkd, h. 4, 417 p., 4793.
Cgssgi, Q., \``rgkm, Q., Qjsad`, S. & Lclrt, [. 3>>1. Qml @dtl Ljklhl tj @dtl Egjklhl Ediedtgk drk
jb Klhtrd` ^lru? Hlw Dr-Dr Dil Kjhstrdghts brje Wdurgkjkmd Qj Klrrj al ^dskj.
Slsÿelhls
Slsÿ elhls ]GG Kjhirlsj al I Ilj`jiåd,
lj`jiåd, [jk
[jkglada
glada IIlj`ûigkd
lj`ûigkd al` ^lrÿ.
Kdhkmdyd, [. & Drdhad, D. 3>>4. Ilj`jiåd lkjhûegkd y edpd eltd`jilhçtgkj al` ^lrÿ? rl`dkgûh
al eghds y prjsplktjs eghlrjs. Ghileelt, ;3 p.
Kdhagjttg, M., Hjc`l, A.K. & EkFll, L. 477>. Ilj`jigk slttghi dha lpgtmlred` sg`vlr vlghs jb tml
Drkdtd agstrgkt, sjut
sjutmlrh
mlrh ^lru. Lkjhjegk IljIlj`jiy,
`jiy, vj
vj`.`. =<, pp. 419;-
419;-417>.
417>.
Kdrajhd, D. 3>>2. Slkjhmlkgelhtj ad lvj`uéëj tlktñhgkd ad prjtj-edrile dhaghd aj klhtrj-hjrtl
plrudhj, cdsldad le adajs iljquåegkjs l gsjtûpgkjs aj lecdsdelhtj ad kjrag`mlgrd
jrglhtd` hd
Iljkgïhkg
Iljkgïhkgds.ds. rligëj
Q lsl alal
Qlsl Muähukj-@d
ajutjrdelht
ajutjrdelhtj, j, pp.\hgûh.
47=. \hgvlrsgadal al [ëj ^du`j Ghstgtutj al
Kdrajzj, E. 3>>3. @js Dhals ^lrudhjs? Ilj`jiåd y ^jtlhkgd` Eghlrj. Eghgstlrgj Lhlriåd y Eghds
al` ^lrÿ. ^rlslhtdkgûh ppt. ;4 pp.
Kdr`jttj, R., Kdr`glr, I., Odg``dra, L., [leplrl, Q. & Edsk`l, I., 4777. [lagelhtdry dha strukturd`
lvj`utgjh jb tml Ljklhl-J`gijklhl Kdpds Sjods cdsgh? Lvgalhkl bjr d `dtl Ljklhl
`gtmjspmlrgk al`deghdtgjh lvlht gh tml sjutmlrh ^lrÿvgdh D`tgp`dhj. GR Ghtlrhdtgjhd`
[yepjsgue jh Dhaldh Iljayhdegks, Iòttghilh, pp. 414-412
Kdr`jttj,
Kdr`jttj, R., Käralhds, O., Aådz-Edrtåhlz, L., [lep[leplrl,lrl, Q., Mlre
Mlrejzd,
jzd, Y., Klrpd, @. & Dkjstd, M.,
3>>>. @d Bjredkgûh Lhl al `d rligûh al Kuskj y su gepjrtdhkgd lh `d lxp`jrdkgûh al ydkgeglhtjs
al mgarjkdrcurjs. ] Kjhirlsj ^lrudhj al Ilj`jiåd, @ged, KA-SJE bg`l IM4.
Kdr`jttj, R., Käralhds, O., Kdr`glr, I., Aådz-Edrtåhlz, L., Klrpd, @., Rd`alrrded, ^., Sjc`ls, Q.,
3>>1. Lvj`ukgûh tlktûhgkd y slagelhtdrgd al `d Kulhkd Egtu (^çregkj  ‛ Qrgäsgkj) al `d rligûh
al Dcdhkdy  ‛  Kuskj  ‛  [gkudhg ([ur al` ^lrÿ). ]GG Kjhirlsj ^lrudhj al Ilj`jiåd, @ged,
^lrÿ 3>>1, Sls
Slsÿelhls
ÿelhls LxtLxtlhagajs
lhagajs pp. 143-14<.
Kdr`jttj,
Kdr`jttj, R., Odg``dra, L., Kdr`glr, I
I.,., Käralhds, O.
O.,, Klrpd, @., B`jrls, Q., @dtjrrl, J. & Gcdrrd,
Gcdrr d, G. 3>><.
[jkglada Il`ûigkd al` ^lrÿ, Rj`uelh lsplkgd` H¾2 ‐D`clrtj Iglslkfl Edttj―, pp. 4>;-432
 

Kmlw, A., [kmd`tliilr, \., Fjs`lr, O., Bjhtgihgl, A., [pgfghis, S., Egsfjvgk, D., 3>><. Lvj`utgjh jb
tml Ijhawdhdh edrigh jb tml hjrtmlrh Dhals. ;ra [wgss Iljskglhkl Elltghi , _ðrgkm.
K`drf, D., Bdrrdr, L., Fjhtdf, A., @dharghil, O., Drlhds, E., Brdhkl, @., Ek-Crgal, [., Yjjaedh, ^.,
Ydstlrhlys, M., [dhaledh, M. & Ajui`ds, A. 477>. Ilj`jigk dha iljkmrjhj`jigk kjhstrdghs
jh tml eltd``jilhgk lvj`utgjh jb tml dhals jb sjutmldstlrh ^lru. Lkjhjegk Ilj`jigk. Rj`.,
=<6 pp. 4<3>-4<=;.
Ad`edyrdk, C., @ducdkmlr, I. & Edrjkkj, S., 47=>. Kdrdktçrls içhçrdux al `'çvj`utgjh içj`jigqul
als Dhals
Dhals pçruvglhhls. Qrdv
Qrdvdux
dux lt Ajkuelhts al `'J
`'JS[Q
S[QJE,
JE, ^drg
^drgs,
s, vv.. 433, pp. <>4.
Advgls,hjrtmlrh
K. 3>>3. Qlktjhgk,
^lru. \hpuc ediedtgk dhaOdels
^mA. Qmlsgs, eltd``jilhgk lvj`utgjh jb
Kjjf \hgvlrgsty, tml Kdodedrkd eghghi agstrgkt,
Dustrd`gd.
Al `ds Kdsds, B. y ^jhzjhg, L., 4727. Edpd eltd`jiçhgkj al` ^lrÿ, lskd`d 4/4'>>>,>>>. [jk. Hdk.
Egh. ^ltrj`., @ged.
Mdlclr`gh, 3>>3. Ilj`jigkd` dha [trukturd` [lttghi, Dil, dha Iljkmlegstry jb tml Jrjilhgk Ij`a
Alpjsgts dt tml ^dtdz ^rjvghkl, Ldstlrh Dhaldh Kjrag``lrd, ^lru. \hpuc`gsmla ^mA tmlsls.
\hgvlrsgtç al Ilhívl. Jh`ghl vlrsgjh.
Ghojqul, O., Sgjs, D.6 Edrtåhlz, O.6 [lrrdhj, E.6 Qjrrls, O. y Rdrids, Km. 3>>>. Ilj`jiåd al `js
Rj`kähgkjs al` Krltäklj Elagj, Kulhkd @dhkjhls, Qdecjirdhal  ‛  @ds @jeds, ^gurd. ]
Kjhirlsj ^lrudhj al Ilj`jiåd.
Ilj`jiåd. Slsÿe
Slsÿelhls,
lhls, pp. 3;4.
Odkdy, O., [leplrl, Q., Kdr`glr, I. & Kdr`jttj, R., 4777. @dtl ^d`ljzjgk - Ldr`y Elsjzjgk p`utjhgse
dha rl`dtla rgbtghi gh tml Ldstlrh Kjrag``lrd jb ^lrÿ. GR Ghtlrhdtgjhd` [yepjsgue jh Dhaldh
Iljayhdegks, Iòttghilh, pp. ;<=-;2;.
Fjhtdf, A.O., K`drf, D.M., Bdrrdr, L. & [trjhi, A.B., 47=<. Qml rgbt dssjkgdtla ^lrej-Qrgdssgk
ediedtgse jb tml Ldstlrh Kjrag``lrd? d prlkursjr tj tml Dhaldh jrjilhy. Gh? Y.[. ^gtkmlr,
E.^. Dtmlrtjh, O. Kjccghi & S.A. Clkfghsd`l (Lagtjrs), Ediedtgse dt d p`dtl lail? Qml
^lrÿvgdh Dhals . C`dkfgl, I`dsijw, & Md`stla ^rlss, Hlw Wjrf, p. ;2-11.
Fjhtdf, A.O. & K`drf, D.M. 3>>3. Ilhlsgs jb tml igdht, Cjhdhzd [dh Sdbdl` `jal tgh alpjsgt, ^lru?
jrgigh dha sgihgbgkdhkl
sgihgbgk dhkl jb plrvdsgv
plrvdsgvll d`tlrdtgjh. Lkjhje
Lkjhjegk gk Il
Ilj`ji
j`jiy,
y, vj`. 79, pp. 4914-
4914-4999.
4999.
@ducdkmlr, I., 479=. Içj`jigl al `d Kjrag``írl Jrglhtd`l lt al `'D`tgp`dhj du hjra lt hjra-julst au
`dk Qgtgk
Qgtgkdkd
dkd (^çrju)
(^çrju).. Qrdv
Qrdvdux
dux lt Ajkuelhts al `'J `'JS[Q
S[QJE,
JE, v. 7<, pp. 349.
@jzd, E. 3>>1. @js ydkgeglhtjs lstrdtj`gidajs al kjcrl al `ds kdpds rjods al Kuskj y [gkudhg
(Ljklhj-J`gijklhj) slagelhtj`jiàd, tlktûhgkd y eltd`jilhåd. \hgvlrsgada Hdkgjhd` [dh
Dhtjhgj Dcda al` Kuskj. Qlsgs pdrd jptdr l` tåtu`j prjblsgjhd` al Ghilhglrj Ilû`jij, pp. <2.
Eçidra, B. 479;. Ltual içj`jigqul a‗uhl trdhsvlrsd`l als Dhals du hgvldu au ^çrju klhtrd`.  
Qmísl a‗Ltdt, \hgvlrsgtç al Ejhtpl``glr, pp. 32;.  
Eçidra, B., 47=9. Kjrag``lrdh Dhals dha edrighd` Dhals? d rlvglw jb Dhaldh ilj`jiy hjrtm jb tml
Drgkd l`cjw (4=¾[). Gh Kgrkue-^dkgbgk jrjilhgk cl`ts dha lvj`utgjh jb tml ^dkgbgk jkçdhj
cdsgh, O.M.Y. Ejhilr & O. Brdhkmltldu (las.), Delrgkdh Iljpmysgkd` \hgjh, Iljayhdegk
[lrgls, v. 4=, p. 94-7<.
E`yhdrkzyf, E., [mlr`jkf, S. & Yg``gdes-Ojhls, D. 3>>;. [dh Sdbdl`, ^lru? ilj`jiy dha strukturl jb
tml wjr`as rgkmlst tgh `jal. Eghlrd`gue Alpjsgtd, ;=, pp. <<<-<29.
Hjc`l, A.K., [g`clredh, E.@., Eçidra, B. & Cjwedh, M.S., 479=. Kjelhagtl (plrd`fd`ghl rmyj`gtls)
gh tml Egtu Irjup, klhtrd` ^lrÿ? Lvgalhkl jb ^lregdh-Qrgdssgk krustd` lxtlhsgjh gh tml Klhtrd`
Dhals. \.[. Ilj`jigkd` [urvly Ojurhd` jb Slsldrkm, v. 2, pp. 1<;-1<9.
Hjc`l, A. K. & EkFll, L. 4777. Qml Egjklhl eltd``jilhgk cl`t jb klhtrd` dha hjrtmlrh ^lru. Gh
[fghhlr, C. O., la., Ilj`jiy dha Eghlrd` Alpjsgts jb tml Klhtrd` Dhals. [jkglty jb Lkjhjegk
Ilj`jigsts, lsplkgd` puc`gkdtgjh 9, pp. 4<<-47;.
Hjc`l, A. K. (3>>1) [pdkl-tgel rl`dtgjhsmgps jb sjel ^jrpmyry Ku-Du, lpgtmlred` Du, dha jtmlr
ediedtgk rl`dtla eghlrd` alpjsgts gh hjrtmlrh ^lru. [jkglty jb Lkjhjhjegk Ilj`jiy, [plkgd`
^uc`gkdtgjh H¾ 44, pp. ;4;-;4=. Hjredh, A.G & @dhags, I.^. 47=;. [jurkl jb eghlrd`gzghi
kjepjhlhts gh myarjtmlred` jrl b`ugas ds lvgalhkl cy =9[r/ =2 =2[r dha stdc`l gsjtjpl adtd brje
tml ^dstj Culhj alpjsgts, ^lru. Lkjhjegk Ilj`jiy, vj`. 9=, pp. 1<4-12<.
^lrl``û, O., Kdr`jttj, R., _drdtç, D., Sdejs, ^., ^dssj, M., Hlyrd, K. & Kdcd``lrj, D. (3>>;).-
^jrpmyry sty`l d`tlrdtgjh dha eghlrd`gzdtgjh jb tml egaa`l Ljklhl tj J`gijklhl Dhadmudy`ds-
Wdurg cl`t. Kuzkj rligjh, ^lru. Lkjhjegk Ilj`jiy. Rj`., 7=, pp. 4<9=-42><. Tugspl, O.,
Kdr`jttj, R., Dkjstd, O., Edkmdrç, O., Kmgrgb, M., Sgvlrd, S., Sjelrj, A., Mudhdkuhg, A. &
 

Sjaråiulz, S. 3>>=. Edpd Eltd`jilhçtgkj 3>>=. Slsÿelhls lxtlhagajs ]GR Kjhirlsj

^lrudhj al Ilj`jiåd.
^j``gdha, E., [kmd`tliilr, \., Brdhf, E. y Bjhtcjtl, @., 3>><. Bjredtgjh jb Ghtrd-drk
vj`kdhjslagelhtdry cdsghs gh tml wlstlrh b`dhf jb tml klhtrd` ^lruvgdh Dhals aurghi @dtl
Krltdkljus jc`gqul sucauktgjh? bgl`a lvgalhkl dha kjhstrdghts brje \-^c dils dha Mb
gsjtjpls.
gsjtjpls. Ght. O Mlrdt [kg. (Ilj`
(Ilj`.... Suhaskm) (3>><) 71? pp. 3;4 ‛ 313.
^jhzjhg, L. (47=>) Eltd`jilhgd al` ^lrÿ. Ghst. Ilj`. Egh. Elt., @ged, 2= p. Såjs, D. 3>>1. Lstuagj
al` Eltd`jtlktj @dhkjhls y su ^jtlhkgd` pjr Wdkgeglhtjs Rj`kdhjiçhgkjs al [u`burjs
Sgvlrd,Edsgvjs (RE[)
E., Ejhol, S. -&(^gurd ‛ ^lrÿ).
Hdvdrrj, Ql
Qlsgs
sgs Hulvjs
^. 3>>1. Ajktjrd`.adtjs
\hgv
\hgvlrsgada
lrsgada
sjcrl l`^j`gtçkhgkd
vj`kdhgsej al Klhjzjgkj
Eda
Edarga,
rga, pp.(Irupj
331.
Kd`gpuy) lh l` hjrtl al` ^lrÿ? Alpdrtdelhtjs @d @gclrtda y Dhkdsm. Cj`ltåh al `d [jkglada
Ilj`û
Il j`ûigkd
igkd al` ^l
^lrÿ,
rÿ, pp. 99-34.
-34.
Sjaråiulz, G., Tugspl, O., [ähkmlz, R., Rg``drrld`, L. & Odgels, B. 3>>=. Eltd`jilhgd al `d kulhkd
@dhkjhls? hjrjlstl al` ^lrÿ-[ur al Lkudajr. Slsÿelhls lxtlhagajs ]GR Kjhirlsj
^lrudhj al Ilj`jiåd.
Sjelrj, A. 3>>9. @d kulhkd Krltäkgkj suplrgjr-^d`ljklhj al` ^lrÿ klhtrd`? uh eltd`jtlktj pdrd `d
lxp`jrdkgûh al [ER, Lolep`j Eghd Edrgd Qlrlsd. Qlsgs al edlstråd ^rjirded D@BD, pp.
4>>. Sjelrj, A., Kdr`jttj, R., Qdssghdrg., K. & Tugspl, O. 3>>=. @js alpûsgtjs al `d kulhkd
Eddstrgkmtgdhj-Adhgdhj? rl`dkgûh kjh `js ydkgeglhtjs tgpj su`burjs edsgvjs vj`kdhjiçhgkjs
al ^c-_h-Ku6 ^lrÿ klhtrd`. Slsÿelhls lxtlhagajs ]GR Kjhirlsj ^lrudhj al Ilj`jiåd.
Sjsds, [. & Bjhtcjtç, @., 477<. Lvj`ukgûh slagelhtj`ûigkd al` Irupj ^ukdrä (Qrgäsgkj suplrgjr-
Ouräsgkj ghblrg
ghblrgjr)
jr) lh uh plrb
plrbg`g` [Y
[Y-HL
-HL lh l` klht
klhtrj
rj al` ^lrÿ. [jkglada IljIlj`ûi
`ûigkd
gkd al` ^lrÿ, vj`.
 ou
 oucg`
cg`dr
dr D. Clhdv
Clhdvgals
gals,, pp. 39
397-;>7.
7-;>7.
Sjsds, [., Bjhtcjtç, @. & Ejrkml, Y., 4779. Ru`kdhgsej al tgpj ghtrdp`dkd lh `js kdrcjhdtjs al`
Irupj ^ukdrä (Qrgäsgkj suplrgjr-Ouräsgkj ghblrgjr, ^lrÿ klhtrd`) y su rl`dkgûh kjh l`
vu`kdhgsej al` Irupj Egtu (^çregkj suplrgjr-Qrgäsgkj). G] Kjhirlsj ^lrudhj al Ilj`jiåd,
pp. ;7;-;72.
[j`lr, ^. & Cjhmjeel, E. 47==.- J`gijklhl ediedtgk dha dssjkgdtla eghlrd`gzdtgjh gh tml
pj`yeltd``gk
pj`yeltd` `gk cl`t jb klhtrd` ^lru. Lkjhjegk Ilj`jjiy. iy. Rj`. =;, pp. 2<9-
2<9-22;.
22;.
Qlidrt, ^., D``lh, I. & Kdrstlhslh, D. 3>>>. Sligjhd` slttghi, strdtgirdpmy, d`tlrdtgjh dha
eghlrd`gzdtgjh jb tml Qdecj Irdhal RE[ agstrgkt, ^gurd Alpdrtelht, hjrtmlrh ^lru.
Ilj`jigkd` Dssjkgdtgjh jb Kdhdad, pp. ;9<- 1><.
Rgad`, K., 47=9. Furjfj-typl alpjsgts gh tml egaa`l Krltdkljus gh tml edrighd` cdsgh jb klhtrd`
^lru. Ilj`jigkd` [jkglty jb Delrgkd Cu``ltgh vj` =3 H¿ 2 pp. 41>7-41;>. Yghtlr, @., Qjsad`,
S., Brdhf`gh, O. & Qlidra, ^. 3>>3. D [tlp gh tml Bjredtgjh jb tml Mudhkdcdecd Alb`lktgjh gh
tml Dhals jb ^lru dha Lkudajr. Dcstrdkts wmgt ^rjirdes  ‛ Ilj`jigkd` [jkglty jb Delrgkd.
;16 2, pp. 1;9.
_dpplttghg, L., Egrdhad-Dhi`ls, R., Sjargiulz, K., ^d`dkgjs, J., Kjkfghi, S. 3>>4. Edpd
eltd`
el td`jiçhgkj
jiçhgkj al `d rligûh brjhtl
brjhtlrgzd
rgzd lhtrl Dr
Drilht
ilhtghd,
ghd, Cj`gv
Cj`gvgd,
gd, Kmg`l y ^lrÿ ((41¿
41¿[[ y 3=¿[).
_drtedh, S.L & Kuhhghimde, K.I. 477<. \-Qm-^c zgrkjh adtghi jb tml 4;.= Ed adkgtl vj`kdhgk
ajel dt Klrrj Sgkj al ^jtjså, Cj`gvgd? Ldrtm dha ^`dhltdry [kglhkgl @lttlrs, vj`. 4;;, pp.
339-3;9.