增進直昇機駕駛員能力作法-安全考量因素(下)

增進直昇機駕駛員能力作法
-安全考量因素(下)
王秀軍、曾興華 合譯

3. 尾旋翼喪失效能(LTE) • 高密度高度(DA)起降。
單主旋翼直昇機的尾旋翼推力主要功能之一就是控制 3.2 如何避免LTE發生?
直昇機航向，如果尾旋翼推力不足，將發生非預期與無法 飛行計畫作業期間，駕駛員必須特別將飛行手冊中有
控制的偏扭情形。這種現象是造成直昇機意外事故因素之 關臨界風角範圍之性能圖表、作業地區的密度高度(DA)、
一，通常稱為尾旋翼喪失效能(LTE)。 直昇機的起飛總重(AUM)與飛行特性等納入考量。
在本篇中，LTE被視為是一種尾旋翼推力不足伴隨其 飛行期間，駕駛員應持續注意風向風速及可用尾旋翼
操控行程不足，進而導致無法控制的快速偏扭率。這種偏 剩餘推力(亦即關鍵方向舵之行程)。
扭現象不會自行消退，未及時改正，可能會導致直昇機損 駕駛員應盡可能避免下列條件合併發生：
毀。 •逆風低速飛行；
3.1 LTE發生時機? •未予以控制的偏扭；
在關鍵方向舵接近全行程位置時，LTE更容易發生。 •低速時大量且快速的移動集體變矩桿與方向舵；
關鍵方向舵在順時針旋轉的主旋翼系統為右舵，在逆 •亂流情況下低速飛行。
時針旋轉的主旋翼系統為左舵。 3.3 LTE改正方式
LTE通常在前進空速低於30浬/時發生，且伴隨： 駕駛員應能警覺到，如果進入上述任何一種或多種組
•尾翼空氣動力效率不足； 合的飛行狀態時，就是進入可能發生LTE的情況；他們必
•主旋翼產生的下洗氣流及其他氣流與進入尾旋翼的 須能夠辨識發生LTE前的徵兆，並立即執行改出動作。改
氣流相互干擾； 出動作將根據具體情況而有所不同，如果高度許可，在不
•需要幾乎使用全行程方向舵之大馬力配置； 增加馬力情況下增加前進空速(視需要減少馬力)，通常可
•造成尾旋翼推力需求增加之逆風環境； 以解決上述情況。因此，這些行動可能大量喪失高度，建
•需要大量與快速的集體變矩桿與方向舵操作之亂流 議駕駛員在執行上述行動前，預先確定適切的逃生路線。
環境。 改出動作：
執行下列作業時，駕駛員特別容易發現自已處於低高 1. 使用與旋轉方向相反之全舵量。
度、低空速、高動力及風速難以判定的環境，且為了執行 2. 建立加速姿態以獲得向前之空速。
工作而需不斷調整直昇機姿態： 3. 如高度許可，減少馬力。
• 電纜與油管巡視； 4. 動態及靜態失控翻滾
• 機外吊掛； 4.1 靜態失控翻滾
• 救生吊掛； 靜態失控翻滾發生於直昇機的單邊滑橇或機輪與地面
• 空中滅火； 接觸形成支點，且其重心位移超出支點時；一旦超過靜態
• 落地場偵察； 失控翻滾角，即使移除原先造成直昇機翻滾的動力向量，
• 低速空中照測； 亦無法停止其翻滾動作。絕大部分的直昇機通常在其翻滾
• 執行公權力與直昇機緊急醫療服務； 角超過30°時發生，如圖1。

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2012年「飛行安全夏季刊」
 增進直昇機駕駛員能力作法-安全考量因素(下)

臨界失控翻滾角
臨界失控翻滾角係指在保持主旋翼面與天地線平行
條件下，直昇機的斜坡橫向最大可落地角度，或主旋翼系
統的最大撲動角。大多數直昇機的臨界失控翻滾角通常在
13°至17°間，一旦超過該角度，即使將駕駛桿完全反向
操作亦無法停止直昇機翻滾。
圖3 動態失控翻滾 圖4 改正動作
4.2 動態失控翻滾
動態失控翻滾通常發生在直昇機起飛、落地或滯空而
4.3 注意事項
單邊滑橇或機輪碰觸地表(支點)之時，直昇機有可能沿著
》任何橫向重心的改變，將影響駕駛桿橫向操控需求
支點發生滾轉。單邊滑橇/機輪因故卡於或陷於地面、結冰
與可用行程。
的地面、軟化的瀝青或泥濘的地面，都可能形成支點，也
》經常練習頂風無動力滯空落地。
可能在執行滯空側滑或斜坡落地時，單邊滑橇或機輪碰觸
》在 滯空或滑行而接近障礙物/地表時，應保持高度
到固定物體或地面而造成支點。
警覺。
在翻滾角遠小於靜態失控翻滾角或臨界失控翻滾角
》斜坡操作應盡可能逆風實施。
時，也可能發生動態失控翻滾。
》直昇機起飛與落地期間，特別是斜坡操作，所有的
操控應力求緩慢、平順與柔和，並應避免橫向移
動。
》斜 坡操作期間，若上坡邊的滑橇/機輪較下坡邊先
離地，應放棄離地滯空動作。
》落地時，若駕駛桿已達操作極限，繼續降低集體變
圖1 靜態失控翻滾 圖2 起飛至滯空 矩桿將導致失控翻滾。
》在 有俯仰及/或滾轉現象的漂浮平台起降時，應保
當直昇機開始沿著滑橇/機輪產生滾轉時，如過量增
持高度警覺。
加集體變矩桿，將大量增加滾轉力矩，造成即使未到達
後記
臨界失控翻滾角，亦無法以駕駛桿反向全行程操作加以控
免責聲明：
制。
上述安全改善分析與建議事項，係歐洲直昇機安全執
起飛至滯空(如圖2)
行小組(EHSIT)依據專家判斷以及各事故調查委員會(AIBs)
•增加集體變矩桿，產生升力。
之官方調查報告附件內容資料而提出。此類建議事項與後
•右邊滑橇附著於地面成為支點。
續安全改善行動，純係著眼於改善直昇機安全，不具約束
•向左移動駕駛桿以維持旋翼面與天地線平行。
力；在任何情況下，不得取代事故調查委員會(AIB)官方調
•產生小量滾轉率。
查報告。採用此類安全改善建議屬自願性質，且責任僅止
動態失控翻滾(如圖3)
於為這些採用者；歐洲直昇機安全執行小組對任何執行這
•繼續增加集體變矩桿，升力持續增加。
些建議事項內容資料者不承擔任何責任。
•到達臨界失控翻滾角。
•駕駛桿向左之行程臨界亦無法保持旋翼面水平。
請至下列網址下載直昇機飛行前檢查計畫檢查表：
•旋翼產生水平向量推力，增加滾轉率。
http://www.easa.europa.eu/essi/ehest/wp-content/
•滾轉率增加。
uploads/2010/10/EHEST-Pre-flight-planning-Checklist. 
改正動作(如圖4)
•在重心超過支點前，藉由降低集體變矩桿消除旋翼
面的水平向量推力，以停止翻滾。
•如集體變矩桿未能即時降低，直昇機將因慣性繼續
翻滾，並可能超越靜態失控翻滾角。

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2012年「飛行安全夏季刊」
增進直昇機駕駛員能力作法-安全考量因素(下)

直昇機飛行前計畫檢查表 第1頁/共2頁
飛行種類 日期 提示時間

離場點 / 航 路 / 到 場/及 備 降 場 天 氣

正點天氣（METAR）

測報天氣（TAF）

天氣圖 顯著天氣圖

高空風 結冰高度 結冰

地面風 日出時間 日落時間

任務

飛航 離場 航路

公告 到場 備用

通信 呼號

頻率 離場 航路 航路 目的地 備降1 備降2

ATIS

GND

TWR

APP

INFO

助導航 離場 航路

設施 到場 備用

各可用機場 離場 航路 目的地 備降1 備降2

飛行計畫 PPR/落地許可

時間 裝載 開車

起飛 落地 飛航時間

人員資料

有效文件 駕駛員檢定證與體檢證 □有

型別等級/儀器等級 □有

飛行資格 □有

護照或身分證件 □有

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直昇機飛行前計畫檢查表 第2頁/共2頁
直昇機資訊

機型 機號 重量

縱向 橫向

起飛重心

落地重心

備降場重心

機載燃油量 所需燃油量 續航燃油量

飛航/維護紀錄簿

隨機文件 第三責任險證書正本或影本 □有

登記證 □有

適航證(ARC) □有

噪音證明正本或影本(如適用) □有

航空營運許可證(AOC)正本或影本 □有

無線電臺執 □有

操作手冊/飛航手冊 □有

工作所需時間 距下次檢查時間/CRS

外型 裝備

性能等級(如適用)

離場 航路 目的地

最大起飛/落地重量

最大IGE滯空重量

最大OGE滯空重量

OEI升限

燃油量

基本或空重 　　＋ 目視飛航油量 儀器飛航油量

燃油 　　＋ 開車 　　　＋ 開車 　　　＋

組員 　　＋ 滑行 　　　＋ 滑行 　　　＋

機內裝載 　　＋ 航程 　　　＋ 航程 　　　＋

機外掛載 　　＋ 5或10%應變 　　　＋ 備用 　　　＋

起飛總重 20 min備用 　　　＋ 10%應變 　　　＋

航程油量 　　－ 機長考量 　　　＋ 30 min備用 　　　＋

落地總重 機坪總油量 附加 　　　＋

備用油量 　　－ 額外 　　　＋

依據JAR OPS 3所需油量
備降場落地總重 機坪總油量

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2012年「飛行安全夏季刊」
METHODS TO IMPROVE HELICOPTER PILOTS’ CAPABILITIES – SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS (PART 2)
METHODS TO IMPROVE HELICOPTER
PILOTS’ CAPABILITIES – SAFETY
CONSIDERATIONS (PART 2)
European Helicopter Safety Implementation Team
3. Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE)
On a single rotor helicopter, one of the main
functions of tail rotor thrust is to control the helicopter
heading. If tail rotor thrust is insufficient, an unanticipated
and uncommanded yaw may occur. This phenomenon
has been a contributing factor in a number of helicopter
accidents and is commonly referred to as LTE.
For the purpose of this leaflet, LTE is considered to
be an insufficient tail rotor thrust associated with a
control margin deficiency which can result in an
uncommanded rapid yaw rate. This yaw may not subside
of its own accord and if not corrected can result in the
loss of a helicopter.
3.1 When Does LTE Happen?
LTE is more likely to occur when the critical yaw
pedal is close to the full travel position.
The critical yaw pedal is considered to be the right
pedal for clockwise rotating main rotor systems and the
left pedal for anti-clockwise rotating ones.
LTE is generally encountered at low forward
airspeed, normally less than 30kt, where:
• The tail fin has low aerodynamic efficiency
• The airflow and downwash generated by the main
rotor interferes with the airflow entering the tail
rotor
• A high power setting requires a yaw pedal position
which is close to its full travel
• An adverse wind condition increases the tail rotor
thrust requirement
• Turbulent wind conditions require large and rapid
collective and yaw inputs
The following are some of the operations where
pilots can typically find themselves at a low height, low
37
Flight Safety Quarterly, Summer 2012
airspeed and a high power setting, where the wind
velocity is difficult to determine and the pilot is often
preoccupied with positioning the aircraft for the task:
• Powerline and pipeline patrol sectors
• External load
• Hoisting
• Fire fighting
• Landing site reconnaissance
• Low speed aerial filming/photograph
• Police and HEMS
• High Density Altitude (DA) landing and takeoff
3.2 How can LTE be avoided?
During flight planning pilots must consider the
Rotorcraft Flight Manual, especially regarding
performance in relation to the critical wind azimuths, the
DA at which they are operating, the helicopter All Up
Mass (AUM) and flight characteristics.
During the flight, pilots should be constantly aware
of the wind conditions and the available tail rotor thrust
margin, which is represented by the critical pedal
position.
Whenever possible, pilots should avoid
combinations of the following:
• Adverse wind conditions at low airspeed
• Uncommanded yaw
• Large and rapid collective and yaw inputs at low
airspeed
• Low airspeed flight in turbulent wind conditions
3.3 Recovery from LTE
Pilots should be aware that if they enter a flight
regime where any, or a combination of the above occur,
they are entering a potential LTE situation and they must
be able to recognise the onset and commence the
 METHODS TO IMPROVE HELICOPTER PILOTS’ CAPABILITIES – SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS (PART 2)
positive recovery actions without delay. Recovery actions
will vary according to the circumstances, if height
permits, attaining forward airspeed without increasing
power (if possible reducing power) will normally resolve
the situation. Therefore, as these actions may involve a
considerable loss of altitude, it is recommended that
pilots identify a clear escape route in advance of the
operations listed above.
To exit LTE
1. Apply full opposing pedal to the direction of turn
2. A dopt an accelerative attitude to gain forward
airspeed
3. If altitude permits; reduce power
4. Static & Dynamic Rollover
4.1 Static Rollover
Static rollover occurs when the helicopter pivots
about one skid/wheel in contact with the ground to such
an extent that the helicopter’s Centre of Gravity (C of G)
moves beyond the skid/wheel. Once the static rollover
angle is exceeded removal of the original force causing
the roll will not stop the helicopter rolling motion. This
typically corresponds to a roll angle in excess of 30° for
most helicopters, see figure 1.
Critical Rollover Angle
The critical rollover angle for a helicopter can be
described as either the maximum lateral slope angle
upon which the helicopter can land, yet maintain its main
rotor disc parallel to the natural horizon, or the maximum
flapping angle of the main rotor system. Typically, most
helicopters have a critical rollover angle of 13° to 17° and
if it is exceeded, application of full opposite cyclic will not
stop the helicopter rolling motion.
4.2 Dynamic Rollover
This generally occurs when a helicopter is taking
off, landing or hovering with one skid/wheel in contact
with the surface. The helicopter may begin to roll about
the point of contact with the surface (pivot point). The
pivot point could be for example a skid/wheel, stuck or
restrained to ground, ice, soft asphalt or mud. It could
also be a skid/wheel contacting a fixed object/ground
whilst hovering sideways or during slope operations.
Dynamic rollover can occur at roll angles far less
than the static or critical rollover angles.
Excessive application of collective in combination
with a rolling motion about a skid/wheel can result in
sufficient roll momentum that full opposite cyclic cannot
counteract, even before reaching the critical rollover
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
STATIC ROLLOVER LIFTING TO THE HOVER
angle.
Lifting to the Hover (see figure 2)
• Collective is raised and lift generated
• The right skid is stuck and becomes the pivot point
• Left cyclic keeps the disc level with the horizon
• A small roll rate develops
Dynamic Rollover (see figure 3)
• Collective is raised further and more lift generated
• Critical rollover angle is reached
• No more left cyclic is available to level the disc
• Horizontal component of the rotor thrust will add to
the roll rate
• The roll rate increases
Corrective Action (see figure 4)
• L o w e r c o l l e c t i v e t o r e m o v e t h e h o r i z o n t a l
component of the rotor thrust in an attempt to stop
the roll before the C of G is beyond the pivot point
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
DYNAMIC ROLLOVER CORRECTIVE ACTION
• The helicopter will continue to roll due to its inertia
and may roll beyond the static rollover angle if the
collective is not lowered soon enough.
4.3 Precautions
›› Any change in lateral C of G will modify the lateral
cyclic requirement and availability
›› A lways practice hovering Engine Off Landing
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Flight Safety Quarterly, Summer 2012
METHODS TO IMPROVE HELICOPTER PILOTS’ CAPABILITIES – SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS (PART 2)
(EOL) into the wind
›› W hen hovering or taxiing close to obstacles /
ground use extreme caution
›› Whenever possible, slope operations should be
conducted into the wind
›› During take-off and landing, especially on a slope,
all control inputs should be made slowly, smoothly
and gently; helicopter sideward motion should be
avoided
›› D uring slope operations if the upslope skid /
wheel starts to leave the ground before the down
slope skid / wheel, lifting to the hover should be
aborted
›› On landing, if the cyclic control limit is reached,
further lowering of the collective may cause a
rollover
›› When landing or taking off on a floating platform
that is pitching and / or rolling, extreme caution
should be exercised
Imprint
Disclaimer:
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Flight Safety Quarterly, Summer 2012
The safety improvement analyses and
recommendations produced by the EHSIT are based on
expert judgment and are supplementary to the official
reports of the accident investigation boards (AIBs). Such
recommendations, and the safety improvement actions
that may follow, are solely aimed at improving helicopter
safety, are not binding and under no circumstances
should be considered to take precedence over the official
AIB reports. The adoption of such safety improvement
recommendations is subject to voluntary commitment,
and engages only the responsibility of those who
endorse these actions. The EHSIT accepts no
responsibility or liability whatsoever with regard to the
content or for any actions resulting from the use of the
information contained in these recommendations.
For a download of the Helicopter Preflight Planning
Checklist please visit http://www.easa.europa.eu/essi/
ehest/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/EHEST-Pre-flight-
planning-Checklist. 
 METHODS TO IMPROVE HELICOPTER PILOTS’ CAPABILITIES – SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS (PART 2)

HELICOPTER PREFLIGHT PLANNING CHECKLIST Page 1/2

TYPE OF FLIGHT DATE BRIEFING TIME

WEATHER AT DEPARTURE POINT / EN ROUTE / ARRIVAL / ALTERNATE

METAR

TAF

Weather Chart Significant weather chart

Upper wings Freezing level Icing

Surface wind Sunrise time Sunset time

TASK

Notams Departure En route

Arrival Alternate

Communication Call sign

details DEP ENR ENR DEST ALT 1 ALT 2

ATIS

GND

TWR

APP

INFO

Navigation aids Departure En route

Arrival Alternate

Airfields DEP ENR DEST ALT 1 ALT 2

Flight plan PPR/Landing approval

Timings Loading Start up

T/O Land Duration

PERSONAL INFO

Valid documents Pilot license and Medical cert. □Yes

Type rating / IR □Yes

Flight recency □Yes

Passports or identity card □Yes

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Flight Safety Quarterly, Summer 2012
METHODS TO IMPROVE HELICOPTER PILOTS’ CAPABILITIES – SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS (PART 2)

HELICOPTER PREFLIGHT PLANNING CHECKLIST Page 2/2

HELICOPTER INFO

Type Registration Weight

Longitudinal Lateral

CG Take-off

CG Landing

CG Alternate

Fuel on board Fuel required Endurance

Tech. Log

Helicopter documents Original or copy of the Third party liability Insurance Certificate □Yes

to be carried Certificate of Registration □Yes

Certificate of airworthiness (ARC) □Yes

Original or copy of the Noise Certificate (if applicable) □Yes

Original or copy of the Air Operator Certificate □Yes

Radio licence □Yes

Ops Manual / Flight Manual □Yes

Hours required for task Hours before next inspection / CRS

Configuration Equipment

PERFORMANCE CLASS (IF APPLICABLE)

Departure En route Destination

Max. take-off / landing Weight

Max. Hover Weight IGE

Max. Hover Weight OGE

OEI service ceiling

FUEL

Basic or Empty Weight + VFR FUEL IFR FUEL

Fuel + Start-up + Start-up +

Crew + Taxi + Taxi +

Internal Load + TRIP + TRIP +

External Load + 5 or 10% contingency + Alternate +

T / O Weight 20 min res + 10%contingenc +

Trip Fuel - Discretion + 30 min res +

Landing Weight Total Ramp + Additional +

Alternate Fuel - FUEL ACCORDING TO JAR OPS 3 Extra +

Landing Total ramp

Weight at Alternate

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Flight Safety Quarterly, Summer 2012