RESONATORS

Resonators are key to the performance of a range of RF/microwave components, such as oscillators and filters.
The types of available resonators include coaxial, dielectric, crystal, ceramic, surface acoustic wave (SAW), and
yttrium iron garnet (YIG).

1. Coaxial Resonators
Coaxial resonators are commonly used to design components like voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs), coaxial-
resonator oscillators (CROs), and filters. This form of resonator is essentially a ceramic coaxial line. Often,
coaxial resonators are implemented in oscillators as high-quality-factor (high-Q) inductors, thereby creating a
resonant circuit when paired with a capacitor or varactor diode. A coaxial resonator has an outer conductor with
an approximately square-shaped cross-section and a cylindrical center conductor.

Coaxial resonators have two different forms: a quarter-wavelength (λ/4) resonator with one end shorted and the
opposite end open; and a half-wavelength (λ/2) resonator with both ends open. Because a coaxial resonator’s
material has a high dielectric constant (εr) value, components designed with them can be reduced in size.
These resonators are intended for a range of applications, including oscillators, band pass/band stop filters, and
electromagnetic-interference (EMI) filtering. They can be used to satisfy frequency requirements ranging from
200 MHz to 10 GHz. In addition, the resonators in five different materials. Coaxial resonators which are cover
800 MHz to 5.9 GHz intended applications include oscillators, filters, and duplexers. Ceramics offers a product
line of coaxial resonators intended for telecommunications, military and space, industrial, and wireless
applications. The resonators are offered for applications from 300 MHz to 6 GHz.

2. Dielectric Resonators
A dielectric resonator can be used to replace resonant cavities in components, such as filters and oscillators. It is
typically a disc-shaped material with a high εr value. This high εr value provides a significant advantage, enabling
the size of a circuit designed with a dielectric resonator to be significantly smaller than when an air-filled cavity
resonator is employed. Electromagnetic fields are largely confined within a dielectric resonator, allowing
radiation losses to be extremely small and a high quality-factor (Q) to be achieved
Although a dielectric resonator will resonate in several modes, the TE01 (transverse-electric) mode is most
commonly used in many applications. When operating in this mode, a dielectric resonator may be magnetically
coupled to a circuit by several different methods. One method is to couple the resonator to a microstrip line. This
approach can be used to create components like dielectric-resonator oscillators (DROs).

These components are typically used in oscillators, satellite-based communication equipment, microwave filters,
and combiners. They can be selected for applications spanning 260 MHz to 26 GHz.

3. Crystal Resonators
Quartz crystals can be used as high-quality electromechanical resonators. Their piezoelectric properties allow
them to be used as frequency-control elements in crystal oscillators. Quartz crystals offer high Q and superior
frequency stability. In fact, their high Q is the main reason why crystal oscillators are often employed instead of
LC oscillators.

Piezoelectric materials have the capability to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice versa.
When a mechanical stress is applied, an electric charge is generated. This electric charge is proportional to the
applied mechanical stress. The same material becomes strained when an electric field is applied.
In a quartz crystal resonator, a thin slice of quartz is placed between two electrodes. This quartz slice is obtained
by cutting the original material at specific angles in regard to the various axes, which determines the resonator’s
physical and electrical parameters. Thus, a quartz crystal can be classified by the manner it was cut from the
original material. Resonators can be generated from a variety of cuts.
When the frequency of an applied voltage approaches one of the mechanical resonance frequencies of the quartz
slice, the amplitude of the vibrations becomes very large. The accompanying displacement current also increases,
which decreases the magnitude of the device’s effective impedance. Rapid to the impedance change as the
frequency varies near resonance, quartz crystal resonators can be used as frequency-control elements in crystal
oscillators.
Near a resonant frequency, a quartz crystal can be represented by an equivalent electrical circuit C2 represents the
shunt capacitance of the electrodes in parallel with the holder capacitance. L1 is the electrical equivalent of the
critical mass, while C1 represents the crystal stiffness or elasticity. R1 represents heat loss due to mechanical
friction.
A range of quartz crystals spanning providing a fundamental mode frequency from 10 to 42 MHz. In addition,
the company offers crystals for automotive applications, communication satellites, mobile communication
devices, automotive electronics, TVs, personal computing, and home information appliances.

4. Ceramic Resonators
Ceramic resonators are a viable alternative to quartz crystals. Although they are less accurate than quartz crystals,
ceramic resonators do offer other benefits. For instance, they can be manufactured in smaller packages and at
lower costs. Applications are automotive electronics, communications, personal computing, and
medical/healthcare equipment.

Ceramic resonators utilize the mechanical resonance of piezoelectric ceramics. Two metal electrodes are
evenly placed on both the top and bottom of the ceramic substrate. When a voltage is applied, the substrate vibrates
between the electrodes. The resonant frequency is determined by the substrate’s thickness. A ceramic resonator’s
equivalent electric circuit is identical to a quartz crystal. Because its operation is similar to a crystal, it can be
used in the same oscillator configurations.

5. Saw Resonators
A surface acoustic wave (SAW) that is propagating at the surface of a piezoelectric crystal can be used to carry
information. A basic SAW resonator consists of an inter-digital transducer and two grating reflectors, which are
fabricated on a piezoelectric material by a photolithographic process. The reflectors form a resonant cavity, which
the transducer couples to the external circuit. Like crystal resonators, SAW resonators can be used to build
oscillators—often in higher-frequency applications. They can also be used to build band pass filters. Automotive
remote-keyless-entry (RKE) devices, security systems, and garage door openers are some examples of consumer
products that commonly use SAW resonators.

6. YIG Resonators
Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) resonators can be used to design oscillators and filters. A YIG is a crystal that has a
very high Q, enabling oscillators to be designed with very low phase noise. Multi-octave bandwidths are another
benefit than can be achieved by using YIG resonators.

YIGs are most often used in a sphere configuration. However, other shapes have also been used over the years.
A YIG will resonate at microwave frequencies when it is immersed in a direct-current (DC) magnetic field. This
resonance is directly proportional to the strength of the applied magnetic field, which is generated using an
electromagnet, a permanent magnet, or a combination of both.