All cells in the body need to have
oxygen and nutrients, and they need
their wastes removed. These are the
main roles of the circulatory system. The
heart, blood and blood vessels work
together to service the cells of the body.
Using the network of arteries, veins and
capillaries, blood carries carbon dioxide
to the lungs (for exhalation) and picks up
oxygen. From the small intestine, the
blood gathers food nutrients and
delivers them to every cell.
Blood
Blood consists of:
 Red blood cells – to carry oxygen
 White blood cells – that make up
part of the immune system
 Platelets – needed for clotting
 Plasma – blood cells, nutrients
and wastes float in this liquid.
The heart
The heart pumps blood around the
body. It sits inside the chest, in front of
the lungs and slightly to the left side.
The heart is actually a double pump
made up of four chambers, with the flow
of blood going in one direction due to
the presence of the heart valves. The
contractions of the chambers make the
sound of heartbeats.
The right side of the heart
The right upper chamber (atrium) takes
in deoxygenated blood that is loaded
with carbon dioxide. The blood is
squeezed down into the right lower
chamber (ventricle) and taken by an
artery to the lungs where the carbon
dioxide is replaced with oxygen.
The left side of the heart
The oxygenated blood travels back to
the heart, this time entering the left
upper chamber (atrium). It is pumped
into the left lower chamber (ventricle)
and then into the aorta (an artery). The
blood starts its journey around the body
once more.
Blood vessels
Blood vessels have a range of different
sizes and structures, depending on their
role in the body.
Arteries
Oxygenated blood is pumped from the
heart along arteries, which are
muscular. Arteries divide like tree
branches until they are slender. The
largest artery is the aorta, which
connects to the heart and picks up
oxygenated blood from the left ventricle.
The only artery that picks up
deoxygenated blood is the pulmonary
artery, which runs between the heart
and lungs.
Capillaries
The arteries eventually divide down into
the smallest blood vessel, the capillary.
Capillaries are so small that blood cells
can only move through them one at a
time. Oxygen and food nutrients pass
from these capillaries to the cells.
Capillaries are also connected to veins,
so wastes from the cells can be
transferred to the blood.
Veins
Veins have one-way valves instead of
muscles, to stop blood from running
back the wrong way. Generally, veins
carry deoxygenated blood from the body
to the heart, where it can be sent to the
lungs. The exception is the network of
pulmonary veins, which take oxygenated
blood from the lungs to the heart.
Blood pressure
Blood pressure refers to the amount of
pressure inside the circulatory system
as the blood is pumped around.
Common problems
Some common problems of the
circulatory system include:
 Aneurysm – a weak spot in the
wall of an artery
 Atherosclerosis – a narrowing of
the arteries caused by plaque
deposits
 Heart disease – lack of blood
supply to the heart because of
narrowed arteries
 High blood pressure – can be
caused by obesity (among other
things)
 Varicose veins – problems with
the valves that stop blood from
running backwards.
Right Side of the Heart
Goal: to get the blood RIGHT to the
lungs so it can become oxygenated.
1. The un-oxygenated blood (this is
blood that has been “used up” by your
body and needs to be resupplied with
oxygen) enters the heart through the
SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR VENA
CAVA.
2. Blood enters into the RIGHT ATRIUM
3. Then it is squeezed through the
TRICUSPID VALVE
4. Blood then enters into the RIGHT
VENTRICLE
5. Then it is squeezed into the
PULMONIC VALVE
6. Blood is then shot up through the
PULMONARY ARTERY and then enters
into the lungs for some oxygen
Study Tip: Since the goal of the right
side is to get blood to the lungs always
remember that the pulmonic valve and
pulmonary artery will be on the right side
since it is associated with the lungs.
Remember in medical
terminology pulmon means lungs. This
will help you keep from getting confused
with the left side of the heart.
Left Side of the Heart
Goal: to get the richly, oxygenated blood
that LEFT the lungs to the body to feed
the brain, tissue, muscles, organs etc.)
7. Blood enters from the lungs through
the PULMONARY VEIN
8. Blood then enters into the LEFT
ATRIUM
9. Down through the BICUSPID VALVE
(also called mitral valve)
10. Then blood is squeezed into the
LEFT VENTRICLE
11. Up through the AORTIC VALVE
12. Lastly up through the AORTA, where
it pumped throughout the body
Study Tip:
Many people get confused on if the
blood enters the tricuspid or bicuspid
valve first. Remember this saying, “First
always try, before you buy”. By
remembering this phrase, you will
remember that the tricuspid (try) is
before the bicuspid (buy) valve.
Also, don’t left the atriums and ventricles
mess you up either. Try to remember
that A is before V in the alphabet
so atriums (which starts with the letter A)
is above the ventricles (which starts with
the letter V).
Anaemia is a deficiency in the number
or quality of red blood cells in your body.
Red blood cells carry oxygen around
your body using a particular protein
called haemoglobin. Anaemia means
that either the level of red blood cells or
the level of haemoglobin is lower than
normal. When a person has anaemia,
their heart has to work harder to pump
the quantity of blood needed to get
enough oxygen around their body.
During heavy exercise, the cells may not
be able to carry enough oxygen to meet
the body’s needs and the person can
become exhausted and feel unwell.
Anaemia isn’t a disease in itself, but a
result of a malfunction somewhere in the
body. This blood condition is common,
particularly in females. Some estimates
suggest that around one in five
menstruating women and half of all
pregnant women are anaemic.
Red blood cells explained
Red blood cells are produced in the
bone marrow and have a life span of
about 120 days. The bone marrow is
always making new red blood cells to
replace old ones. Millions of new red
blood cells enter the blood stream each
day in a healthy person. 
You need certain nutrients in your diet to
make and maintain red blood cells. Each
red blood cell contains a protein called
haemoglobin. This protein gives red
blood cells their colour.
Oxygen molecules absorbed in the
lungs attach themselves to
haemoglobin, which is then delivered to
all parts of the body. All of the body’s
cells need oxygen to live and perform
their various duties.
The bone marrow needs enough dietary
iron and some vitamins to make
haemoglobin. If you don’t have enough
iron in your diet, your body will draw on
the small reserves of iron stored in your
liver. Once this reservoir is depleted, the
red blood cells will not be able to carry
oxygen around the body effectively.
Causes of anaemia
Anaemia can have many causes,
including:
 dietary deficiency – lack of iron,
vitamin B12 or folic acid in the
diet
 malabsorption – where the body
is not able to properly absorb or
use the nutrients in the diet,
caused by conditions such as
coeliac disease
 inherited disorders – such as
thalassaemia or sickle cell
disease
 autoimmune disorders – such as
autoimmune haemolytic anaemia,
where the immune cells attack
the red blood cells and decrease
their life span
 chronic diseases – such as
diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis and
tuberculosis
 hormone disorders – such as
hypothyroidism
 bone marrow disorders – such as
cancer
 blood loss – due to trauma,
surgery, peptic ulcer, heavy
menstruation, cancer (in
particular bowel cancer), or
frequent blood donations
 drugs and medications –
including alcohol, antibiotics, anti-
inflammatory drugs or anti-
coagulant medications
 mechanical destruction –
mechanical heart valves can
damage red blood cells, reducing
their lifespan
 infection – such as malaria and
septicaemia, which reduce the life
span of red blood cells
 periods of rapid growth or high
energy requirements – such as
puberty or pregnancy.
Symptoms of anaemia
Depending on the severity, the
symptoms of anaemia may include:
 pale skin
 fatigue
 weakness
 tiring easily
 breathlessness
 drop in blood pressure when
standing from a sitting or lying
position (orthostatic hypotension)
– this may happen after acute
blood loss, like a heavy period
 frequent headaches
 racing heart or palpitations
 becoming irritated easily
 concentration difficulties
 cracked or reddened tongue
 loss of appetite
 strange food cravings.
Groups at high risk of
anaemia
Certain people are at increased risk of
anaemia, including:
 menstruating women
 pregnant and breastfeeding
women
 babies, especially if premature
 children going through puberty
 people following a vegetarian or
vegan diet
 people with cancer, stomach
ulcers and some chronic
diseases
 people on fad diets
 athletes.
Diagnosis of anaemia
Depending on the cause, anaemia is
diagnosed using a number of tests
including:
 medical history – including any
chronic illnesses and regular
medications
 physical examination – looking for
signs of anaemia and a cause for
anaemia
 blood tests – including complete
blood count and blood iron levels,
vitamin B12, folate and kidney
function tests
 urine tests – for detecting blood in
the urine
  gastroscopy or colonoscopy –
looking for signs of bleeding
 bone marrow biopsy
 faecal occult blood test –
examining a stool (poo) sample
for the presence of blood.
Treatment for anaemia
Treatment depends on the cause and
severity, but may include:
Prevention of anaemia
Some forms of anaemia can’t be
prevented because they are caused by
a breakdown in the cell-making process.
Anaemia caused by dietary deficiency
can be prevented by making sure that
you eat food from certain food groups on
a regular basis, including dairy foods,
lean meats, nuts and legumes, fresh
fruits and vegetables. 

 vitamin and mineral supplements If you follow a vegan diet (one that does
– if you have a deficiency not include any animal products) talk to
 iron injections – if you are very your health professional about
low on iron recommended vitamin and mineral
 vitamin B12 (by injection) –for supplements.
pernicious anaemia
 antibiotics – if infection is the
cause of your anaemia
 altering the dose or regimen of
regular medications – such as
anti-inflammatory drugs, if
necessary
 blood transfusions – if required
 oxygen therapy – if required
 surgery to prevent abnormal
bleeding – such as heavy
menstruation
 surgery to remove the spleen
(splenectomy) – in cases of
severe haemolytic anaemia.

Please note: Take iron supplements

only when advised by your doctor. The
human body isn’t very good at excreting
iron and you could poison yourself if you
take more than the recommended dose.

Long-term outlook for

people with anaemia
The person’s outlook (prognosis)
depends on the cause of their anaemia.
For example, if the anaemia is caused
by dietary deficiencies, correcting the
cause and the use of appropriate
supplements for some weeks or months
will resolve the condition. Relapses may
occur, so changes to diet and, perhaps,
regular supplements may be necessary.

In other cases, the anaemia may be

permanent and lifelong treatment is
needed. No matter what the cause, it is
important to have a doctor regularly
monitor your blood to make sure your
red blood cell and haemoglobin levels
are adequate and to adjust treatment if
required.