MCB 3020 Exam 2

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1. First law of states that energy can be neither created 11. Respiration an efficient method of producing energy
thermodynamics nor destroyed, so the energy in the total that involves the oxidation of organic
universe remains constant however molecules, such as glucose. It involves the
energy may be redistributed either within oxidation of a molecule like glucose and
a system or between the system and its the passage of an electron down an
surroundings electron transport chain. the energy
released from these stepwise redox
2. Second law of states that the physical and chemical
reactions is used to pump protons across
thermodynamics processes proceed in such a way that the
a membrane, generating a proton motive
disorder of the universe increases to the
force
maximum possible (entropy)
12. Fermentation is an inefficient method for producing
3. Entropy the amount of randomness (disorder) in a
energy that involves only Substrate level
system
phosphorylation. This yields far less ATP
4. Thermodynamics a science that analyzes energy changes in than oxidative phosphrylation which
a collection of matter called a system (ex produces ATP indirectly. In fermentation,
cell) and all other matter in the universe is the glucose is oxidized, and an
its surroundings endogenous electron receptor is reduced.
5. Define the a measure of a reducing agent's tendency the endogenous receptor is then
standard to lose electrons. regenerated cia cellular processes that
reduction produce lactic acid, ethanol, propionate,
potential isopropanol, acetate, butanol, butyrate,
and 2,3-butanediol
6. The more the better the electron donor
negative the Eo 13. Endogenous one thing inside that acts as final electron
acceptor (accumulate)
7. The more the better electron acceptor
positive the Eo 14. In fermentation is usually an intermediate of the pathway
the endogenous used to oxidize the organic source
8. The greater the the more energy is released from a set of
electron (pyruvate),
difference oxidation-reduction reactions (that is the
acceptor
between the Eo deltaG is more negative
for the electron 15. oxidative happens in respiration and it takes a free P
acceptor and the phosphorylation to make ATP (happens indirectly)
Eo for the 16. Describe how an enzyme is a biological catalyst that
electron donor enzymes are speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering
9. In electron negative Eo to electron carriers with a involved in the activation energy (Ea)
transport chain more positive Eo chemical
electrons move reactions
from electron 17. activation energy required to form transition-state
carriers with a energy complex,
more
18. ribozyme vs ribozyme is an RNA molecule with
10. Why aerobic aerobic respiration is more efficient than enzyme catalytic activity. Enzyme is typically
growth anaerobic respiration because oxygen is thought of as a protein with catalytic
generates the the terminal electron acceptor with the activity
highest amount greatest Eo -larger than any terminal
19. Ribozymes remove spacers between the coding
of energy (ATP) electron acceptor used in in anaerobic
regions after transcription, special
respiration. for this reason, aerobic
ribonucleases
respiration generates the greatest amount
of energy 20. Holoenzyme apoenzyme+cofactor
21. Apoenzymes protein components of an enzyme
22. cofactors are nonprotein components of the
enzyme,
23. a cofactor can prosthetic group 32. What are the chemoorganotrophs are organisms
be a --- when important features that derive their energy and electron
it is firmly of source from organic molecules.
attached to Chemoorganotrophs Chemoorganoheterotrophs are able
the enzyme to use the same compound as a
carbon source, energy source, and a
24. a cofactor can coenzyme
source of reducing power
be a --- when
it is loosely 33. Describe the role of chemolithotrophs derive their energy
attached to Chemolithotrophs in form the oxidation of inorganic
the enzyme acid mine drainage molecules and derive their carbon
from CO2. Thiobacillus ferroxidans is
25. two ways to allosteric regulation and covalent
a chemolithotrophic bacterium that
regulate modification
oxidized ferrus iron to ferric iron and
enzymatic
sulfide ions to suulfate ions. there
activity (post-
bacteria combine with pyrite (FeS2) in
translation
the coal mines of Appalachian
and important
Mountains, which leaches metals from
control
the mines and turns the Ohio River
measures)
red and acidic
26. allosteric a small molecule called an allosteric
34. Describe the role of they consume large amounts of
regulation effector binds reversibly to a regulatory site
Chemolithotrophs in inorganic material that they have a
away from the catalystic site, causing a
geochemical huge ecological impact and make
conformation change in the enzyme and
recycling? important contributions to the N, S
thereby altering its activity
and iron cycle, among others
27. covalent chemical groups are added to or removed
35. What is meant by CO2 fixation is the process by which
modification from the enzyme affecting its activity
CO2 fixation? List inorganic CO2 is converted to
(covalent attachment)
three pathways used complex organic molecules, like
28. List and Enzyme activity is effected by substrate by microbes to fix glucose. The pathways include the
describe concentration (saturates enzyme causing CO2. Calvin Cycle, the reductive TCA cycle,
effects of there to be fewer enzymes than substrate the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle, the
environmental molecules which causes the reaction rate to acetyl-CoA pathway. most autotrophs
factors on level off), pH (ionic bonds), temperature (H use the calvin cycle
enzymatic bonds)
36. phototroph light energy source
activities.
How? 37. chemotroph inorganic chemicals for energy
source (oxidation of organic or
29. Denaturation - loss of enzymes structure and activity
inorganic compounds)
when temperature and pH rise too much
above optima (most are happy at a pH of 7), 38. lithotroph inorganic electron source
losses tertiary structure
39. organotroph organic electron source
30. Why fermentation produces les ATP than aerobic
40. autotroph CO2 for carbon source
anaerobic respiration because fermentation relies only
respiration of SLP to produce ATP, while aerobic 41. heterotroph organic carbon for carbon source
and respiration uses both SLP and oxidative 42. Know major photolithoautotroph,
fermentation phosphorylation, anaerobic produces less nutritional types of photoorganoheterotroph,
make less ATP ATP than aerobic because is uses something microorganisms chemolithoautotroph,
than aerobic other than oxygen as the terminal electrom chemolithoheterotroph,
respiration? acceptor in the electron transport chain chemoorganoheterotroph
31. Do any of the yes, for example, humans ferment lactic acid 43. respiration vs both synthesize ATP from ADP but
eukaryotes in the muscles when oxygen levels are low. fermentation (ATP respiration is more efficient. Aerobic
perform also, single celled yeast ferment ethanol synthesis) respiration can produce 38 ATP per
fermentation? glucose molecule and fermentation
Give only produces 2 ATP
examples
44. respiration vs respiration involves the passage of 50. Define and list Function as both catabolic and anabolic
fermentation electron down an electron amphibolic pathways(work both ways). Pentose
(pathways) transport chain and the creation pathways phosphate pathway, the TCA cycle and
of ATP via oxidative Embden- Meyerhof pathway, glycolisis
phosphorylation. fermentation
51. Different names citric acid cycle, the tricarboxylic acid
involves the passage of electroms
for the Krebs (TCA) cycle
to endogenous acceptors and the
cycle
creation of ATP through SLP in
glycolysis 52. List the three Embden-Meyerhof pathway, pentose
common routes phosphate pathway, and Entner-
45. respiration vs both glucose
of glucose Doudoroff pathway
fermentation (electron
conversion to
donor)
pyruvate
46. respiration vs aerobic respiration the terminal
53. Embden- most common glycolytic pathway, (also
fermentation (electron electron acceptor is oxygen.
Meyerhof refered to as glycolysis)
carriers and acceptors) Anaerobics terminal electron
pathway
acceptor is something other than
oxygen. Fermentation uses 54. pentose (hexose monophosphate pathway) an
endogenous electron acceptors phosphate amphibolic pathway that involved the
(NAD+) which must be pathway oxidation of glucose followed by the
regenerated synthesis of five arbon pentose sugars
that can be used as intermediates for the
47. possible anaerobic (NO3-, SO4(2-), S, Fe(3+),
synthesis of other molecules, like DNA
electron acceptors HAsO4(2-), SeO4 (2-),
and RNA. this process can occur
48. Define/describe/explain The combined chemical and aerobically or anaerobically and it can
proton gradient, proton electrical potential differences operate at the same time as the Entner-
motive force make up the proton motive force. Doudoroff pathway or the Embden-
As electrons are passed down the Meyerhof pathway
electron transport chain, protons
55. How anabolism glycolysis and the TCA cycle can
ar pumped across the membrane
and catabolism produce intermediaries that can serve as
from an area of low
intertwined in carbon skeletons in anabolic pathways.
ceoncentration to an area of high
glycolysis and this is why these pathways are said to be
concentration. This creates a
TCA cycle. What amphibolic. they can simultaneously be
proton gradient across the
is the anabolic and catabolic
membrane. The protential energy
significance of
in this gradient can be harnessed
glycolysis and
via the proton motive force as
TCA cycle in
protons move down their
providing
concentration gradient across the
skeleton carbon
membrane
to the cell?
49. Define and list different substrate level phosphorylation
56. Energy from make ATP, motility in flagella (diffusion of
form of (glycolysis and Krebs cycle)-
PMF can be used protons back across the membrane
phosphorylation. Which involves the creation of ATP using
in/for (down gradient) drove the formation of
one is associated with energy from another high -energy
ATP), and translocating molecules and
glycolysis, Krebs cycle, compound
proteins (active transport)
and electron transport oxidative phosphorylation
system (electron transport chain) involves 57. List possible NO3-, SO4(2-), S, Fe(3+), HAsO4(2-),
the creation of ATP from scratch, molecules that SeO4 (2-), fumarate, CO2
using the PMF that is established are used as final can be organic or inoganic molecules
as electron are passed through electron
the electron transport chain acceptor in
anaerobic
respiration
58. List several Ethanol, acetate, lactate, butanol, 72. two major light reactions and carbon fixation(calvin
possible end propionate, isopropanol, butyrate, and stages of cycle or dark reactions)
products of 2,3-butanediol photosynthesis
fermentation
73. light reactions light energy is trapped and converted to
59. sulfur- oxidation sulfur oxidizing bacteria use anaerobic chemical energy in the form of ATP and
respiration with sulfite (SO3(2-)) to NADPH
produce ATP via both SLP and
74. dark reactions the reducing power of ATP and NADPH is
oxidative phosphorylation
harnessed and the energy put into long
60. nitrification the oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to term storage molecules like glucose,
nitrate (NO3-). this process occurs in sucrose and starch
two steps and require two types of -the energy produced in the light reaction
organisms. one converts ammonia to is used to reduce CO2 and synthesize cell
nitrite (NO2-) and the other converts constituents
nitrite to nitrate
75. semi- one strand of the daughters cell is a new
61. nitrification (cont.) fixing nitrogen into usable product conservative strand while the other is an old strand. this
(NO2, NO3, NH2) replication is important because it means that the
daughter cell always has a correct
62. nitrogen fixation the reduction of atmospheric nitrogen
template
(N2) to ammonia
76. antiparallel (strands in DNA) one runs 5' to 3' while the
63. dissimilatory is the direct reduction of nitrate to
other runs 3' to 5'
nitrate reduction ammonium (NH4+). this occurs when
nitrate is used as the terminal acceptor. 77. complementary is a nucleic acid strand that exhibits
the reduction of nitrate prevents other stand complementary base pairing with other
organisms from assimilating it or taking strands
it up from the environment (anaerobic)
78. major and (caused by twisting arrangement in DNA)
64. assimilatory nitrate involves the reduction of nitrate to minor grooves the play an important role in facilitating the
reduction nitrite via nitrate reductase, and them interaction of other molecules, such as
the further reduction of nitrite to enzymes, with in the genetic material
ammonium via a series of steps. this (place for them to land)
process is distinct from
79. DNA synthesize nucleic acids, use DNA as
65. denitrification the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. polymerase template, synthesize a new strand of
this is devastating to soil fertility and RNA nucleotides from 5' to 3'
because nitrogen gas is unusable to polymerase
most organisms similarities
66. Bacteriorhodopsin- some archaea use this, a proton motive 80. DNA -DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA
based phototrophy force is generated, and an electron polymerase -RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA
transport chain is not involved and RNA -DNA polymerase adds thymine as a
polymerase complementary base pair to adenine while
67. Bacteriorhodopsin a membrane protein which functions as
differences RNA polymerase adds uracil
a light driven proton pump
-DNA polymerase is used in DNA
68. eukaryotes and oxygenic photosynthesis which replication while RNA polymerase is used
cyanobacteria produced oxygen as a byproduct in transcription
engage in DNA polymerase requires a primer before
69. bacteria (except anoxygenic photosythesis which does it can synthesize a new strand while RNA
cyanobacteria) not produce oxygen as a byproduct does not
andarchaeans 81. endonucleases cleave the bonds of DNA from with in the
engage in molecule
70. photoautotrophs organisms that derive their energy from 82. exonucleases cleave nucleotides at the end of the
sunlight and that make their own food molecule.
71. Bacteriorhodopsin- is an alternative pigment to 83. 3' to 5' give DNA polymerase III the ability to
chlorophyll. it acts dierctly as a proton exonuclease engage in "proofreading"/ that is DNA
pump, instead of rely on an electron activity polymerase III can go back and remove
transport chain to generate PMF errantly placed nucleotides
84. origins of specific site on DNA molecule where DNA 93. differences in eukaryotes- occurs in nucleus, and the
replication replication begins, where the protein that transcription final mRNA transcript must be exported
(OIR) initiate DNA replication attach to the DNA (site and timing form the nucleus before it can be
and open "Replication bubbles". thses of transcribed
bubles expand laterally, allowing DNA transcription) prokaryotes- occurs in cytoplasm, and the
replication to proceed in both directions at mRNA transcript can be immediately
the replication forks translated (often simultaneously)
85. (OIRc) is the origin of replication in E. coli 94. differences in eukaryotes have 3 different RNA
transcription polymerases. RNA polymerase II is a huge
86. helicase unwinding protein, that unwind the double
(different RNA molecule with 10 or more polypeptide
stranded DNA at the replication fork,
polymerase subunits. it produces heterogenous
seperating the old strands. unwinding is
enzymes) nuclear RNA (hnRNA) which is modified to
critical because nucleic acids must be
generate mRNA
single stranded to be read. once unwound a
single strand binding protein stabilizes the 95. differences in eukaryyotes- often larger and more
single stranded DNA, while DNA sythensis transcription diverse. RNA polymerase typically binds
occurs (promoter approxiamatly 10 to 35 bases upstream of
sequence) the leader sequence.
87. topoisomerase the enzyme that relieves supercoiling ahead
in bacteria a sequence of 6 nucleotides
of the replication bubble by breaking and
(TATAAT) called the pribnow box is found
joining DNA strands. This is necessary
in the promoter sequence and plays a role
because extra torsion would otherwise
in initiating transcription.
result along the stand as the coil is
-eukaryotes and archaeans have a TATA
unwound. topoisomerase can also
box that serves the same purpose
introduce positive supercoiling once
replication is complete 96. differences in Eukaryotes undergo RNA splicing and
transcription post-transcriptional modification while
88. DNA synthesis from scratch, it needs a 3' carbon. Primase
(RNA spicing prokaryotes do not
can not start is a special RNA polymerase that adds an
and post
RNA primer to five to 10 base pairs, which
transcriptional
allows replication to begin. A second type
modification)
of DNA polymerase later replaces the RNA
primer with DNA and a DNA ligase "glues" 97. ribosome the site of polypeptide synthesis and they
the DNA fragments together forming a consist of a small and large subunit which
phosphodiester bond between the 3'- are made up of RNA and proteins
hydroxl of the growing strand and the 5'-
98. prokaryotes 70S, each of which are make up of a small
phosphate of the Okazaki fragment. the
are made up of 30S and a large 50S subunit
result is one continuous strant of DNA
what kind of
89. DNA has proof reading function that allows it to ribosomes
polymerase III go back adn identify, remove, and fix
99. eukaryotes are 80S each of which is made up of a small
incorrect base pairs, thus avoiding
made up of 40S and a larger 60S
spontaneous mutations. it is not 100%
what kind of
effective
ribosomes
90. coding DNA is the strand with the same sequence as the
100. prokaryotes smaller
strand mRNA (with thymine instead of uracil)
ribosomes are -
91. template DNA is complenetary to the coding strand and -- than
strand the mRNA strand. the template strand is eukaryotes
directly read by RNA polymerase during
101. RNA plays a the large and small subunits in ribosomes
transcription, and the coding strand is what
structural role
is directly translated during protein
in maintaining
synthesis
92. DNA -RNA is formed during transcription when the
hybrid mRNA strand is formed from the template
DNA strand, according to complementary
base pairing rules
102. tRNA occurs when an enzyme callled aminoacyl
charging tRNA sythenetase transfers the correct amino
acid to the appropriate tRNA molecule,
forming an ester linkage between the amino
acid and the tRNA. tRNA charging is an
important step in protein synthesis because it
is essential that the tRNA brings the correct
amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain
103. molecular are proteins that bind to the nearest
chaperones polypeptide and ensure that they are folded
correclty, with the help of energy input form
ATP. They are able to facilitate protein folding,
but they are also able to cause proteins to
unfold. this is important becasue it allows a
protein that has folded incorrectly to correct
itself
104. Sec- gram+ and gram- bacteria use this. proteins are
dependent translocated across or into the plasma
pathway membrane. these proteins typically carry an
attached signal peptide that (with the help of
chaperone proteins) delays folding of the
polypeptide until it emerges form the plasma
membrane
105. Type I (gram-) involved protein subunits that form a
(ABC) contiguous channel across the plasma
pathway- membrane and the outer membrane. this
allows proteins to cross the membranes with
ease. this is common in prokaryotes
106. type II (Gram-)proteins are secreted via the type II
pathway secretion pathway are first transported into the
periplasm space using the SEC or Tat system.
they then pass through the outer membrane
via a series of proteins
107. type III type III secretion pathway acts as a molecular
pathway syringe that allows bacteria to inject proteins,
including virulence factors, into other cells.
these proteins are directly transferred from the
cytoplasm of one cell into the host of another
108. type IV type IV secretion pathway transports DNA and
pathway proteins from one cell to another during
bacteria conjunction
109. DNAj and are molecular chaperones that play a role in
DNAk ensuring that proteins are properly folded
110. promoter the area on a DNA where an RNA polymerase
binds and begins to unwind the DNA to initiate
transcription
111. operator the switch sequence in DNA that controls the
transcription of an entire set of genes in an
operon
112. upstream "upstream" is relative term used to describe a
region portion on the DNA strand that is more toward
the 5' end
113. downstream "downstream" is a relative term used to
region describe a portion on the DNA strand that
is more toward the 3'nd
114. TATA box a highly conserved region o the promoter
found in the DNA of eukaryotes
andarchaeans
115. -35 region is the region of the DNA about 35 bases
upstream of the leader sequence where
RNA polymerase typically binds.
116. CAP binding is an area on the promoter where
site catabolite activator protein (CAP) binds,
making it easier for RNA polymerase to
bind and begin transcription
117. operons are grouping of functionally related genes
that appear in bacterial cells. all of the
genes are controlled by a single promoter
sequence (the site where RNA polymerase
can bind to DNA and begin transcription)
therefore a single switch sequence called
an operator controls the transcription of
the entire operon
118. two kinds of inducible and repressionable
operons
119. inducible normally turned off. gene expression is
operon turned on where these operons are turned
on
120. repressionable normally turned on and can be regulated
operons by turning gene expression off
121. lac operon produces the enzymes needed for lactose
catabolism (breakdown). it is an inducicle
operon under both positive and negative
control. it is usually turned off but can be
turned on when lactose is present and
glucose is not
122. trp operon produces the enzymes needed for
tryptophan anabolism (synthesis). It is a
repressible operon under negative control.
it is usually on, but it can be turned off then
tryptophan is present in the environment
123. negative the presence of a control molecule
control (repressor) in the repressor binding site
promotes transcription and the removal of
the repressor form the repressor binding
site promotes transcription
124. positive the presence of a control molecule
control (activator) in the activator binding site
promotes transcription and the removal of
the activator form the activator binding site
inhibits transcription
125. repressor a control molecule that inhibits
transcription when it binds to the repressor
binding site on an operon
126. co-repressor a molecule that activated an otherwise 134. one way to operon
inactive repressor molecule, allwoing it to coordinate the
bind to its repressor binding site regulation of operator
multiple genes
127. inducer a molecule that inactivated an otherwise
in a metabolic
active repressor or activator protein
pathway is by
128. Explain how attenuation is a process that turns the try organizing
attenuation operon off when tryptophan levels are high. genes in--- that
regulatory a portion of the mRNA in the operon has a are controlled
mechanism complementary sequence that form stem by a single
works for loop structures in the RNA transcript. (these region of the
tryptophan are similar to the structures formed during DNA called an--
the termination of transcription) there are 4 -
different regions on the mRNA that can
135. two- global regulatory systems
form complementary base pairs with one
componenet
another. the pattern of complementary base
signal
pairing essentially turns transcription on and
transduction
off. attenuation shuts down the try operon
and
when tryptophanlevels are high
phosphorelay
129. What is the have alternative sigma factors allows E coli systems are two
significance to respond to different environmental means of
of having conditions by producing different alternate controlling
alternative sigma factors that turn on different genes.
136. two- link genes expressions to eents occuring
sigma factors for ex. E coli produces sigma 70 sigma
componenet outside the cell ( changes in temp.,
for factors for exponential growth, sigma 30
signal osmolarity, and oxygen levels) they
Escherichia sigma factors to protect against heat shock
transduction involve two proteins. a sense kinase
coli and sigma 60 sigma factors for nitrogen
protein and a response regulatory
metabolism
protein. the sensor kinase protein is
130. three 1) universal because nearly all living things embedded in the cyotplasmic membrane
important use the same genetic code and it senses an environmental change
characteristics 2) it is redundant, because multiple codons and passes the signal onto the response
of genetic can code for the same amino acid regulator protein which binds tp DNA
code 3) it is not ambiguous, because a codon can and can act as an activator or repressor
code for one and only one amino acid
137. two- are essentailly signal transduction
131. riboswitch is a site on the leader sequence of an mRNA componenet systems involving more signal relay
molecule that interacts with a small signal systems (and thus more proteins) than the
molecule or metabolite, causing a change transduction two component signal transduction
in the folding pattern of the leader, this and system. a membrane bound protein
altering either transcription or translation. phosphorelay "senses" environmental conditions and
they are involved in a special kind of systems are two passes the message along to other
transcription attenuation means of proteins within the cell, ultimately
132. gene DNA replication, transcription, translation, controlling producing a coordinated cellular
expression and post translation. response
can be 138. phosphorelay are essentailly signal transduction
regulated at a systems systems involving more signal relay
number of systems (and thus more proteins) than the
stages two component signal transduction
including system. a membrane bound protein
133. most transcription because transcription is "senses" environmental conditions and
regulation of energetically costly and a cell would be passes the message along to other
gene wasting energy if it produces mRNA without proteins within the cell, ultimately
expression using it to make the final gene product producing a coordinated cellular
occurs at response
139. mutagens are chemical or physical factos that produce 147. electron inner mitochondrial membrane and the
a stable, heritable change in the DNA transport thylakoid membrane of chloroplast
nucleotide sequence. they can be chemical chain in
mutagens (base analogs, alkylating agents, eukaryotes
mutagens that deaminate bases, intercalating
148. electron on the cell membrane
agents, or mutagen that hydroxylate cytosine)
transport
or physical mutagens (UV rays and X rays)
chain in
140. point a type of mutation that causes a change in a prokayotes
mutation single nucleotide with another nucleotide
149. post involves alteration of the pre-mRNA before
141. frameshift is a mutation caused by the insertion or transcriptional the final mRNA molecule is exported from
mutation deletion of nucleotides that are not in groups modification the nucleus in eukaryotes. it involves the
of three. this throws off the reading frame and excision of introns and the addition of a
significantly impacts the final polypeptide poly-A tail and a guanine cap, among other
alterations
142. global simultaneously control an even larger number
regulatory of genes or multiple operons , thus 150. post involves alteration of the product of
system simultaneously affecting multiple genes and translational translation before it becomes a mature
metabolic pathways. these regulatory systems modification polypeptide. (ex- addition of functional
are under the control of many regulatory group, removal of a portion of the
mechanisms, including regulatory protons, polypeptide, or folding of the polypeptide)
phosphorelay systems, two component signal
151. horizontal the transmission of genetic information
transduction systems, and alternate sigma
gene transfer between organisms in a manner other than
factors
traditional sexial or asexual reproduction.
143. SOS is a cells "last ditch" effort to survive after (conjugation, transformation, transduction)
response experiencing significant damage to DNA. it
152. plasmids small circular extrachromosomal bit of
allows a cell with extensive DNA damage to
bacterial DNA that can be transferred from
survive, often in a highly mutated form
one bacterium to another via horizontal
144. Ames test uses bacteria to determine whether a given gene tranfser.
chemical is carcinogenic (cause cancer). this
153. virsuses can mediate horizontal gene transfer. in
test uses strains of the bacterium salmonella
transduction, genetic information is
typhimurium that have mutations in genes
transferred form one bacterium to another
involved in histidine synthesis. because they
via a virus
cannot synthesize histidine, they require it
from their environments for growth. the 154. Chemical the production of complex molecules form
method tests the substance's ability to create work simple ones
mutations that result in a reversion that gives 155. transport involved the elimination of waste, take up of
the bacteria the ability to synthesize histidine work nutrients, and maintenance of ion balances
once again. if the substance is found to cause within the cell
the reversion on a large number of colonies,
156. mechanical involves cell movement (motility) and the
its mutagenicity is high and is might be
work movement of intracellular structures
carcinogenic
157. entropy measure of a systems disorder
145. DNA repair a collection of processes in which a cell
identifies and corrects damage to it genome. 158. reducing refers to a molecules power to reduce
these mechanisms are necessary because power another molecule by donating an electron
cells are often exposed to chemical or 159. endergonic absorbs and requires energy so their
physical mutagens that do damage to their reaction deltaG is positive
DNA.
160. exergonic release energy so their deltaG is negative
146. different proofreading, excision repair, mismatch repair, reaction
forms of direct repair, and the SOS response
DNA repair 161. components coenzyme Q (CoQ) which is also called
mechanisms of electron ubiquinone
include transport cytochromes-which use iron (part of heme
chain group) to transfer electrons
162. electron carriers are molecules that accept
electrons and pass them on to
other molecules (NADH and
FADH2 are electron carriers in
respiration that accept electrons
from organic molecules like
glucose)
163. ribozyme exampe 23S rRNA is a ribozyme that plays a
role in the elongation step in
translation
164. phosphoryation refers to the addition of a
phosphate group onto an organic
molecule, thereby effecting it
activity
165. SLP is used in glycolysis and the TCA cycle
166. photophosphorylation the process during photosynthesis
in which the energy form the
sunlight is harness to created a
created PMF which can the be used
to create ATP by adding a P group
to ADP
167. charge gradient a different in electrical charge
across a biological membrane.
when protons are pumped across a
membrane during cellular
respiration, a charge gradient is
created as one side of the
membrane becomes more positive
than the other. this charge gradient
can be used to do work
168. ATP synthase the enzyme that uses the free
movement of protons across a
biological membrane to power the
phosphoryaltion of ADP to form
ATP
169. chemiosmosis theory holds that ATP is created during
cellular respiration when ATP
synthase uses the PMF to
phosphorylate ADP
170. electron flow E. Coli bacteria have the ability to slow
through down the process of ATP production by
branched using a branched pathway. the initial step in
electron the electron transport chain occurs when
transport NADH dehydrogenase oxidises NADH.
chain once an electron is fed into the electron
transport chain it can follow two routes
-if oxygen levels are low or ATP
requirements are low, the electron will be
fed into the upper branch where ATP
production proceeds slowly
-if the oxygen levels are high or ATP
requirements are high, the electrons will be
fed into the lower branch, where ATP
171. nitrifying group of bacterial species that grow by
bacteria consuming inorganic nitrogen compounds
and thus convert those compounds to
organic form
172. examples of reserve polymers are molecules that serve
reserve as intracellular store of C and energy
polymers (glycogen, starch, and poly-beta-
hydroxybutyrate)
173. beta the major pathway of fatty acid oxidation. it
oxidation is the pathway in which fatty acids produce
pathway NADH, FADH2 and acetyl CoA
174. cyanobacteria photolithoautotrophs and play a role in
increasing oxygen levels in earths early
atmosphere
175. Rhodophsin- Rhodopsin is a pigment found in certain
based groups of bacteria and archaea
phototrophy (Bacteriorhodopsin). this pigments acts
directly as a proton pump. absorption of
light energy by rhodopsin causes protons to
be pumped outward. ATP synthase then
uses the proton motive force to create ATP
through photophosphorylation during
photosynthesis
176. chromosome structures that carry genes form cell to cell,
individual to individual, and generation to
generation. every chromosome contains
single long molecule of DNA, which
typically encodes hundreds or even
thousand of genes
177. genome the entire set of genes present in cell,
comprising all of the organism genetic
information
178. chromatin in eukaryotes and is the complex of DNA
and histones found in the nucleus
179. histones small proteins that assist in packaging of
DNA in eukaryotes
180. nucleosome the combination of DNA and histones found 191. global gene global regulatory systems simultaneously
in eukaryotic chromatin and in some archaea regulation by control multiple genes or multiple operons,
( the DNA wraps around the bead-like alternate this simultaneously affecting many
histones) sigma factor metabolic pathways. sigma factors assist
RNA polymerase in recognizing the
181. monocistronic the type of transcription that occurs in
beginning of genes, thus promoting
transcription eukaryotes. the type of transcription
transcription.
produces mRNA that carries the genetic
information for the translation of a single 192. E. Coli has controlling entire suites of genes needed
polpeptide several during different environmental conditions
alternate
182. polycistronic the type of transcription that occurs in
sigma factor
transcription prokaryotes. this type of transcription
that act in
produce mRNA that carries the genetic
global gene
information for the translation of multiple
regulation by
polypeptides
193. shine- a special region on the mRNA's leader
183. telomeres are nucleotide sequences hat repeat several
dalgarno sequence that plays a role in initiating
hundreds of times as the 3' end of linear
sequence/ translation
chromosome they do not contain genes but
coding
they act as a buffer that protects the
region
important genes towards the middle of the
DNA molecule from being eroded due to 194. Calvin cycle also known as dark reaction is the step in
successive replications photosynthesis during which carbon dioxide
is fixed and energy is put into long term
184. In humans, TTAGGG
storage molecules such as glucose
the 6
nucleotide 195. RUBisCo a critical enzyme involved in the calvin cycle
telomere
196. nitrogen involves the formation of organic nitrogen
sequence is
assimilation compounds from inorganic nitrogen
185. regulon a collection of genes or operons under the compounds
control of the same regulatoty protein
197. nitrate the enzyme that converts nitrate to nitrite,
186. modulon a set of operons or regulons that are reductase whichis then reduced to ammonia. this can
collectively regulated in response to be used to form nitrogen containing
changes in environmental conditions but compounds like amino acids
may be under the control of multiple
198. what percent 80%
regulators molecules
of air is N
187. protoplast occurs when cells join together after being
199. PEP ADP GTP high energy molecules
fusion stripped of their cell walls or having their
and acetyl
cell walls significantly weakened
CoA are all
188. polysome (polyribosome) is a cluster of multiple
200. molecules high reduced molecules (lots of electrons)
ribosomes bound to a single mRNA
enter
molecule. they are found in prokaryotes and
glycolysis as
can be used to create hybrid species
201. if you gain an reduced
189. Rolling circle a type of DNA replication in which the
electron you
replication replication fork moves around a circular
are
molecule of DNA, displacing a strand to
produce a 5' tail that is also copied to 202. if you lose an oxidized
produce new double-stranded DNA electron you
are
190. regulation of antisense RNA is a single stranded RNA that
translation by is complementary to the mRNA strand. 203. electron from ATP
antisense when is binds to the mRNA, the mRNA glucose to
RNA cannot be used in translation O2 gives you
the most
204. examples of NAD 221. polysaccharides enter glycolysis
electron - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide through
carriers • NADP
222. lipids glycerol enters glycolysis
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
through
phosphate
• FAD 223. fatty acids enter acetyl CoA
- flavin adenine dinucleotide through
• Coenzyme Q (CoQ) 224. g and c
- a quinone
225. a and t
- also called ubiquinone
• cytochromes 226. • base pairing 2 hydrogen
- use iron to transfer electrons - Adenine (purine) and
• iron is part of a heme group thymine
(NAD, NADP, FAD are found in the (pyrimidine) pair by
cytoplasm while Coenzyme Q and 227. - Guanine (purine) and 3 hydrogen bonds
cytochromes are membrane bound) cytosine
205. first electron Eo (NADH) (pyrimidine) pair by
carrier has the 228. replication is 5' 3' direction
most negative bidirectional and
206. hydrolase breaks down molecules always

207. isomerase involved in changing one isomer to 229. • the lagging strand is Okazaki fragments
another synthesized in short
fragments called
208. ligase joining molecules
230. leading strand is continuously synthesised and only
209. in fermentation endogenous electron acceptor
need one primer
what is
accumulated 231. lagging strand is not continuous and is done in
fragments and requires multiple
210. proteins can glycolysis or Krebs cycle and they have
primers
enter into the to be deaminated first
cycle at 232. AUG is a start codon

211. glycolysis taking a glucose (6 C chain) to two 233. sigma factor leaves transcription is initiated
pyruvates (2 three C chains after
212. catabolism break down of polymer 234. three parts of initiation, elongation, and
transcription termination
213. anabolism synthesis of polymer
235. ways to end intrinsic and Rho-dependent
214. products of 2 pyruvates, 2 ATP, 2NADH, 2H+
transcription
glycolysis
236. how many amino acids 20
215. NADPH is used biosynthetic processes
for 237. how many codons 63
216. Summary of glucose-6-P + 12NADP+ + 7H2O 238. (aminoacyl) A site incoming amino acid - tRNA
Pentose ↓ 239. (peptidyl) P site polypeptide site (tRNA)
Phosphate 6CO2 + 12NADPH + 12H+ Pi
pathway 240. stop codons UAA, UAG

217. fermentation is NADH from glycolysis 241. sigma 70 exponentail growth

oxidation of 242. sigma S is stationary phase
218. acetyl CoA is TCA cycle 243. sigma H (sigma 32) protect against heat shock
oxidized in
244. base analog looks and fits like a base but
which cycle
doesnt function like a base -base
219. Succinyl CoA is a high energy compound analog is a structure analog-
220. cytochrome is electonegative 245. intercalating agent can fit between bases and stretch
the least them too far so DNA plimrays can
not read them
246. alkylating agent chemically changes the base pair