The Concept of Signal Classification of Signals Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals Even and Odd Symmetry Energy and

try Energy and Power of a Signal

Contents
1 The Concept of Signal
General Definition of Signal
2 Classification of Signals
Continuous-Time, Discrete-Time
and Digital Signals
Sampling and Quantization
4 Even and Odd Symmetry
3 Periodic and Non-Periodic Even and Odd Signals
Signals Even and Odd Parts of a Signal
Sinusoidal Signals
5 Energy and Power of a
Exponential Signals
Signal
Periodicity of CT and DT
Sinusoids
Periodicity of Complex
Exponentials
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The Concept of Signal

Definition (Signal)
A signal is a function whose information describes the time profile of a physical
quantity [Beucher, 2015]

In other words, a signal is a measurable (physical) function whose values describe a

physical quantity [Chen, 2004].
 
The mathematical model for a signal is in the form of a formula, function, algorithm
or a graph that approximately describes the time variations of a physical quantity of
interest [Alkin, 2014]
 

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The Concept of Signal

A signal does not necessarily have to be a time-dependent function. Some signals

could describe variations of a physical quantity over a spatial variable
I Distribution of force along the length of a steel beam
I Distribution of light intensity at different points in an image

However, this definition of signal will be refined for the sake of simplicity.

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The Concept of Signal as a Function

One-Dimensional Signal
A one-dimensional signal is that which
depends only on one independent The Concept of Signal as a
variable -namely, time- Function
A signal x(t) or x[n] is a set of data or
Multi-Dimensional Signal function of time that represents a variable
Signals that depend on more than one of interest
independent variables are known as
multi-dimensional signals

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Classification of signals

Figure: Classification of signals 4/ 40

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Continuous-Time, Discrete-Time and Digital Signals

Discrete-Time Signal
A signal is called a discrete-time (DT)
signal (or a time sequence) if it is
defined only at discrete time instants, and
Continuous-Time Signal its amplitude can assume any value in a
A signal is called a continuous-time continuous range.
(CT) signal if it is defined at every time
instant in a time interval of interest, and Digital Signal
its amplitude can assume any value in a
continuous range. A DT signal is called a digital signal if
its amplitude can assume a value only
from a finite given set.

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Continuous-Time, Discrete-Time and Digital Signals

Figure: A Continuous-Time Signal [Alkin, 2014]

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Continuous-Time, Discrete-Time and Digital Signals

Figure: A Discrete-Time Signal [Alkin, 2014]

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Sampling and Quantization

 
Sampling a CT signal yields a DT signal
 
Sampling Time
The sampling time T is the time
interval existent between two immediate
sampling instants.
 
In general, the sampling instants
need not be equally spaced

When the sampling instants are
equally spaced, one can say that a DT
Figure: Sampling and quantization of a signal has implicitly a sampling
CT signal [Chen, 2004]. period:
x [n] := x (nT )
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Sampling and Quantization

 
Quantizing a DT signal yields a digital signal.
 
Quantization Level and Step
The quantization levels are the possible
values of a digital signal.
The quantization step is the value
between immediate quantization levels.
 
All signals processed on digital
computers are digital signals

Figure: Sampling and quantization of a Nevertheless, the analysis of digital
CT signal [Chen, 2004]. signals is complicated.

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Quantization as a nonlinear operation

Example 1.1
The quantization function q(x) rounds every number to its nearest integer (that is, the
quantization step is 1). Determine if q is a linear operation.
Linear operations must exhibit the additivity and proportionality properties:
I Additivity:
Sum of each input’s output q(2.7) + q(3.7) = 3 + 4 = 7
Sum of the inputs q(2.7 + 3.7) = q(6.4) = 6
I Proportionality:
q(3.7 × 2.7) = q(9.99) = 10
q(3.7) × q(2.7) = 4 × 3 = 12

q is not a linear operation

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Periodic and non-periodic signals

Periodic CT signal
A CT periodic signal is one that
repeats itself every T seconds and Periodic DT signal
therefore satisfies: A DT signal x[n] is periodic with
x(t) = x(t + nT ) (1) period N samples if it satisfies:
where:
I n is an integer. x[n] = x[n + N] (2)
I T is the period of the signal.

Non-periodic signals
Any signal that does not satisfy the periodicity condition (Equation 1 or 2) is called a
non-periodic CT or DT signal.

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CT Sinusoidal Signals

CT Sinusoidal Signal
A CT Sinusoidal Signal has the form

x (t) = A sin (ω0 t + θ) (3)

where
I A is the amplitude;

I ω0 is the angular frequency (that can be expressed as a function of the cyclic frequency f0

ω0 = 2πf0 (4)

I θ is the initial phase (i.e., the angle when t = 0).

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CT Sinusoidal Signals

Figure: The sinusoidal signal x (t) = A sin (ω0 t + θ) [Alkin, 2014]

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CT Sinusoidal Signals

x (t) = A sin (ω0 t + θ)

Any sinusoidal signal is characterized by three parameters: amplitude, frequency and initial phase
I Amplitude: maximum value that the sinusoidal function can take within the range [−A, A];
I Frequency: number of times the oscillatory pattern repeats itself every second. It is
connected with the fundamental period (seconds to complete an oscillation):
1 1
f0 = ⇔ T0 = (5)
T0 f0
1 2π 2π
T0 = = ⇔ ω0 = = 2πf0 (6)
f0 ω0 T0
I Initial phase: constant number that corresponds to the phase offset with respect to a
reference point (t = 0)
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CT Sinusoidal Signals

Definition (Pure Sinusoid)

A signal is called a pure sinusoid if it is either a cosine or sine function.

For instance, x1 (t) and x2 (t) defined as follows are pure sinusoidals (A, B ∈ R)

x1 (t) = A sin (ω1 t + φ1 )

x2 (t) = B sin (ω2 t + φ2 )

 
All CT pure sinusoids are periodic
 

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DT Sinusoidal Signals

DT Sinusoidal Signal
The DT Sinusoidal Signal is given by

x [n] = A sin [Ω0 n + θ] (7)

where:
I A is the amplitude;
I Ω0 is the parameter of angular frequency (rad)

Ω0 = 2πF0 (8)

and F0 is the normalized frequency of the sinusoidal signal (dimensionless quantity);

I θ is the initial phase

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DT Sinusoidal Signals

Figure: DT Sinusoidal Signals [Alkin, 2014]

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Important Remarks of DT Sinusoidal Signals

 
The proofs of the following assertions will be shown later in the course
 
Periodicity of DT Sinusoidal Signals
Not all DT Sinusoidals are periodic

Freqency of DT Sinusoidal Signals

I To every DT Sinusoidal, periodic or not, can be assigned multiple frequencies
I Even if the DT sinusoidal is periodic, its frequency is not defined in the same way as in CT
(i.e., it is NOT defined directly by the period)

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CT Exponential Signals

CT Exponential Signal
A CT (complex) Exponential Signal is defined as

x (t) = Āe āt (9)

where:
I Ā ∈ C is the amplitude parameter;
I ā = σ + jω is the complex frequency.

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CT Real Exponential Signals

When the amplitude and complex frequency parameters of the exponential function are real
numbers (A, a ∈ R), the signal is real valued:

x (t) = Ae at (10)
Let A > 0. Then, a real exponential signal is said to be:
I Increasing if a > 0 (that is, the exponent is positive for t > 0);
I Decreasing if a < 0 (that is, the exponent is negative for t < 0).
 
The derivative of a real exponential signal is proportional to its value at that time:

d d  at 
[x (t)] = Ae = aAe at = ax (t)
dt dt
 

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CT Real Exponential Signals

Real exponential signal with positive exponent (increasing) Real exponential signal with negative exponent (decreasing)
20
2.5

15 2.0

1.5
10

1.0

5
0.5

t t
-1 1 2 3 -1 1 2 3

Figure: Increasing and decreasing real exponentials (A = 1).

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CT Imaginary Exponential Signals

If the amplitude parameter is real and the complex frequency parameter is imaginary, we have the CT
imaginary exponential signal:

x (t) = Ae jω0 t (11)

Using Euler’s formula:

x (t) = A cos (ω0 t) + jA sin (ω0 t) (12)

I An imaginary exponential function is a complex-valued function whose real and imaginary parts
correspond to sinusoidal signals:
Re {x (t)} =A cos (ω0 t)
(13)
Im {x (t)} =A sin (ω0 t)

I A CT imaginary exponential can be understood as a linear combination (with complex coefficients) of

two pure sinusoids, having the same frequency.
I CT imaginary exponentials are always periodic.
I CT imaginary exponentials are referred to in most books as complex exponentials
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CT Exponential Signals
Consider a general complex exponential signal x (t) = Āe āt . We can write Ā and ā as

Ā = Ae jθ ā = σ + jω0
The complex exponential signal therefore becomes

x (t) = Āe āt = Ae jθ e (σ+jω0 )t = Ae jθ e σt e jω0 t

Then
x (t) = Ae σt e j(ω0 t+θ) = Ae σt [cos (ω0 t + θ) + j sin (ω0 t + θ)]

I A complex exponential is a complex-valued function

I The real and imaginary parts of a complex exponential are sinusoidal functions whose amplitude
varies showing an exponential pattern

Re {x (t)} = Ae σt cos (ω0 t + θ)

Im {x (t)} = Ae σt sin (ω0 t + θ)

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CT Exponential Signals

Real part of a complex exponential Imaginary part of a complex exponential

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

t t
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

-0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0

Figure: Real (red) and imaginary (blue) parts of a complex exponential (both corresponding to
underdamped sinusoids) for σ < 0.

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CT Exponential Signals

Real part of a complex exponential Imaginary part of a complex exponential

4 4

2 2

0 t 0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

-2 -2

-4 -4

Figure: Real (red) and imaginary (blue) parts of a complex exponential (both corresponding to
underdamped sinusoids) for σ > 0.

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DT Exponential Signals

DT Real Exponential Signal

The DT Real Exponential is defined as

x [n] = b n (14)
for some real number b

I |b| > 1 → the sequence grows unbounded as n → ∞ and it is called exponentially

increasing sequence;
I b = 1 → the sequence corresponds to the unit step sequence (more on this on next session);
I b = −1 → the sequence assumes −1 and 1 alternatively;
I |b| < 1 → the sequences approaches zero exponentially, and it is called exponentially
decreasing sequence.
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DT Exponential Signals

DT exponential (decreasing) DT exponential (increasing)

1.0 3.0

2.5
0.8

2.0
0.6

1.5

0.4
1.0

0.2
0.5

n n
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Figure: DT exponential sequences: 1) 0 < b < 1 (left) and b > 1 (right)

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DT Exponential Signals

DT exponential (decreasing) DT exponential

2 2

1 1

n n
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10

-1 -1

-2 -2

Figure: DT exponential sequences: 1) −1 < b < 0 (left), 2) b = −1 (right)

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DT Exponential Signals

DT exponential (increasing)
3

n
2 4 6 8 10

-1

-2

-3

Figure: DT exponential sequence: b < −1

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DT Exponential Signals

DT Complex Exponential Signal

The DT Complex Exponential Signal is given by

x [n] = Āb̄ n (15)

where Ā and b̄ are complex numbers (Ā, b̄ ∈ Z).

A special case of the DT Complex Exponential is the DT Imaginary Exponential Signal:

x [n] = Ae jΩ0 n = A cos [Ω0 n] + jA sin [Ω0 n] (16)

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Periodicity of CT and DT Sinusoids

 
Every CT pure sinusoid
x(t) = A sin (ω0 t + θ) is periodic for any
ω0 ∈ R
 
Periodicity of Linear
Combinations of CT Sinusoids
Given two pure sinusoids x1 (t) and x2 (t) with
frequencies ω1 and ω2 and two nonzero scalars
α, β ∈ C:
I If ω1 and ω2 have no common divisor,
αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) is not periodic.
I If ω1 and ω2 have common divisors, then any
linear combination of αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) is
periodic. Moreover, its fundamental
frequency is their greatest common divisor.
 
A DT pure sinusoid x [n] = sin [Ω0 n + θ] is
periodic with fundamental period N if and
only if its angular frequency Ω0 is a rational
2π
multiple of π ( Ω ∈ Q)
 0

Periodicity of Linear
Combinations of DT Sinusoids
If x1 [n] and x2 [n] are periodic pure sinusoids
(periods N1 and N2 ), then any linear combination
αx1 [n] + βx2 [n] for nonzero α, β will be periodic
with period N equal to the least common multiple
of N1 and N2
N = lcm (N1 , N2 )

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Periodicity of Complex Exponentials

 
Since complex exponentials (imaginary exponent) can be seen as linear
combinations of pure sinusoids, the criterium for linear combinations of CT
 and DT sinusoids holds as well 
In general, the signal x (t) = Āe āt = Ae σt e j(ωt+θ) is only periodic for σ = 0

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Even and Odd Signals

Even and Odd Signals

An even or symmetric signal x(t) or x[n] is one for which
x(−t) = x(t)
(17)
x[−n] = x[n]
An odd or anti-symmetric signal y (t) or y [n] is one for which
y (−t) = −y (t)
(18)
y [−n] = −y [n]
This definition holds if t, n are interchanged by other variables.

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Even and Odd Parts of a Signal

Any signal x(t) or x[n] can be represented as the sum of even and odd parts as

x(t) = xe (t) + xo (t) x[n] = xe [n] + xo [n] (19)

where the even part xe and the odd part xo are given by

xe (t) = 12 [x(t) + x(−t)] xo (t) = 12 [x(t) − x(−t)]

(20)
xe [n] = 21 {x[n] + x[−n]} xo [n] = 21 {x[n] − x[−n]}
and hence:

x(t) = x(t)+x(−t)
2 + x(t)−x(−t)
2
x[n]+x[−n] x[n]−x[−n] (21)
x[n] = 2 + 2

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Even and Odd Signals: Examples

CT even signal DT even signal
1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

t n
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -10 -5 5 10

-0.5
-0.5

-1.0
-1.0

CT odd signal DT odd signal

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

t n
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -10 -5 5 10

-0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0

Figure: Examples of CT and DT even and odd signals.

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Properties of Even and Odd Functions

I The product of two even functions is also an even function.

I The product of two odd functions is an even function.
I The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.
I The sum (or difference) of two even functions is also an even function.
I The sum (or difference) of two odd functions is an odd function).
I The sum (or difference) of an even function and an odd function is neither even nor
odd.

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Even and Odd Signals

Exercise 1.1
Determine if the following signals are even, odd or neither:
sin(t)
I x1 (t) = t
I x2 (t) = t cos (t) + sin (2t)
I x3 (t) = e −a|t| sin (t)

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Normalized Energy and Power of a Signal

Average Power for a CT Signal

Normalized Energy (CT) For a CT signal x(t), the average or normalized power P of a
complex-valued x(t) is: Z
For a CT signal x(t), the normalized energy E of a 1 ∗
complex-valued x(t) is Z P = lim x(t)x (t)dt
T →∞ T <T >
∞ (24)
E = kx (t)k22 = x(t)x ∗ (t)dt 1
Z
(22) 2
= lim x (t) dt (x (t) ∈ R)
−∞ T →∞ T <T >

Normalized Energy (DT) Average Power for a DT Signal

For a DT signal x[n], the normalized energy E of a For a DT signal x[n], the average or normalized power P of a
complex-valued signal x[n] is:
complex-valued signal x[n] is: N
∞ 1 X ∗
X P = x[n]x [n]
E = kx [n]k22 = x[n]x ∗ [n] (23) 2N + 1 n=−N
n=−∞ (25)
N
1 X 2
= x [n] (x [n] ∈ R)
2N + 1 n=−N

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Energy and Power Signals

Energy Signal Power Signal

A signal x(t) or x[n] is an energy signal if A signal x(t) or x[n] is a power signal if and
and only if only if
0<E <∞⇔P=0 0<P<∞⇔E =∞

Theorem  
Almost all periodic functions of
If x[n] is absolutely summable, then it has finite practical interest are power signals.
total energy (i.e., it is squared absolutely

 
summable) If a signal is a power signal, then it
Theorem cannot be an energy signal or vice versa;
power and energy signals are mutually
If x(t) is absolutely integrable and bounded for
exclusive [Sadiku, 2015].
all t in (−∞, ∞), then it has finite total energy  
(i.e., it is squared absolutely integrable)
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References I

Alkin, O. (2014).
Signals and Systems - A MATLAB Integrated Approach.
CRC Press.
Beucher, O. (2015).
Signale und Systeme: Theorie, Simulation, Anwendung.
Springer.
Chen, C.-T. (2004).
Signals and Systems.
3 edition.
Sadiku, M. (2015).
Signals and Systems - A primer with MATLAB.
CRC Press.
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