7 Design Actions

CONTENTS
DESIGN ACTIONS
Permanent Actions (Dead Loads)
Dynamic Loads
Imposed Actions (Live Loads)
Wind Loads
Earthquake Load
Snow Load
Other Design Actions
Indirect Actions
Indirect Actions ‐ Fire
Limit State Design
Approach
Definitions
Errors!
Load Combinations
Material Factors
3/06/2021
SDCM71‐316
Structures and Materials
7 Design Actions
Dr Dane Miller
dmiller@bond.edu.au
Start Recording!
COVID-19 campus
health and safety is a
shared responsibility
CRICOS Provider Code

00017B
1
3/06/2021
BEFORE WE START THE CLASS

• Wipe down your workspace before and after use.
• Follow the instructions on the signs – they may be unique
to this facility.
• Follow the instructions of your educator – they are
designed to keep you safe in this class.
• Remember to physical distance – maintain 1.5m.
• Masks are okay – you are free to wear one.
• Use hand sanitiser and wash your hands as often as you
can.
• Dispose of wipes in the bins provided.
• Dispose of masks in accordance with health guidance.
IF YOU ARE NOT FEELING WELL:

• Please go home to recover.
• If you are getting tested for COVID-19 please stay home and
isolate until you have the all clear. Let the educator know,
report it to the cvsupport@bond.edu.au.
• Let us know once you get the results – even if it’s negative.
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To identifying load types Be able to identify, Identify, calculate and

(distributed and describe and draw load analyse tributary areas
concentrated) paths
• Importance levels and return periods
• Load types
• Permanent actions
• Dead Loads
• Dynamic actions
• Live Loads
• Wind Loads
• Earthquake
• Snow
• Other Loads (inc. water ponding, vehicle movement, accidental impact/blast, wave action)
• Indirect actions (Temperature/thermal, foundation settlement, residual stresses etc.)
• Limit state design
• Load combinations
• Material capacity factors
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Terminology Glossary
Term “Quick” definition
Dead load Loads that are “always” acting e.g. structural elements and SDL like
services
Live load Loads that vary over time and are due to the function of the building
Topography Arrangement of land e.g. identification of hills
Terrain Type of material on the earth surface (i.e. roughness of the surface)
Seismic Results from Earthquakes
Return period How often a particular event is “supposed” to occur. E.g. Christmas
has a return period of 1‐year means that every year there is Christmas
Annual How likely an event is likely to occur in a given year.
exceedance
probability
Importance level and return period
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Importance Level
What is acceptable risk???
‐Open to interpretation
How long is the structure designed to last? Hinze Dam, Gold Coast – Level 4
Scenario
Two hospitals built identically
One is the only hospital within 3 hours of driving.
The other is built with three other hospital within
30 minutes of driving
Which is more important??
Amphitheatre, Bond
University – Level 1
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Importance Level
Table B1.2a IMPORTANCE LEVELS OF BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Important Level Building Types
1 Buildings or structures presenting a low degree of hazard to life and other property
NCC in the case of failure.
(previously BCA) 2 Buildings or structures not included in Importance Levels 1, 3 and 4.
3 Buildings or structures that are designed to contain a large number of people.
4 Buildings or structures that are essential to post‐disaster recovery or associated
with hazardous facilities
AS/NZS1170.0
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Importance Level
Importance Levels
AS1170.0
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Importance Level
Importance Levels
AS1170.0
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Importance Level and Return Period
We cannot design structures, computers, cars etc. to last for ever and to
withstand every kind of event!
What is an acceptable amount of risk?
Should we design a car to be capable of withstanding a collision
with a telephone pole?
Should we design the car to be capable to withstand a collision
with a semi‐trailer travelling at 100km/h?
How about for a building?
Should our structure in Melbourne be designed for a Category 5
cyclone/hurricane?
What happens if a category 5 cyclone tracks the coast of Australia
and hits Brisbane?
We need to ask ourselves, how often is a particular event going to
happen?
Once every 50 years?
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AS1170.0
Once you have the
importance level, you can
choose the “DESIGN” Event
Most structures consider a
50‐year design life.
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Design life
Structures are assigned a “design life”. This is how long the
structure should remain functional with regular
maintenance before requiring re‐assessment
Or in other words
The “anticipated satisfactory service life” when the element
is designed and used in accordance with “good building
practice”
Some components of a home may only be expected to
provide satisfactory performance for up to five years, such
as fence palings or roof battens. Other “permanent”
structures, such as house stumps and roof trusses, may be
expected to last for fifty years
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We only have wind data from 1959
years of wind (Harper 2016)
So how do we know what a 1 in
500 yr wind may look like.
Do we just guess and hope?
It takes the form of statistical
analysis and modelling
Harper, Bruce & Mason, Luciano. (2016). A Tropical Cyclone Wind Event Data Set for Australia. 18th
Australasian Wind Engineering Society Workshop. McLaren Vale, South Australia
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Design Actions
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Design Actions
Loads a typically classified as:
Permanent Loads
Dead Loads
Variable or dynamic loads
Live loads
Wind
Snow
Earthquake
Other (water ponding, vehicle movement, accidental
impact/blast, wave action)
Indirect actions
Temperature/thermal, foundation settlement, residual stresses
etc.
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Permanent Actions (Dead Loads)
Permanent (dead) load – action that is likely to act continuously
throughout the design working life and for which variations in magnitude
with time are small compared to the mean value.
Examples of dead loads include:
self‐weight of load bearing structure (columns, beams, floors)
permanent materials (e.g. wall cladding/ facade, floor toping
(e.g. tiles) etc.)
Partitions (non‐load bearing walls and doors)
permanent equipment (fixtures and fittings (fans, lights),
services pipes etc.)
Determining the dead load is an iterative process:
• Estimate likely element sizes and workout stresses in structure
resulting for weight of material
• Increase of decrease size of element and re‐calculate
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Dynamic Loads
All buildings must be designed based on its
intended and possible future use. The types of
dynamic loads that a building may experienced
are commonly classed into the below categories:
•Live loads
•Wind Loads
•Earthquake
•Snow
•Other (water ponding, vehicle movement,
accidental impact/blast, wave action)
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Live loads (or imposed actions) a variable action resulting from
the intended use or occupancy of the structure.
It can consider:
During Structure’s design life
occupancy floor loads (people)
areas for equipment/plant
warehousing and storage areas, libraries
vehicles (including braking & horizontal impact loads)
loads horizontal imposed actions due to crowd
movement (e.g. people leaning on a balustrades)
Operation of building such as a lifts and cranes
During Construction/maintenance
loads from cranes, hoists, storage of building materials
Maintenance (e.g. servicing the roof)
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So how much should we allow for each use?
The magnitude of the live load considers:
Analysis/surveys of actual loading experience
Society’s assessment of appropriate risk level
Pattern of loads
combination of statistical analysis* (e.g. what
are the chances that the balcony will have 50
people on it?)
* codes often represent peak loads which
have a 95% probability of not being
exceeded over a 50yr period
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AS1170.1 outlines many different
types of live loads based on the
structure’s use.
Engineer must ensure that the
load chosen is appropriate for the
structure.
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How much is 4 kPa??
The average adult human weighs 62kg[1] (this is 620N)
4 kPa = 4000 N/m2
Therefore 4000/620=
6.45 persons per square meter
This is 6.45 people every square meter.
A common balcony size in an apartment could be 1.2 x 4m (4.8m2)
This is: 4.8 x 6.45 = 30 people on that balcony
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2m
2.0 kPa This load is then

2.9 kPa applied across the
2m
entire floor area
What does
4.9kPa look
like??
4.9kPa = 28 people in a
3.9 kPa 4.9 kPa
2 x 2m square
6.9 kPa
5.9 kPa
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One of the critical design
loads for bridges isn’t for
Construction Loads the cars, but for when the
bridge may be used for a
parade or celebration
Material storage during

construction
The bridge is a cantilever during construction –

Loading by building materials during therefore the tension/compression throughout the
construction should be controlled bridge is the opposite of its in-service condition
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Construction loads
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Construction Loads – before concrete hardens it has to be supported by another

structural system
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Be sure to
consider what the
worst case could
be
Maintenance of Smith Street pedestrian bridge
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Wind Loads
Wind is commonly the governing load for many buildings
and consequently has a large influence on the structural
system and form
It is a complex fluid mechanics issue however commonly
simplified. Affordability of modelling is slowly changing this
Design for wind not only considers wall or bracing size it
also considered its effect on:
occupants of the building, the adjoining buildings &
building surrounds
Dynamics performance (i.e. Oscillations) should not be
forgotten
Autodesk flow: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ngZdKBbrp2o
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Wind Loads
Example:
Scale of Lateral Wind Loading
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Wind Loads
The size of the wind is dependant on:
Wind speed
Varies based on Region,
topography, terrain, shielding,
wind direction
Building Shape and Design
Wind pressure distribution on
walls and on roof
Internal Pressures & dominate
openings
Localised pressures
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Wind Loads – The Maths!
5. dominant or prevailing 2. shielding provided by
wind direction in a region upwind buildings or other
structures (note: height is
greater than or equal to
structure being considered)
Regional Wind speed is
found then adjusted for:
2. Shielding
3. Terrain Vdes, = VRMd(Mz,catMsMt)
4. Topography
5. Prevailing wind
This adjustment may
either increase or 4. Location of structure on a
decrease the design wind 3. terrain over which the “hill” is referred to as
speed approach wind flows toward topography
a structure
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Wind Speed
Design wind speed This must consider
what is reasonable in
1. Region the future (e.g.
Cyclonic or non‐cyclonic regions someone removes a
building or forrest
2. Shielding that was providing
Protection provided by the immediate area shielding)
3. Terrain
The roughness of the ground surface approaching the structure
4. Topography
Location on the hill
5. Prevailing wind direction
In some areas, winds from the south may be larger than that from the East (only
applicable in non‐cyclonic regions)
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Wind Speed – 1. Region
Cyclones in
Queensland
Melbournian’s
complaining about
wind!
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Wind Speed ‐ 1. Region
To determine the regional wind
speed you need consider:
1. Importance Level
2. Design life = 50 yrs
3. Return Period
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Wind Speed ‐ 2. Shielding
The shielding factor in AS1170.2 is quite technical.
AS4055 simplifies the shielding
Wind Tunnel testing – For complex and high‐
classification – only applicable for
rise buildings
residential houses!
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Wind Speed – 3. Terrain
Wind speeds vary with height due to ‘drag’ near the ground which
depends on the ‘roughness’ of terrain – roughness measured in terms of
height and spacing of obstructions and categorised as ‘Terrain Category’
e.g.
Category examples
Category 1 – exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions and Terrain Category 1
water surfaces and serviceability wind speeds
Category 4 – terrain with numerous large, high (10m to 30m high) and
closely spaced obstructions, such as large city centres and well‐
developed industrial complexes
Terrain Category 4
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Wind Speed – 4. Topography
Where on a hill the structure is located
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Wind Speed – 4. Topography
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Wind Speed – 5. Prevailing Wind Direction
Is the wind stronger from a particular
direction (e.g. the ocean?)
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Wind – The Building Shape
Aerodynamic Shape factor
Actual pressure at building surface depends on
building shape and the orientation of its surface
The pressure on any surface is multiplied by an
appropriate pressure coefficient
Pressure on the building is either:
External – wind on external surfaces
including windward wall, Leeward wall &
Side walls
Internal – resultant internal effect based on
location and size of building openings (or
potential openings)
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External pressure coefficients
Side wall
Windward wall
• Pressure coefficients also Leeward wall
depend on building
proportions – ratios
height to depth (h/d) and
height to breadth (h/b)
Windward wall
Leeward wall
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Internal pressure is formed when the wind
is “allowed” access to the inside
It is caused when a dominate opening is
formed.
These ‘dominant’ openings can be caused
when a door or window fails
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Localised pressures
Localised pressure at the edge of the buildings can be as large as 10kPa (~1000kg/m2)
These commonly cause failures of the connection between the cladding and connections
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Flying Projectiles
Cyclonic Regions
Windows must be considered as potential dominant openings
The windows, doors and cladding must resist a timber member of
4kg mass with a cross‐section of 100mm x 50mm impacting end on
a 0.4VR for horizontal trajectories and 0.1VR for vertical trajectories
Design options
shield windows
design for internal pressures
impact resistant glazing/openings
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Dynamic Actions of wind
Oscillations induced by wind an
important design consideration for
a ‘tall’ building
Building to have insufficient
stiffness may lead to cracking in
glazing/leaks
Minimising acceleration to avoid
discomfort felt by occupants when
the sway is too great >0.1‐0.25g
majority of people perceive
motion,
$4.2 Million US Dollars
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Shear Force Diagram
350.0
300.0
250.0
Building Height, RL (m)

200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0 50,000 100,000
Shear Force (kN)
Burj Khalifa ‐ ‘confusing the

wind’ with different shape Q1 is 322m tall
floor plates This truck can pull 16‐18 Tonnes
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake (or seismic) loads result
from the ground movement that
occurs during an earthquake.
The ground moves both vertically
and horizontally
Every earthquake is different and
affect every building differently
• Different vibration frequency
• Different ratio of vertical and
horizontal loads
• Very difficult to accurately
predict the ductility of a building
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake strength measured by a Richter Scale (0‐10). Earthquakes are perceptible from a value of 3.0 on the Richter scale. The first serious
damage typically occurs from 5.0 (moderate earthquake)
Australia’s largest earthquake only registered 6.6 on the Richter scale, 22 387 times smaller than the largest recorded of 9.5 in Chile 1960
Severe damage occurs when frequency of oscillation of the ground movement is close to the natural frequency of the building
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake hazard
Geoscience Australia produces Hazard
Maps which attempt to categorise
earthquake risk – Similar concept to Wind
regions
In 2018 all hazard maps were updated and
the earthquake design load was doubled
in many parts of Australia
Earthquake motions
Earthquake cause side‐ways motion (s‐
waves) AND up‐down (p‐waves) motion
Be aware of liquefaction
Newcastle, Australia 1989
(1 hour north of Sydney)
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Earthquake Load
Be aware of liquefaction
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Earthquake Load
When an earthquake occurs a building will
either:
1. suffer no damage in a minor
earthquake
2. suffer only repairable damage in a
moderate earthquake
3. not collapse in a major earthquake
(but would suffer substantial
damage)
The ultimate goal is to preserve life. The
structure may be un‐usable but it must not
collapse (a storm or cyclone event normally
gives some warning but an earthquake is
sudden)
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Earthquake Load
Performance of the building is dependent on:
Building Size
Small buildings are more affected by high frequency
earthquake action (short and frequent)
Tall buildings more affected by low frequency (slow
shaking)
Subsoil type between the earthquake source
(hypocenter) and the surface at the site of the building
Magnitude, direction & frequency of ground motion
Characteristics of building, i.e. weight and
stiffness/ductility
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Earthquake Load
Designing for Earthquakes
Add appropriate lateral bracing
Cross bracing Shock absorbers in buildings
Shear walls
Reduce overall deflections by making the structure stiffer
Rigid connection (comes with more cost and limits building
ductility)
Add “Shock‐Absorbers”
Isolate (separate) the structure from the ground
Placing the building on ball‐bearings, springs, padded cylinders
etc.
Watch: Earthquake Protector: Shake Table Crash Testing
Dampen the swaying on a tall building
Add a large mass at the top of the structure
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Earthquake Load
Physical model for earthquake testing CCTV, China
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Snow Load
Snow & Ice
Region dependent (sub‐alpine>600m altitude, alpine>1200m altidude)
Ice
Density of Ice: 915 kg/m3
Design thickness = function of hill shape or roof shape.
Snow is a function of
Characteristic snow load on the ground
Exposure reduction coefficient (region, roof sheltering)
Roof shape
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Structures must resist Accidental actions
Accidental actions can include:
Accidental (or deliberate) collision from a car (or
forklift)
Generator (or battery) explosion
Blast effects (includes detonation load (immediate
effect) and explosion load subsequent shockwave)
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Building design options for accidental actions
Organisational measures to prevent delivery
and/or storage of explosive material
Designing robust buildings to prevent extensive
collapse by the activation of alternative load paths
Designing ‘relief valves’, i.e. double skin façade
Reinforcing components, e.g. composite
steel/concrete columns
Modifying elasticity of components, e.g. elastically
supported curtain wall facades
Arranging energy dissipating components &
connections with sufficiency ductility to reduce
explosion energy
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Current & debris action
Wave action
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Indirect Actions
Straining of a structure or its components can result from
any of the following:
Temperature changes and gradients (including fire)
Foundation settlement/movement
Shrinkage & expansion of materials
Time‐dependent movement of materials (creep)
Cracking of structural or other materials
Manufacturing process (residual stresses)
Dynamic effects
Differential axial shortening
Fire
Stansted Airport Terminal, UK. 200m x 200m steel roof with raking strut supports and no expansion joints. Temperature movements
combined with spread from vertical loads and shrinkage of concrete floor slab is the governing case for some elements requiring special
articulated elbow detail at the tops of glass walls.
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Indirect Actions ‐ Fire
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Limit State Design
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Limit State Design Approach
Two approaches to ensure safety are adopted
Factor the loads (increase the “design” loads)
Factor the material capacity (decrease the
theoretical material capacity)
These act as a “Just‐in‐case”
The strength of materials can vary naturally due to
either the material itself or the factory in which the
material is made
This is commonly referred to as the two ‘two‐
layered’ factor of safety design approach for the
strength limit state. The goal is to provide a high
probability that structural capacity is not exceeded
65
Limit State Design ‐ Definitions
Limit state, serviceability
State the correspond to condition beyond which specified service criteria for a structure or structural
element are no longer met. Note: the criteria are based on the intended use and may include limits
on deflection, vibratory response degradation or other physical aspects
Limit state, ultimate
States associated with collapse or with other similar forms of structural failure. Note: The generally
corresponds to the maximum load‐carrying resistance of a structure or structural element but, in
some cases, to the maximum applicable strain or deformation.
Reliability
Generally expressed in terms of probability
Structural robustness
Ability of a structure to withstand events like fire, explosion, impact or consequence of human errors,
without being damaged to an extend disproportionate to the original cause
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Limit State Design‐ Errors!
Why do Engineers use load combinations??
Deliberate errors (assumptions made to simplify the
analysis of loadings and structural behavior)
Accidental errors (general lack of precision in estimation
of loads and analysis of structure, manufacture of
materials, erection of the structure)
Uncertainties: material properties fluctuate, variations in
residual stress, cross sections of manufactured member ,
varies, variations in the density of materials
Live loadings fluctuate during design usage and with
changes in usage
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Limit State Design‐ Load Combinations
Stability
Ed,stb + Rd ≥ Ed,dst
Stabilising actions + Design capacity ≥
Destabilising actions
Strength
Rd ≥ Ed
Design load effect ≥ Design capacity
Serviceability
 ≤ l
Serviceability parameter on the basis of design
actions ≤ limit value of serviceability parameter
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Different loads do not occur alone rather in combinations
Individual loads have different probabilities of occurrence
and degrees of variability
In combination these loads would have reduced probability
– e.g. what are the chances of having a “party” on the same
day as a category 5 cyclone?
Strength design is based on the most severe combination
Be sure to check the each combination for the design
(i.e. Shear force, Compression & Tension)
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Goal is to make ”resilient communities” by assessing
the risk
Consider the risk profile:
Chance of a 7.0 earthquake occurring
Then that earthquake occurring near a major city
Then a cyclone also occurring at the same time
Impossible??
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Strength
note1: AS1170.0 also outlines combinations for stability & serviceability
Ed = 1.35G
Ed = 1.2G + 1.5Q note 2: the partial factor is a live load combination factor
Ed = 1.2G + 1.5lQ
Ed = 1.2G + Wu+ cQ In a fire event the live load can be reduced because it is
Ed = 0.9G + Wu unlikely that the building will be at its peak load the same
Ed = G + Eu + cQ time there is a fire
Ed = 1.2G + Su + cQ
The different factors used for G (permanent load), Q (live load), Wu (wind load) & Eu (earthquake) reflect the

different probabilities of overload associated with each individual load.
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Material Capacity Factors
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Limit State Design‐ Material Factors
The “second layer of safety” is performed on the material.
The capacity of the material (determined through rigorous materials/ laboratory
testing) is reduced based on the variance of results of laboratory testing as well as
the intended use of the material
E.g. Concrete columns have their “theoretical” capacity reduced by ~50%, while
concrete walls are designed to only take ~33% of design capacity (66%
reduction)
E.g. Steel beams however can be designed for up to 90% of their capacity (10%
reduction)
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Things you should know by now:
• How to interpret and choose and importance level for a structure
• Describe features and factors of the following loads
• Permanent Loads (dead loads),
• Variable or dynamic loads and
• Indirect actions
• Interpret and be able to apply the loads in the context of a structure
• Use and describe why we use loading combination and capacity reduction factors
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3/06/2021
SDCM71‐316
Structures and Materials
Questions?
Dr Dane Miller
dmiller@bond.edu.au
Stop Recording!
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CONTENTS

CRICOS Provider Code

BEFORE WE START THE CLASS

IF YOU ARE NOT FEELING WELL:

To identifying load types Be able to identify, Identify, calculate and

How long is the structure designed to last? Hinze Dam, Gold Coast – Level 4

2.0 kPa This load is then

Material storage during

The bridge is a cantilever during construction –

Construction Loads – before concrete hardens it has to be supported by another

Building Height, RL (m)

Burj Khalifa ‐ ‘confusing the

The different factors used for G (permanent load), Q (live load), Wu (wind load) & Eu (earthquake) reflect the

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