Factors Behind Police Performance in the Philippines

WORKING PAPER
Diagnosing Factors behind Officers’ Performance

in the Philippine National Police
Ronald U. Mendoza, PhD

Ateneo School of Government
Emerald Jay D. Ilac

Ateneo de Manila University – School of Social Sciences
Ariza T. Francisco
Jelo Michael S. Casilao

ASOG WORKING PAPER 20-005
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3542046

ATENEO SCHOOL OF GOVERNMENT WORKING PAPER SERIES
Diagnosing Factors behind Officers’ Performance

in the Philippine National Police
Ronald U. Mendoza, PhD

Emerald Jay D. Ilac

Ateneo de Manila University – School of Social Sciences
Ariza T. Francisco
Jelo Michael S. Casilao

March 2020
The Ateneo School of Government would like to thank the Philippine National Police and
the Bless Our Cops Movement, Inc. for their generous support in the conduct of this study.
The Ateneo School of Government would also like to acknowledge the contributions and
support of Mark Robert Baldo, Sarah Jane Fabito, and Ivyrose Baysic.
This working paper is a draft in progress that is posted online to stimulate discussion and
critical comment. The purpose is to mine reader’s additional ideas and contributions for
completion of a final document.
The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
of Ateneo de Manila University and the European Union.
Corresponding author:
Ariza T. Francisco, Ateneo School of Government

E-mail: afrancisco@ateneo.edu

Abstract
The Philippine National Police (PNP) faces myriad challenges, spanning governance, corruption
and national security threats. Hence, securing a strong leadership pipeline equipped not only to
face these challenges, but also to strengthen policing effectiveness and over-all security sector
reforms is crucial. This study aims to map out some of the main factors that both build or erode
key leadership qualities and performance in the PNP. Using quantitative and qualitative methods,
the study examines four main factors, namely personality traits, organizational culture,
demographic profile and professional history, as predictor of performance for officers in the
National Capital Region. It finds evidence that personality traits, specifically openness,
agreeableness and neuroticism, as well as number of transfers, area of assignment, training on
managerial skills, age and education level are all factors for good performance for officers in the
PNP National Capital Region Police Office. These results emphasize the importance of training
and mentoring components in preparing young officers and recruits for the rigors of service. It
also underscores the need for a deeper analysis of recruitment and selection policies, to ensure
that the PNP successfully attracts the strongest candidates with the right leadership
characteristics and building blocks for service.
Keywords: police performance, Philippine National Police, personality, organizational culture

1. INTRODUCTION
Successfully recruiting and developing its leaders is a core challenge in many public and private
organizations. On top of this, for security sector organizations worldwide, governance and anti-
corruption challenges are often part and parcel of ongoing reforms to strengthen policing
effectiveness and over-all security sector reforms. For the Philippine National Police (PNP), these
aforementioned challenges are amplified for several reasons. For example, there are longstanding
governance challenges related to the promotion of personnel in the police force. In particular, there
are various groups typically influencing and shaping the careers of officers in the PNP. These
include senior officers themselves trying to take care of the careers of junior officers who have
worked with them, as well as local government officials have worked extensively with these
officers.1 Such influence could help mold some of the best leaders in the PNP, if they end-up
working well with development- and good-governance-oriented local government leaders and
senior police officials.
However, this very same “partnership” could be corrosive to the public good, if the PNP and local
governments are crippled by malgovernance, corruption and poor leadership. Young officers and
new recruits assigned to work in badly governed local jurisdictions and police units can quickly
be compromised and pick up bad habits from different stakeholders, including their own superiors
in the PNP as well as other government officials (Batalla, 2019). In fact, the PNP is “captured” in
some local jurisdictions where local politicians have in fact co-opted them to serve in their private
armed groups.2 A recent study found that election years are crucial turning points for fatal police
violence in several provinces and cities in the Philippines, suggesting an important role played by
local politicians in shaping police practices and behaviors (Kreuzer, 2018).
Combined with the challenges of modern community policing which requires not only political
savviness but adaptability to new technologies that could enhance security and police work, the
PNP also faces the persistent national security risks linked to factionalization and rebellion, and
1 These local government officials have, over time, developed extensive influence on the careers of different officers,
notably as part of their collaborative roles under the 1991 Local Government Code.
2 One of the most glaring examples of this is the participation of PNP personnel in the murder of 58 Filipino citizens,
including 53 journalist, in Maguindanao in 23 November 2009. At least 5 police officers would later be convincted,
along with the masterminds from the Ampatuan political clan. For details, the full decision can be accessed here:
https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/12/19/19/read-full-decision-on-maguindanao-massacre-case.
ASOG WORKING PAPER 20-005 2

threats of terrorism and violent extremism. Clearly, the institution faces myriad challenges in the
Philippine context, emphasizing even further the importance of strong integrity and skills in its
leadership pipeline.
The study aims to map out some of the main factors that either build or erode key leadership
qualities in the PNP. In particular, the study will rigorously diagnose the main incentives and
disincentives involved in leadership behaviors deemed critical to the effectiveness of the PNP.
Specifically, the diagnosis will examine:
a. The personality factors influential in police performance;

b. The quality of organization culture relevant in police performance;
c. The demographic facets connected to police performance;
d. The relation of professional history to police performance; and,
e. The combination of these factors leading to police performance.
This study will use quantitative and qualitative methods to examine the abovementioned links; and
it will draw on a comprehensive dataset of police officers in the National Capital Region (NCR).
It finds empirical evidence that personality traits, specifically openness, agreeableness and
neuroticism, as well as number of transfers, area of assignment, training on managerial skills, age
and education level are all factors for good performance for officers in the PNP National Capital
Region Police Office. The qualitative analysis and discussions revealed the importance of training
and mentoring, as well as avenues for identifying and strengthening subcultures that support
integrity and good performance among police officers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the
first comprehensive empirical assessment of performance of officers in the PNP. The goal is to
build on this first study in advancing continued governance and evidence-based institutional
reforms for the organization.
We noted here that the study team committed to full confidentiality protocols in order to protect
the identities of the officers. Only broad patterns and anonymized responses are analyzed and
reported in this study.
In what follows, section 2 briefly synthesizes the relevant literature, while section 3 elaborates on
the methodology behind this study. Section 4 discusses the empirical results, drawing on both the

quantitative and qualitative analyses. A final section outlines the main conclusions and policy
recommendations from this study.
2. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
The study employs Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory. It stipulates that any observable behavior is a by-
product of the interaction of the persona of the individual operating within a specified environment
or context. Lewin emphasized the study of behavior as a function of the total physical and social
situation. A brief review of the literature emphasizes some of the main factors to consider, namely
personality traits, or the individual characteristics; organizational culture, or the way the person
perceived the culture within the confines of the organization; demographic profile and professional
history.
2.a. Personality Traits
Balch (1972) describes personality traits as a set of characteristics that help shape the mentality of
police officers. In fact, a model of personality called the Five-Factor Model (FFM) has emerged
as a useful predictor of job performance over the last three decades (Al-Ali, 2011; Cochrane et al
2003). Also, known as the “Big Five” personality dimensions, the FFM consists of Openness to
experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN). A key
study by Barrick and Mount (1991) contributed greatly toward validating the potency of the FFM
in predicting job performance. By conducting a meta-analysis of 117 studies, they found that the
FFM is a robust and meaningful framework for testing hypotheses relating individual personalities
to a wide range of criteria. Notably, they found that the Conscientiousness dimension was a valid
predictor of job performance for all types of occupational groupings, i.e., professionals, police,
managers, sales, and skilled/semi-skilled workers. They asserted that “those individuals who
exhibit traits associated with a strong sense of purpose, obligation, and persistence generally
perform better than those who do not.”
Another study of the Abu Dhabi Police supports that personality is a predictor of performance (Al-
Ali, 2011). They found that, of the Big Five, Conscientiousness and Extraversion showed positive
significant correlation with job performance. Neuroticism, on the other hand, showed significant
negative correlation with job performance. Furthermore, the study found that three of the FFM

have significant negative correlation with measurements of counterproductive work behavior
(CWB). In contrast, neuroticism showed positive associations with CWB. Finally, Sanders (2003)
noted that the international literature examining police officers’ performance appear to consistently
identify personality traits like intelligence, honesty, common sense, reliability and/or
conscientiousness.
2.b. Organizational Culture
Denison (1995) refers to organizational culture as an evolved context of organizational climate

where it is deeply rooted in history and is complex for direct manipulation. Further, they
characterize culture to include underlying traits and value dimensions (Denison and Mishra, 1995).
In one of their studies, a theoretical framework was developed for relating organizational culture
and effectiveness. Based on their study, they identified four (4) culture traits that relate to
effectiveness of the professional individual: Adaptability, Mission, Involvement, and Consistency.
They found out that involvement and adaptability were strong predictors of growth--that is,
individuals have the growing capacity to operate under the conditions of autonomy and have a
high resistance to change and adaptation. Further, the results showed that mission or long-term
vision and consistency are also positively related to effectiveness. This indicates that if the culture
of the organization was perceived stable and predictable over time, then this too contributes to
better performance of individuals working in that organization.
Organizational culture has been a dominant concept used to encapsulate the effect of the
environment on individual performance and collective effectiveness. It consists of what people
believe about how things work in their organizations and the behavioral and physical outcomes of
these beliefs (Sinclair, 1993). Recent studies on the PNP analyzes the organization’s systemic
corruption (Batalla, 2019) and violence (Kreuzer, 2018). Batalla (2019) examines the
institutionalized corruption at the PNP, which may be rooted in patronage politics, weak internal
controls, and culture of favoritism and protection (known as kuya system or bata-bata system).
On the other hand, patterns of lethal police violence vary in Metro Manila, wherein Quezon City
and Manila City have the highest rate at almost identical rates of 14.5 killings per million
population annually, while Pateros and San Juan City both have no reported killings (Kreuzer,

2018). This suggests that police performance may be greater influenced by specific local
subcultures.
It is possible to link an entirely separate branch of literature—focused on institutions—to the

growth of the organizational culture. For instance, research by Jiao (2010) examines differences
in the institutional innovations for combatting corruption by the Hong Kong Police Force (HKPF)
and New York Police Department (NYPD). HKPF routinely partners with an independent anti-
corruption agency, ICAC (Independent Commission Against Corruption), 3 while the NYPD has
established internal integrity mechanism through its Internal Affairs Bureau (IAB).4 This suggests
a diversity in institutional designs which balances the internal and external accountability
mechanisms germane to different police agencies across countries.
2.c. Demographic Profile
Demographic profile pertains to age, gender, marital status, and academic background. Studies
show how these various dimensions can also influence individual performance. In terms of age,
older adults have difficulty with the mastery of training content and completion of tasks when
compared to younger adults (Kubeck et al., 1996). Another study explained how physiological
aging can result in a decline in basic cognitive and psychomotor abilities. However, older workers
demonstrate greater tendency for higher commitment, lower turnover, and voluntary absenteeism
(Rhodes, 1983).
Studies on gender revealed that male officers reported more hypermasculine values. These found
to be related to more citizen rudeness and an increased likelihood of receiving complaint report
(Schuck, 2014). In terms of civil status, married individuals revealed to differ significantly from
single individuals in relation to work values, where married individuals demonstrated high work
values and performance (Rueda and Ohzono, 2013). On the other hand, studies on the number of
children revealed that individuals with more young children tends to perform poorly because of
increased family responsibilities (Crouter, 1984).
3https://www.icac.org.hk/en/home/index.html
4 https://www1.nyc.gov/site/nypd/bureaus/investigative/internal-affairs.page

Educational attainment also shows that individuals with higher levels of education perform better
compare to less educated individuals (Aamodt, 1997). Apart from educational attainment, Henson
et al (2010) also observed that measures of police academy performance and civil service exam
score were linked to job success for police officers in a Midwestern police department he examined
during the period from 1996-2006.
2.d. Professional History
Professional history refers to the exposure of the police officer within the organization. In
particular, this relates to their areas of assignment, number of transfers, years of service, trainings
received, among other factors. There is a dearth of literature that would support professional
history as predictor of performance. For instance, studies found that length of work or tenure has
direct effect on degree of job knowledge and well-practiced work skills, which in turn positively
affect performance (Schmidt et al., 1986; McDaniel et al., 1988). International research also
identified age (which may also proxy for experience in the workforce) as one of the factors that
appear associated with better performance of police officers (e.g. Kubeck et al 1996; White 2008).
Ng & Feldman (2010) presented a contradictory position by suggesting that organizational tenure
had a decreasing impact on performance. Specifically, they found that tenure had a significant
impact on performance between 3 and 6 years in the organization—and this decreases until around
14 years in the organization. Furthermore, research on police misconduct also find empirical
evidence that prior criminal involvement, employment problems either with the police force or
with an earlier employer, complaints by citizens, and weaker education are among the warning
signs that end up predicting dismissals (e.g. Frank 2009; Kane and White 2009; Stinson et al 2012).
3. METHODOLOGY
Building on methods established in the literature, the empirical analysis herein utilizes a unique
micro-level dataset drawn from surveys, FGDs, and administrative information involving officers
of the PNP National Capital Region Police Office (PNP-NCRPO).

3.a. Participants
“Strong” performing police officers are defined as the police officers who have received awards
and those with zero cases filed against them. Awards include Medalya ng Kabayanihan, Medalya
ng Kadakilaan, Medalya nf Kagalignan, Medalya ng Kagitingan, Medalya ng Katapangan,
Meritorious Awards, and Metrobank Award. “Poor” performing police officers are those who have
legal, administrative and civil cases involving grave offenses, and with no or minimal awards.
Examples of grave offenses are drugs, human rights violations, robbery or extortion, and graft or
malversation. Information on awards and cases were derived from administrative information
provided by the PNP.
The sample was selected from the pool of current officers in the PNP National Capital Region
Police Office (NCRPO), a division of the Philippine National Police which has jurisdiction over
Metro Manila, also known as the National Capital Region. These officers rank from Patrolman to
Lieutenant Colonel, and who have been in active police service for the past 10 years (2009-2019).
This excludes those who died, dismissed, resigned, or retied in the past five years, and who were
recruited from 2015 to 2018. The total population of NCRPO is 23,144. Of this group, a total of
13,220 officers have awards, while 9,924 have cases. These were then stratified for proper
representation among districts in NCRPO (National Capital Region Police Office Headquarters,
Eastern Police District, Manila Police District, Northern Police District, Quezon City Police
District, and Southern Police District). The study participants were selected through electronic
randomization.
3.b. Sources of Data
This study draws on both quantitative and qualitative data using mixed methods.
Quantitative Survey. A total of four hundred seventy-nine (479) respondents participated in the
pen-and-paper quantitative survey. Of this, two hundred ninety-two (292) came from those tagged
as strong performing police officers, while one hundred eighty-seven (187) came from those
tagged as poor performing police officers. These numbers permit generalizability of results
following acceptable statistical criteria of 95% confidence level and 5% confidence interval within
the total officers of the National Capital Region (NCRPO). The quantitative survey involved two

tests. The first was the OCEAN personality test and the second was an organizational culture
survey tool created by Denision and Mishra (1995). Both these surveys were implemented from
August to September 2019.
Personality Test. The OCEAN personality test is a 60-item questionnaire with factors measuring
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. This test aims to
measure personality factors intrinsic to the individual. It has a reliability measure of 0.90, 0.78,
0.76, 0.86 and 0.90 for the dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and
conscientiousness, respectively. The factor descriptions are as follows:
A. Openness focuses on the intellect or imagination. This reflects how a person is willing to
try out new things, thinking out of the box, having varied interests, being daring and bold,
creative and curious.
B. Conscientiousness reflects how an individual controls his or her impulses, acts in socially
acceptable ways, and plans and organizes activities. It shows their self-discipline,
persistence, reliability, diligence, consistency, and thoroughness.
C. Extraversion looks at how a person interacts with other people. Specifically, this focused
on their level of social confidence, energy levels, ability to talk to anyone, assertiveness,
and friendliness.
D. Agreeableness seeks to showcase behaviors that demonstrate how an individual gets along
with other people, such as showing helpfulness, patience, tactfulness, loyalty, sensitivity
to others, politeness, and kindness.
E. Neuroticism measures an individual’s emotional stability and self-esteem. High
neuroticism leads to behaviors such as being moody, jealous, unconfident, insecure,
nervous, and unaccepting of criticism. 5
Organizational Culture Survey. The second tool was the organizational culture survey drawing on
seminal work by Denision and Mishra (1995). This is composed of four parts, and each part has
three different subparts. It was measured using a 5-point Likert scale and had internal reliability of
0.97. The factors of the test are as follows:
5 Further information on the OCEAN personality test could be obtained from

https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCDV_22.htm.

A. Involvement – reflects the engagement of individuals in the organization and its internal
dynamics. Involvement plays a key role in creating a sense of ownership and responsibility,
which in turn fosters a greater commitment to the organization and a growing capacity to
operate under conditions of autonomy (Denison and Mishra, 1995).
a. Empowerment – reflects the members’ sense of authority, ownership,
responsibility, initiative, and ability to manage their own work.
b. Team orientation – looks at how members of the organization are working
cooperatively towards common goals, and are reliant on team effort to get work
done.
c. Capability development – seeks to see how the organization develops employees’
skills to stay competitive.
B. Consistency – reflects the values, processes and systems that show an internal and stable
focus for the entire organization. Consistency refers to the degree of normative integration.
Its positive relation to effectiveness is underpinned by the hypothesis that an implicit
control system based on internalized values can be more effective in achieving integration
rather than on explicit rules and regulations. One negative aspect of highly consistent
cultures is the high resistance to change and adaptation (Denison and Mishra, 1995).
a. Core values – reflects how members share a set of values which create a sense of
identity.
b. Agreement – looks at how members are able to agree on critical issues and reconcile
differences.
c. Coordination and integration – seeks to see how the various functions and units of
the organization work well together to achieve common goals.
C. Adaptability – reflects how the organization adjusts to the public, learn new skills, or
change in response to an external demand. This positively relates to organizational
effectiveness (Denison and Mishra, 1995).
a. Creating change – reflects how the organization creates adaptive ways to meet
changing needs, reacts quickly to current trends, and anticipates future changes.

b. Customer focus – looks at how the organization understands and reacts to the
public, and its concern to satisfy the public needs.
c. Organizational learning – seeks to translate signals from outside into opportunities
for innovation, knowledge, and capabilities for the organization’s growth.
D. Mission – reflects the purpose and direction of the organization and its members. Sense of
Mission or long-term vision also positively relates to effectiveness. This hypothesis was
based on their observation of several organizations that proved effective because they
pursued a mission combining economic and non-economic objectives, which provided
meaning and direction to its members (Denison and Mishra, 1995).
a. Strategic direction and intent – reflects how organization’s strategic intention and
purpose are defined, and clarify how everyone can contribute.
b. Goals and objectives – looks at the how the goals and objectives of the various units
are linked to the mission and vision, and provide everyone with a clear direction.
c. Vision – seeks to see the organization’s view of a desired future state, providing
overall guidance and direction.
Focus Group Discussions. FGDs were conducted in order to validate the results from the survey
and dig deeper into the underlying motivations behind some of the responses. Two FGDs were
conducted on August 27 and August 29, 2019, immediately after the pen-and-paper testing. The
FGDs were divided into two groups: the first group was composed of eight (8) police officers who
are facing administrative cases, while the second group was composed of ten (10) police officers
who received awards. A guide was specifically developed for the focus group discussions. This
guide asked questions pertaining to: a) describing the ideal police officer, b) factors that will help
these officers to do the ideal role, c) characteristics of poorly performing police officers, d) reasons
for their poor performance, and e) how the PNP as an institution creates these police officers
whether good or not.
Personal Data Sheet. Aside from the information gathered from the quantitative survey and the
FGDs, the study team was given access to personal data sheets in order to provide information on
the demographic profile of the participants and their professional history. The demographic profile
of the participants included the following information: age, gender, civil status, number of

children, educational attainment, religion, and the province where they originated. Meanwhile,
professional history of the participants included data on their tenure, respective areas of
assignment, and type of trainings they received, specifically on operational skills and managerial
skills. The study team committed to full confidentiality protocols in order to protect the identities
of the officers. Only broad patterns and anonymized responses are analyzed and reported in this
study.
3.c. Empirical Analysis
As for the quantitative analysis of the survey, multiple linear regression was implemented to assess
which factors contribute to the performance of the police officers. This was done by using the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Content and thematic analyses were conducted
to make sense of the data collected from the focus group discussions. These involved coding all
the responses and then collating them into general themes. These themes were then reviewed,
defined, and labeled to describe the content of the data. To ensure accuracy of analysis, inter-coder
reliability was implemented wherein other qualitative analysts collaborated in reviewing the
transcripts and identifying the themes, as well as the description for each theme. Frequency of the
verbatim statements per general theme was also computed.
4. EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The empirical methodology draws on Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory, posited as B = f(p,E). This
theory stipulates that any observable behavior is a by-product of the interaction of the persona of
the individual operating within a specified environment or context. As such, applying this to the
PNP, performance can be understood as a result of the combination of an individual’s intrinsic
facets as operating within the context of the PNP. With this in mind, the study examined both the
intrinsic facets and the environmental or contextual factors that will shape performance for the
police force.

4.a. Descriptive Analysis
As mentioned, there were a total of 479 participants in the study. Of these, 292 were those awarded
with various medals, and 187 received administrative sanctions. The average age of the
participants was 37 years old, and a majority were male (90.2%). In addition, 68.5% were married
and had on average 2 children. Of the total pool, 81.2% were Roman Catholic in religion, and 98%
completed up to college with the remaining 2% moving further into post-graduate studies.
On average, out of the total participant base, 62.6% came from Metro Manila and had worked with
the PNP for 12 years. They had been transferred precincts at least 3 times within their career. The
following table (Table 1) shows the division according to police districts of the total participant
base.
Manila Police District 24.80%

Quezon City Police District 19.80%
Southern Police District 18.60%

NCR Police Office 15.70%
North Police District 10.00%
Eastern Police District 9.80%
Table 1. Division of participants per police district
The 479 participants came from 252 different academic institutions, with 68% of the officers
earning with a degree in Criminology. Table 2 shows an anonymized list of the top schools that
are feeders of the police officers for the PNP. This illustrates that some schools are potentially
more able to produce recruits that will be strong performers.
Name of School Total Poor Strong

Performing Performing
N % N %
School A 100 47 47.0 53 53.0
School B 18 6 33.3 12 66.7
School C 11 5 45.5 6 54.5
School D 9 6 66.7 3 33.3
School E 9 3 33.3 6 66.7
School F 7 3 42.9 4 57.1
School G 7 3 42.9 4 57.1
School H 7 2 28.6 5 71.4
School I 6 3 50.0 3 50.0
School J 6 3 50.0 3 50.0
School K 4 0 0.0 4 100.0
Table 2. Top Schools where NCRPO cops graduated
The descriptive analysis allows for testing associations between variables and performance. Table
3 and Table 4 below shows the results of the descriptive analysis on demographic profile and
professional history, respectively.

Age Younger officers aged 20-29 are associated to poorer performance.
This coheres with literature citing age (which is also a proxy for
experience) is related to higher degree of job knowledge, higher
commitment and lower turnover (Kubeck et al., 1996; Rhodes, 1983).
Gender Male officers are significantly associated to poor performance. This
supports existing international studies that found male officers
reported more hyper-masculine values, which are related to more
citizen rudeness and an increased likelihood of receiving a complaint
report (Schuck, 2014).
Civil Status Married officers have significantly higher percentage of poor
performers. Interestingly, this result contradicts existing literature that
revealed married individuals differ significantly from single
individuals in relation to work values, where married individuals
demonstrated high work values and performance (Rueda and Ohzono,
2013). Here, the civil status variable may be influenced by number of
children, where married individuals are more likely to have more
children (see below).
Number of Officers with more children have significantly higher number of poor
children performances. This aligns to prevous studies that found officers with
higher number of young children are more at risk to eliciting bad
performance due to heavier family responsibilities (Crouter, 1984).
Educational Educational attainment is associated with strong performance. This
attainment coheres with numerous studies that found better-educated officers
perform better in the academy, receive higher supervisor evaluations
of job performance, have fewer disciplinary problems and accidents,
are assaulted less often, use force less often, and miss fewer days of
work than their less educated counterparts (Aamodt, 1997).
Religion The proportion of poor and strong performers among different
religions were not significant.
Originating There is no significant difference in performance between officers
Province from Metro Manila and non-Metro Manila.

Table 3. Descriptive analysis of demographic variables
Area of Area of assignment is associated to performance. Specific districts are

Assignment more likely to produce poor performers.
Number of The number of transfers is associated to performance. The more an officer
Transfers is transferred to different stations, the higher likelihood for better
performance.
Years of Service Officers with 1-10 years of service are more likely to be poor performers.
This supports studies conducted that found length of work has direct
effect on degree of job knowledge, which in turn positively affect work
performance (Schmidt et al., 1986).
Training Trainings were categorized into operationsl skills and managerial skills.
received Officers who underwent managerial skills training, not just operational
skills, are more likely to be strong performers.
Table 4. Descriptive analysis of professional history variables
4.b. Regression Analysis

The multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine predictors of both strong and poor,
focused on examining personality traits, perceived organizational culture, professional history, and
demographic profile. This study finds evidence that personality traits, specifically openness,
agreeableness and neuroticism, as well as number of transfers, area of assignment, training on
managerial skills, age and education level are all factors for strong performance for officers in the
PNP National Capital Region Police Office (See Table 1 in the Appendix for regression results
table).
Strong performing police officers. For the police officers who received awards, the personality
facets of Neuroticism ( = -.155, p=.031), Openness ( = -.199, p=.006), and Agreeableness ( =
-.145, p=.051) were found to be predictors of good performance. This means that the police
officers who score lower on these facets were found to have a stronger personality aligned to the
organizational culture and perform better. They are more intrinsically driven to succeed rather than
be influenced by other individuals. These are individuals who prefer routine and tried-and-tested

methods rather than new ideas. In addition, they act more independently of others, remain firm on
their stance, demonstrate confidence and have lower self-doubt.
On the other hand, cultural facets from the Denison survey, specifically mission ( = -.046,
p=.619), adaptability ( = -.020, p=.807), involvement ( = .043, p=.630) and consistency ( = -
.018, p=.858), were found to be weak predictors of good performance. This signified that the
perceived organizational culture was not a major influence for the good performing police officers.
This could be because these officers were more intrinsically driven rather than externally
motivated to perform well.
Looking at their professional history, the empirical results showed a significant direct relationship
between number of transfers ( = .535, p=.000), area of assignment (  = -.228, p=.000) and
training on managerial skills ( = .569, p=.000) and performance. More transfers for a police
officer were associated with a higher likelihood that the police officer would perform better.
Consistently, the findings showed that assignment in certain districts negatively predicted good
performance. Quezon City and Manila City have significantly higher number of poor performing
officers among the 17 NCR cities and municipality. Similarly, another study shows that these two
cities have the highest fatal police encounters per capita from 2006 to 2015 (Kreuzer, 2018). This
result cohered with the longstanding policy to encourage rotations in different assignments for
police officers. From a governance perspective, this also cohered with the effort to prevent officers
from being “captured” through corrupt transactions whose risk tends to increase with more
familiarity in an assignment. Rotations help to prevent over-familiarization with potentially
corrupt elements in any one assignment, and it also provides police officers with the opportunities
to exhibit performance and gain more experience in different assignments. Plum assignments are
also more evenly distributed so that more officers are given a chance to distinguish themselves.
Lastly, those officers who received managerial skills training, not just operational skills training,
have higher likelihood to perform better. This suggests that leadership development has a key role
in fostering good performance.
Age ( = .269, p=.000) and education ( = .115, p=.046) were both associated with good
performance as well. This suggested the greater risks of poor performance were frontloaded in a
young officer’s career, when experience and education had not yet become influencing factors.

Poor performing police officers. For the police officers who were given administrative cases, none
of the personality facets in the OCEAN test were found to be predictors of their poor performance.
This means that for this group, their performance was not intrinsically driven. More likely,
performing under par was a result of their interaction with the environment they operated in.
Cultural facets from the Denison survey indicated however that organizational culture was not also
predictive of their poor performance. This meant that the poor performance of the police officers
was not influenced by the organizational culture itself, but by the interaction among members of
the organization. This could be with fellow police officers or their respective leaders. This angle
would later be validated during the FGDs as officers mentioned the “bata-bata system” whereby
senior officers and politicians may try to influence and protect younger officers in an attempt to
gain their allegiance and support.
Furthermore, looking at their professional history, the number of transfers ( = -.359, p=.042) was
inversely associated with poor performance. The less the number of transfers a police officer went
through, the higher the chance that the police officer performed poorly. (Once again this reconfirms
the findings earlier that rotation plays a healthy role in staff development.) Due to the minimal
opportunity to be assigned to different situations, this group of police officers tended to maintain
routinary tasks and operate in their comfort zone, offering little opportunity for leadership growth.
4.c. Thematic Analysis
FGDs with the good performing and poor performing officers produced the following results,
which emphasized the combined importance of training and intrinsic leadership skills among
potential officers. The next section elaborates on the key findings.
Individual characteristics. Both strong performing and poor performing police officers described
the ideal police officer to be God-fearing, dependable, honest, self-disciplined and obedient, brave
and patriotic, considerate and patient, and loving. All agreed that there are still police officers who
possess these characteristics in the PNP. For them, innate characteristics intrinsic to the person
even before entering the workforce were critically important for these officials to perform at par
or even above standards. However, they emphasized that some characteristics, such as discipline
and accountability, can be addressed through more effective police training. Thus, the group

pointed out that new recruits, if not properly trained, are the ones prone to do unacceptable
behavior. Our discussions with police officers further highlighted the importance of attracting and
selecting the most competitive recruits, so that these individuals already had the strong building
blocks for leadership necessary to succeed as officers in the PNP.
On the other hand, both groups described a poor performing police officer to be hard-headed, tardy,
sensitive, jealous, discontented, materialistic, and arrogant. When asked why the poorly
performing officers behaved that way, they mentioned factors such as the environment they were
situated in, temptations within the organization, and their lack of material possessions.
Training. All new recruits of PNP undergo basic technical skills training. According to the officers
that participated in the FGD, they observed that the quality of training may potentially be
decreasing, signaled by the perceived lack of discipline and poorer performance of the new recruits
and younger officers. As evidence, they claimed that more than 32% of younger officers received
cases. Furthermore, they observed that new recruits are increasingly out of shape, which may be a
result of decreasing physical rigor of the current trainings. The officers highlighted that
maintaining physical fitness is crucial in performing their tasks, especially for operatives and field
officers. 6
However, officers mentioned that there are efforts to improve the training in the PNP. First, there
is a re-training program for poor performers. The officers who received grave cases and/or
suspended are required to go back to camp for 45 days for training. Second, more opportunities
for personal and leadership trainings are now being offered. An example of this is the My Brother’s
Keeper initiative that focuses on behavioral and spiritual development of the officers.
Subcultures. There are two main prevailing and opposite subcultures that the groups referenced:
“My Brother’s Keeper” (MBK from hereon) and Bata-Bata (Senior-Junior or BB from hereon)
systems. The MBK is a mentoring program that provides opportunities for young police officers
6 It is widely studied that increased in body mass index (BMI) is negatively associated to performance. Dawes et al.
(2018) found that overweight officers score lower in defense tactics compared to healthy counterparts. Another study
by Kukic et al. (2018) also found that increased BMI negatively affected police officers’ muscular endurance and
running performance. Apart from decreased physical performance, obese workers are more highly to get sick, acquire
disability, and thus, miss work (Arredondo, 2018).

(brother) to be adopted by senior police officers (keeper) in a bond of brotherhood and
accountability. The squad concept helps to ensure that each policeman in a unit will be accountable
to each other as they lookout for each other’s welfare. It involves support in terms of sharing advice
on career challenges, culture building, and spiritual guidance. This has been perceived to be a
positive influence on performance by the police participants.
On the other hand, the informal BB system breeds patronage between senior and junior officers.
The participants claimed that this system produced positive effects before such as sense of loyalty
and trust, but this has been abused over time, and used for personal gain, such as for protection
and promotion. They mentioned that if junior officers have senior officers backing them up, they
tend to be more complacent and arrogant. Opposite to MBK, the officers perceive this BB culture
to have negative effect on police performance.
Policies. As for policies within the police force that affected strong and poor performance, they
mentioned the support of top management specifically the President to their undertakings made
them change their mindset when it comes to service. Specifically, the internal cleansing policy
helped in making sure poor performing officers are culled out of their system, together with
sanctions for repeated misdemeanors. Through the internal cleansing policy, the PNP identifies a
list of officers with cases and provides intervention depending on their case. Interventions may be
punitive, such as dismissal or suspension; but recent changes in the PNP leadership have begun to
emphasize a more rehabilitative approach, tackling the root causes of poor performance (e.g. such
as commissioning this diagnostic study).
On the other hand, officers also mentioned that lack of policies that support police officers results
in potentially bad behavior. For example, according to them, they did not receive ample support
to perform their duties—and one example was the inadequate legal assistance when dealing with
court cases and appearances. At times, they were also compelled to use their own resources when
attending court hearings. By shouldering job-related expenses, some officers may be tempted to
engage in corrupt activities to make up for their out-of-pocket expenses. These types of informal
practices may have initially served as coping mechanisms. However, these probably also hardened
over time in order to become part of the organizational culture and common practice.

Public perception. Both groups claimed that negative public perception towards the police affects
morale and performance. According to their personal experiences, police officers are not regarded
highly and are treated disrespectfully by the public. This is especially intensified in highly
urbanized cities such as Metro Manila. While they implement maximum tolerance when dealing
with civilians, this persistent lack of respect may reduce the quality of their interpersonal relations
and interactions, such as losing patience and performing actions to exert their authority.
They acknowledged that media plays a critical role in shaping the public image of the PNP. For
instance, many of the news covering PNP feature issues of poor performing police officers, leading
to more negative perceptions and lack of trust towards the institution. There is desire from the
officers to work towards building public trust and creating better image for PNP. Through this,
they can gain confidence and prestige in performing their duties as a police officer and public
servant.
5. DISCUSSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
The results highlight the effects of formal organizational culture, prevailing informal
organizational culture or “subcultures”, and personality traits on performance of police officers in
the Philippine National Police. The findings indicate that regardless whether the officer is strong
performing or poor performing, there is no difference in how they understand and perceive PNP’s
organizational culture in terms of its mission, adaptability, involvement and consistency. This
shows that PNP’s organizational culture is perceived as established, consistent and in some ways
quite rigid. The latter point has spurred informal coping mechanisms among many offices, some
of which have hardened over time to become common practice. Formal organizational culture is
not shown to predict whether officers will perform well or poorly. This suggests that instead of the
bigger, lofty ideals of the formal organizational culture, the “subcultures” or interactions among
officers and key stakeholders may play a bigger role in affecting performance and shaping officers’
development over time.
Indeed, “subcultures” in this context are seen to be formed as a way to respond to the rigidity and
convention of the formal organizational culture. Groups of officers in the organization tend to
adapt to the rigidities of the organization in order to accomplish their work while also working

around structures and rules not often seen as fair nor useful. “Subcultures” are molded by elements
of leadership, rituals, practices. and member composition prevailing in the group. These may then
create an environment which influences officers to either perform well or poorly.
On the individual level, the findings show that good performing officers are those who are more
self-confident, less open to external influences, and more likely to prefer working individually than
in teams. This can mean that officers with strong positive traits may less likely be influenced by
bad “subcultures”, and may instead contribute to good “subcultures”. Furthermore, good
performing officers are those who have undergone managerial skills training, highlighting that
more than operational skills, leadership is crucial in promoting good performance. The findings of
the focus group discussions emphasize the role of training, mentoring and leadership development
in strengthening good traits (e.g. discipline, honesty, reliability), and correcting bad ones (e.g.
tardiness, materialistic mindset, hard-headedness) at the individual level. To this, we add how
critically important it is to re-examine the selection and recruitment of officers given how the
building blocks of leadership characteristics may have already been honed prior to joining the
PNP.
Presented below is a general framework on how interventions can be structured.
FIGURE 1. Organizational Culture and Individual Personality in the Context of Subcultures
Source: Authors’ synthesis based on the literature and the main results of this study.

The main findings of this study confirm with empirical evidence many expected areas for reform
engagement. We re-emphasize them here for future researchers to engage reformists in the PNP,
in an evidence-based change management agenda for the organization.
Revisit organizational culture to be more pragmatic and responsive
The formal organizational culture on paper appears sound; yet parts of it may be too rigid and may
have failed to adapt in pace with the challenges faced by the PNP and its officers. Some
components of the organizational culture need to be reviewed, and possibly reformed to be more
pragmatic and responsive to the current operations of the Philippine National Police. For instance,
misreporting (i.e. officers rotate the names declared on case filing) has become a way of operating
to address issues of workload and court appearances. And as noted earlier, coping mechanisms by
some officers may now include corrupt practices that help to augment the perceived effectiveness
of police operations. While perhaps initially well-meaning, these (and other) adaptive behaviors
can be addressed by focusing on the root issues of operational challenges faced by the organization.
Effective cascading of culture through change management
The good elements of the organizational culture, which includes the vision-mission, values and
beliefs, should, ideally, be cascaded down and throughout the organization. This can effectively
be done through adopting change management strategies. This starts with leaders understanding
the existing culture operating in the organization, and defining key reforms and aspirational target
culture. These are then incorporated in their communication, leadership alignment, and
organizational design, among others. Nevertheless, a purely top down approach here will likely
fail, as emphasized by the next point.
Strengthen subcultures through effective oversight on leadership and mentoring
The reality for the PNP is that it routinely engages with other stakeholders—such as local
government leaders and other stakeholders at the local level—that may, de facto, decentralize parts
of the operational influence and control over some of its units. Hence, in lieu of a top-down
organizational lens, better understanding and shaping subcultures become important areas for
intervention. This entails strengthening the good subcultures that cohere with the ideal

organizational culture, and at the same time, addressing the issues of the bad subcultures. For
example, MBK is identified as an innovation that created good subcultures. This may be reinforced
by finding ways to further institutionalize the said initiative. On the other hand, the organization
may look into reforming the BB system, which may have been initially useful, but now is regarded
in the context of bad subcultures. One simple yet powerful way to strengthen good subcultures
would be to formalize leadership and mentoring development as officers progress in their careers.
Effective techniques and outcomes can be identified and widely recognized by the organization,
with a view to further rooting these practices within the organization.
Strategic human resources
Human resource strategies could also be focused on enhancing the quality of recruitment and
training for younger officers. To start, there could be a more evidence-informed recruitment and
screening process for future officers. This study has confirmed a few traits that appear to be linked
to good performance--personality traits like openness, agreeableness and neuroticism, as well as
education level. The international literature attempting to predict good performance among police
officers further confirm additional traits worth monitoring for, including education, reading level
and age (which also proxies for maturity and experience in the workforce). 7
This may include a more deliberate analysis of the PNP recruitment process and data. It could also
involve a more formal collaboration not just with the Philippine National Police Academy but
other schools and criminology colleges as well, in order to examine and improve their programs,
ensuring individuals are better selected and trained even before they enter PNP. It is also crucial
to acknowledge that individuals may be self-selecting into the police force, so public perceptions
of what types of leaders are recruited by the PNP could make a big difference in the recruitment
pipeline. For instance, if young people perceive the PNP to be a corrupt organization, then the
7 White (2008) examined officers in a large metropolitan police department (anonymized) and found evidence that
reading level, age, gender and race were linked with better performance. Meanwhile, college education, military
experience and residency were not. In addition, Sanders (2003) observed that certain personality attributes were
consistently identified in the empirical literature as being linked to better performance—intelligence, common sense,
integrity, reliability and/or conscientiousness. Henson et al (2010) exposed issues in measurement of “good
performance”, yet also observed that measures of police academy performance and civil service exam score were
linked to job success for police officers in a Midwestern police department he examined during the period from 1996-
2006.

better candidates may shun the organization, and instead those with the wrong motivations may be
more attracted to the PNP.
More generally, it is also crucial to develop a competency-based training, deployment and

promotion, so as to strengthen the culture of meritocracy in the organization. Ideally, the PNP
could establish very clear and evidence based processes that identify specific competencies and
skills for each promotion level in the organization. Not only could this could better inform the
training programs to be crafted by PNP; but it could also protect senior managers within the
organization from both internal and external influence on the promotions process.
Central dataset monitoring leadership development
Finally, a central dataset could enable the Philippine National Police to track performance of the
officers, and monitor the pipeline of its leaders. This will allow PNP to conduct periodic reviews
and make responsive, evidence-based decisions on their human resources. This study has
highlighted the routine diagnostics that such a system could produce. Through an empirical
analysis of the different success factors for performance over time, it would then be possible to
fine tune the organization’s policies guided and unified by evidence.

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+AMDG

APPENDIX
TABLE 1. Results of the Multiple Regression Analyses by Performance

Performance t p  F df p adj. R2
Good Performance
Overall model for Personality Profile and Organizational Culture 2.28 9, 281 .018 .068
Openness -2.76 .006 -.199
Conscientiousness .16 .075 .158
Extraversion 1.17 .240 .091
Agreeableness -1.96 .051 -.145
Neuroticism -2.17 .031 -.155
Mission -.50 .619 -.046
Adaptability -.25 .807 -.020
Involvement .48 .630 .043
Consistency .02 .858 .018
Overall model for Professional History 15.85 2, 62 .000 .317
Years of Service .437 .663 .025
No. of transfers 9.46 .000 .535
Area of assignment -3.97 .000 -.228
Training on operational skills .908 .368 .094
Training on managerial skills 5.50 .000 .569
Overall model for Demographic Profile 4.58 7, 282 .000 .080
Age 4.03 .000 .269
Civil Status 1.36 .173 .087
Educational Attainment 2.00 .046 .115
Poor Performance
Overall model for Personality Profile and Organizational Culture .39 9, 174 .940 -.031
Openness .33 .744 .028
Conscientiousness -.46 .643 -.049
Extraversion -.67 .501 -.060

Agreeableness -.79 .433 -.068
Neuroticism -.26 .792 -.025
Mission -.07 .942 -.009
Adaptability .59 .559 .065
Involvement 1.01 .315 .116
Consistency -.51 .610 -.067
Overall model for Professional History 2.45 2, 34 .101 .075
No. of transfers -2.12 .042 -.359
Training on managerial skills 1.29 .205 .219
Overall model for Demographic Profile 5.301 2, 178 .006 .046
Age 1.96 .052 .143
Educational Attainment 2.25 .016 .177
Note: The significance level was tested at p<.05


Factors Behind Police Performance in the Philippines

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WORKING PAPER

Diagnosing Factors behind Officers’ Performance

Ronald U. Mendoza, PhD

Emerald Jay D. Ilac

Jelo Michael S. Casilao

ASOG WORKING PAPER 20-005

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3542046

Diagnosing Factors behind Officers’ Performance

Ronald U. Mendoza, PhD

Emerald Jay D. Ilac

Jelo Michael S. Casilao

Ariza T. Francisco, Ateneo School of Government

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3542046

Keywords: police performance, Philippine National Police, personality, organizational culture

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ASOG WORKING PAPER 20-005 2

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a. The personality factors influential in police performance;

ASOG WORKING PAPER 20-005 3

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2. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

2.a. Personality Traits

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2.b. Organizational Culture

Denison (1995) refers to organizational culture as an evolved context of organizational climate

ASOG WORKING PAPER 20-005 5

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It is possible to link an entirely separate branch of literature—focused on institutions—to the

2.c. Demographic Profile

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2.d. Professional History

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3.b. Sources of Data

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5 Further information on the OCEAN personality test could be obtained from

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3.c. Empirical Analysis

4. EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

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Manila Police District 24.80%

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Name of School Total Poor Strong

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Area of Area of assignment is associated to performance. Specific districts are

4.b. Regression Analysis

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