Design - World.power - Electronics.handbook - truePDF February.2017

February 2017 Teardown: IKEA’s Smart LED bulb Page 8
Secrets of measuring currents above 50 A Page 34
Power
Electronics HAND BOOK
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POWER ELECTRONICS
The tough problems

in power design
HANDBOOK
AN ANNUAL RITUAL takes place in the upper echelons partly because the SiC version only needed a two-
of the power electronics world. At the Applied Power level bridge compared to the three-level design that
Electronics Conference (APEC), considered a premier the silicon version required. “IGBTs typically force
forum for applied power electronics, researchers present you to use a three-level bridge. SiC devices can go
new ideas for power converters. Typically, these ideas up to ten times faster with about the same losses as
are neither straightforward nor easy to understand. And IGBTs. That switching speed lets them operate with
there is generally nothing intuitive about them. So other less filtering,” Stevanovic says.
researchers intrigued by these concepts spend a lot of Attendees can also hear about SiC from Dr.
time in the ensuing 12 months characterizing the most Victor Veliadis, CTO and Interim Deputy Director
promising topologies and circuits mentioned at APEC. of PowerAmerica, a DoE manufacturing institute
At APEC the following year, conference-goers can start to working on advanced power conversion techniques.
really understand how the original circuits behave when Veliadis and his PowerAmerica colleagues will be
the new results are presented. covering some of the difficulties they’ve managed
This ritual is one of the reasons APEC has the to overcome in devising SiC devices and will
reputation as a forum attended by practitioners who can discuss how SiC circuits excel compared to those
analyze knotty technical problems. And in that regard, using conventional silicon transistors. “A lot of
there are a couple of areas addressed in this year’s the difficulty relates to getting processes that are
upcoming APEC that are worth mentioning. specific to SiC and taking them from an R & D
One of them concerns the promising field of silicon- demonstration into a real manufacturing process,”
carbide MOSFETs. Ljubisa Stevanovic, CTO of Silicon he says.
Carbide Works at GE Global Research, APEC’s reputation for discussions of
will talk about the SiC devices GE has tough converter topologies will also get some
devised for megawatt-scale industrial reinforcement from a presentation by Joel Steenis
applications. “The toughest part and Alex Dumais, two application engineers from
of applying SiC is that it is not Microchip Technology Inc. They will be covering how
a one-for-one replacement for to devise a fully digital LLC resonant converter. “It
silicon IGBTs,” says Stevanovic. is definitely a challenging topology,” says Dumais.
“So you can’t just remove the “The biggest issue today is modeling it. Joel has
LEE TESCHLER IGBTs from a solar inverter done months of research on accurate modeling
EXECUTIVE EDITOR and plug in a SiC MOSFET. so engineers can design their own converters.
Instead of replacing an IGBT, The problem is the LLC circuit doesn’t behave in
you need to take advantage way that lends itself to modeling with state-space
of the switching speed SiC averaging, a quite common approach.”
transistors can provide.” Dumais and Steenis say LLC converters are
One of things Stevanovic getting a lot of interest for powering servers and
will cover at APEC is a solar telecom systems because they are efficient and use
inverter based on silicon IGBTs fewer components than alternatives.
switching at 2.5 kHz that was recast These are just a few highlights. All indications
with SiC MOSFETs operating at 8 kHz. are that APEC will not lack for discussions of
The resulting inverter circuits were simpler knotty problems.
2 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 2 • 2017 powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com
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POWER ELECTRONICS
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inside
Cover photos courtesy of iStock.
THE POWER ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
39 08
43 30
02 The tough problems in power design 30 The different routes to measuring
electrical efficiency
08 Teardown: Inside Ikea's smart LED bulb Power measurements made with conventional meters can be
Press a button on the wall and a wireless connection tells this drastically inaccurate. Here's how to decide when to bring in a
LED bulb what to do. specialized power analyzer.
16 Modeling of losses in magnetic components 34 Secrets of measuring currents above 50 A

Traditional ways of calculating the loss in inductors and other kinds There is an art to getting accurate readings of high current
of magnetic components have well-chronicled short comings that values. It pays to know a few of the tricks.
suppliers are beginning to address.
39 Power modules lessen the load on
23 Better high-frequency power design internal combustion engines
Integrated smart power modules will run mechanical loads that
through EM simulation
would otherwise sap fuel mileage.
Here's how 3D EM simulation can be used to accurately gage
gate-driver trace inductance.
43 How to be smart when selecting a fan
28 The basics of thermistors in for forced air cooling
It's easy to over-specify a cooling fan. But there are ways of
thermal management keeping temperature down with fans that are sized just right.
Thermistors can reliably switch-in thermal protection to keep
power electronics cool.
Contents — PE Handbook 2-17 V1.indd 6 2/22/17 10:37 AM

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POWER ELECTRONICS
TEARDOWN:
Inside Ikea’s
smart LED bulb
HANDBOOK
LE LA N D TE S CHLE R | EX EC U T IV E EDIT OR
Press a button on the wall and A NEW LED BULB from the furniture maker Ikea of Sweden
is called the TRÅDFI. Now available in Europe, it’s expected
a wireless connection tells this to hit the U.S. soon. It comes with its own remote controller
LED bulb what to do. which mounts to the wall and uses a wireless connection to
switch the bulb on and off, adjust bulb color temperature and
dimming level.
As smart LED bulbs go, this one is pretty simple. It
doesn’t incorporate any sort of smart phone app and can’t
be controlled over the Internet, like some other smart bulbs
we’ve seen.
The remote which controls the LED bulb has what seems
like an elegant way of mounting to the wall. A base for the
remote attaches to the wall either with screws or adhesive.
Then the remote itself fits into the base, held on with a
magnet. This scheme lets the user remove the remote to
change its battery when the need arises and gives the wall-
mounted remote a sleek look. The battery is a CR 2032, a
widely available 4.3-V lithium coin cell.
The Ikea bulb talks to the remote in a way resembling
that used by many other smart bulbs: The designers put the
wireless chip on a separate circuit board that solders to the
main board holding the driver electronics. In the case of the
The Ikea TRÅDFI LED bulb can be dimmed and color-

controlled from a remote switch that communicates with the
bulb wirelessly. The remote switch is magnetically attracted
to a base (far right) that mounts on a wall. The magnetic
attraction lets the switch be pulled down for replacement of
its coin-cell battery.
Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 8 2/21/17 3:47 PM

TEARDOWN: IKEA BULB
Ikea bulb, the wireless board mounts perpendicular Bulb architecture

to the main LED driver board with solder connections A point to note about the wireless board in the
between the two on the edge of the wireless board. bulb is that there are only six soldered connections
The identical wireless board also resides in the between it and the LED driver board. Assuming
wall switch. In both the LED bulb and the wall remote, power and ground account for two of them, that
the wireless chip (EFR32MG1) is from Silicon Labs in means there are perhaps just four leads available
Texas. This chip handles several wireless protocols to control the LEDs. In addition, there is no way
that include BLE, ZigBee and Thread. Unfortunately to tell whether the wireless board on the remote is
we have no way to identify which of these the LED identical to that on the bulb; system-on-chip devices
bulb uses. The chip is a system-on-a-chip device that can be made with a variety of different options.
includes a 32-bit ARM controller, a radio transceiver, The bulb has a physical layout that’s widely
I/O ports and serial interfaces, as well as numerous used for LED bulbs. It employs a 2.4-oz. heatsink
other peripheral functions. In fact, the chip integration that surrounds a circuit board potted in flexible
is such that the only other items on the wireless board epoxy-like material. The epoxy also provides some
are a few passive components and a printed circuit structural rigidity to the base of the bulb and the
antenna, which pokes out through a hole in the LED electrical contacts. The main circuit board and all
plate. the epoxy potting material fits inside a plastic sleeve
Though the wireless board mounts on edge in that, in turn, slides inside the heat sink.
the LED bulb, it sits flat against the main circuit board The 28 LEDs on the bulb reside on a single
inside the wall-mounted bulb controller. The control’s metal plate that helps conduct heat and sits on the
main circuit board primarily holds the wireless board 2.4-oz. heat sink. Thermal grease sits at the interface
and the battery holder and serves as a substrate for the between the LED plate and heat sink.
switch pad. The switch pad itself is a straightforward Interestingly, this is the first LED bulb we’ve
design where pressing a switch pushes down on a torn down that uses mechanical connectors, rather
conductive rubber contact that, in turn, touches the than just two soldered wires, for a connection from
circuit board to signal a button push. the circuit board to the LED plate. In fact, the Ikea
Not much to see. Visible

here are the back of the
remote control’s PCB
containing the switches
and the plastic wall switch
containing the conductive
rubber contacts. We
removed one of the
switch plates to show the
conductive elastomer
contact point.
powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2017 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 9
Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 9 2/16/17 7:47 AM

POWER ELECTRONICS
bulb uses dual connectors which each take the form of two pins
extending from the main circuit board that mate with a simple
contact on the LED board.
We surmise the reason the bulb uses two connectors, rather
than just one, is because the LEDs on the bulb are wired as two
separate strings, one on each connector. That’s different than
on most bulbs – most just wire all their LEDs in series in one
long string.
The rationale for two strings becomes clear from a close
examination of the LEDs: There seem to be two different kinds.
HANDBOOK
One style has a slightly darker amber color than the other. So
the two strings evidently are wired so they can be operated
independently. And that’s probably how the LED bulb manages
dimming and changing its color temperature. It judiciously lowers
or raises the current to either of the two strings to modulate both
the amount of light output and probably the color temperature
as well.
However, the use of two LED strings presents a problem from
the standpoint of driver design. Because most LED bulbs only use
one string, most LED driver chips for use in LED bulbs can drive
just one LED string. A bulb carrying two LED strings can’t easily
use a driver chip designed to handle just one.
Though there are numerous chips available for driving
multiple strings of LEDs, the applications most of these chips
address are in LCD backlighting or related display-type uses. They
really aren’t set up for light bulbs. So they really aren’t appropriate
for what Ikea is doing with this light bulb.
Silicon Labs EFR32MG1 Mighty Gecko Smart SoC

TEARDOWN: IKEA BULB
Cutting off the acrylic bulb reveals the LED board. Visible here is the slot
through which the wireless board antenna pokes through. Also evident are
the two connectors used to mate the LED board with the bulb electronics –
unusual in that most bulbs just use soldered connections. Also note LEDs that
are light amber and dark amber. Dark and light LEDs are in separate strings,
likely done as a way to implement color temperature changes and dimming.
Removing the LED board (left) reveals the thermal grease used between the
plate and the heat sink and the connector pins to the LED plate, coming from
the epoxied electronics in the bulb base.
With the elastomer housing for the remote switch cut

apart, we removed the PCB which mainly contains
just the coin cell holder and Silicon Labs chip plus a
few passive components.

POWER ELECTRONICS
HANDBOOK
And that reality probably explains why the

Ikea bulb doesn’t seem to contain a standard
controller chip. There’s an unmarked eight-pin
chip that seems to be handling LED control.
Our guess is that it’s based on an LED driver
design that was modified to handle two LED
strings, but it’s source can’t be discerned from
its markings.
To analyze the LED drive, we can look at
the other components on the circuit board
and make educated guesses about the driver
topology. Starting with the primary side of the
circuit, we find five large capacitors near the
diode bride and a power transistor, but no inductors. One
possibility is that the transistor is there for purposes of
power factor correction (PFC). And most LED bulbs these
days do incorporate PFC, though we couldn’t find any
power factor specs for the Ikea bulb.
The fact that there are no big 60-Hz inductors
in the primary side of the circuit tends to eliminate
the possibility that PFC takes place passively. Most
passive PFC circuits use bulky inductors, and it could be
problematic to squeeze them into the base of an LED
bulb along with everything else that must fit there. That’s
why most LED bulbs go with active PFC if they do it at all.
Moving past the circuitry near the base of the bulb, a
large transformer resides on the circuit board that is likely
part of the driver circuit itself. We might surmise from
this setup that the transformer is there basically to isolate
the secondary side of the circuit and to divide the input
power into the two portions used by each of the LED
strings.
To determine the topology, we note that the circuit
on the other side of the transformer consists of identical
pairs of components as when there are two channels of
LEDs. The fact that we find dual sets of these components
tends to affirm the idea that the two LED strings are
independently driven and controlled. The circuitry for
each channel includes a power FET, an inductor, two
sizeable capacitors, two beefy diodes, and a six-pin chip
too small to be identified by its markings.
Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 12 2/21/17 3:07 PM

Mean Well 1-17.indd 13 2/16/17 4:32 PM
POWER ELECTRONICS
Ikea Buck Circuits
HANDBOOK
Components on the bulb PCB might indicate

that the LED driver topology is that of dual buck
converters, one for each of the LED strings, driven
through an isolation transformer.
The question becomes, what kind of
a converter could employ these particular
components? The most obvious answer would
seem to be a buck converter. This topology
steps down voltage while stepping up current.
Simple Passive PFC And it typically contains at least a diode and
a transistor and at least one energy storage
element such as an inductor. To reduce voltage
ripple, it might incorporate a filter comprised of
capacitors. So the buck converter would be our
guess as to what we’re dealing with here.
All in all, Ikea has put out an LED bulb that
seems to work pretty well for those who only
need something that responds to a nearby light
switch. It’s not a candidate for those who want to
dim or otherwise control a bulb over the cloud
for some reason.
References
Silicon Labs
EFR32MG1 Mighty Gecko SoC
www.silabs.com/Support%20Docu-
ments/TechnicalDocs/EFR32MG1-Data-
Components found on the bulb PCB seem to indicate the bulb
uses active rather than passive PFC. Sheet.pdf

TEARDOWN: IKEA BULB
Ikea board, top view
bottom view
The bulb PCB doesn’t contain a standard LED driver chip, but components
found on the board seem to indicate the use of separate buck converters for
each of the two LED strings, and for use of active power-factor correction. A
side view of the main PCB (top) shows the wireless board. Its chip had metal
shielding which has been removed in this image.

POWER ELECTRONICS
Modeling of
losses in magnetic
HANDBOOK
components
R A NJ I TH BR A M A N PA L L I | W U RT H EL EC T RON IK
Traditional ways of calculating the loss in inductors and

other kinds of magnetic components have well-chronicled
short comings that suppliers are beginning to address.
IN A SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS) most of the power losses

take the form of switching and magnetic losses. Magnetic loss stems from
the core and the windings in the storage/coupled Inductor. It has become
more important to determine the inductor power loss accurately in the
quest for higher energy efficiency and green technology. The estimation
of core losses in a SMPS can require complex measurement set-ups, yet
there’s no guarantee that the resulting estimates will apply in the particular
application at hand.
Historically, core losses are calculated using the Steinmetz equation
and extensions of it. These equations can estimate losses reliably only
for certain conditions or materials. Fortunately, new models have been
developed to determine core losses effectively and accurately.
In a SMPS, the Inductor acts as storage component. It stores energy
in the form of a magnetic field during the switching-cycle ON time and A typical B-H curve when
delivers its energy to the load during the OFF time. Usually, an inductor consists of a a sinusoidal excitation is
applied to the core. The
coil predominantly made of copper wire and a core which has magnetic properties. hysteresis loop area (red
In terms of electromagnetic physics, a magneto-motive force with respect to the region) represents energy loss.
time applied to the coil induces magnetic flux Ø(t). An important point is that at any Power loss depends on how
many times per second the
location, the magnetic flux density B is always proportional to field intensity H. hysteresis loop is traversed.
Thus, hysteresis loss varies
directly with frequency.
where B is the magnetic flux density(Ø/A), μr is the permeability of the material, μo

is the permeability of air, and H is the magnetic field Intensity.
The coil is wound around or placed inside the core with an air gap to tap the
magnetic field effectively. The core contains the air gap. The core is usually a ferrite
material which has ferromagnetic properties and much higher permeability than
air. Hence, the air gap places a high reluctance element of air in series with low-
reluctance ferrite material, thereby locating the bulk of the energy in the air gap.
Wurth - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 16 2/22/17 8:46 AM

MODELING OF LOSSES
Inductors operate according to the laws of Ampere This characteristic helps contain the flux within the
and Faraday. Ampere’s Law relates current in the coil inductor’s core, which in turn enables the construction
or turns of wire to the magnetic field in the core of the of inductors with high values and small size. This
inductor. As an approximation, one assumes the magnetic advantage is evident in the inductance equation above,
field in the inductor’s core is uniform throughout the core in which a core material with a high permeability value
length (le ). That assumption lets us write Ampere’s law as allows for a smaller cross-sectional area.
In a SMPS the peak magnetic flux density can be
written as
where N is the number of turns of the coil around the

inductor core and I is the inductor current.
According to Faraday’s Law, voltage applied across Coupled inductors (sometimes flyback transformers)
the Inductor is are also inductors but with multiple windings. The
windings do have some special issues but their core
properties remain same.
Power dissipation in an Inductor happens in the
windings and the core. These are losses and are termed
From above theories Inductor value is calculated as winding losses and core losses.
The power dissipation arises in windings due to
the dc resistance (RDC) of the windings and because of
phenomena such as skin effect and proximity effect. The
loss due to dc resistance can be estimated using the
Where Ac is core cross-sectional area. equation:
Because ferrite materials have high permeability,
they offer an easy path for magnetic flux (low reluctance).
Core loss graph for deriving constants
Core Loss graph plotted

against peak flux density at
different frequencies.
Wurth - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 17 2/21/17 4:45 PM

The losses arising due to the skin
and proximity effects can be termed the
ac resistance (RAC) of the winding, which
predominantly depends on operating
frequency. There are a few techniques
to determine these effects in magnetic
components, but one would have to follow
complicated procedures like Dowell’s method
to estimate these losses.
For core loss, B is measured as H is
increased. The response of B versus H is
nonlinear and exhibits hysteresis, hence the
name hysteresis loop. Hysteresis is one of the
core-material qualities that will cause power
losses in the inductor core.
Energy loss due to the changing
magnetic energy in the core during a
switching cycle equals the difference between
magnetic energy put into the core during the
on time and the magnetic energy extracted
from the core during the off time.
Using Ampere’s and Faraday’s Law, the
energy in the core can be expressed as:
Energy lost in the core is the area

traced out by the B-H loop multiplied by
the core’s volume. The power loss is this
energy (E) multiplied by the switching
frequency.
This expression applies as long as the
core is not driven into saturation and the
switching frequency lies in the intended
(linear) operating range. The hysteresis
loop area represents energy loss. Power
loss depends on how many times per
second the hysteresis loop is traversed.
Thus, hysteresis loss varies directly with
frequency.
The second type of core loss is due
to eddy currents, which are induced in the
core material by a time-varying flux(dØ)/
dt) . According to Lenz’s Law, a changing
flux induces a current that induces a
flux in opposition to the initial flux. This
eddy current flows in the conductive core
material and produces losses of I 2 R.

MODELING OF LOSSES
Determining losses To utilize the Steinmetz equation for non-

Historically, core losses are estimated by using the power equation, sinusoidal waveforms in the estimation of core
also called Steinmetz equation. losses, a later extension, the Modified Steinmetz
Equation (MSE) has been used widely.
(1)
(2)
where Pv is the core loss (hysteresis and eddy current loss) for unit
volume, f is the frequency, Bpk is peak flux density of a sinusoidal
excitation, K, α and β are the constants derived from core loss
graph. The data given for core losses usually includes the effects of feq being the equivalent frequency with respect
both hysteresis and core eddy currents. to change in the duty cycle (DC) of non-
Core-loss measurements are difficult because they require sinusoidal waveforms.
complicated setups for measuring flux density and because they The MSE has some disadvantages. The
involve the estimation of hysteresis-loop areas. For plotting core loss Generalized Steinmetz Equation (GSE) was
charts, a sine wave is applied to a toroidal (ring) core with one or developed to overcome them:
two one-turn coil windings. Then the constants are calculated using
the graph of core loss graph plotted against peak flux density.
The major drawback of the Steinmetz equation is that it is
mostly valid for sinusoidal excitation. This is a huge drawback
because in most power electronic applications, the inductor is
usually exposed to non-sinusoidal flux waveforms. There are
other models which separate hysteresis and eddy current loss As the GSE and MSE core loss charts
to overcome the problem of non-sinusoidal waveforms. But the are also based on sinusoidal excitation, they
empirical Steinmetz equation has proven to be the most useful tool also have some limitations. And some core
for sinusoidal flux-waveforms because it provides better accuracy manufacturers also have devised their own
and is quite simple to use. Hence there are extensions to this models which work best with the cores they
power equation to make it more accurate for non-sinusoidal flux themselves manufacture.
waveforms. The major disadvantages of the Steinmetz
and its extended models include the fact that
they depend on empirical data of the core
manufacturer (for core loss charts). This means
the firm manufacturing the passive component
At left, typical modelling used for Steinmetz

equation and its extensions. At right, Würth
Elektronik’s point-of-operation approach.

POWER ELECTRONICS
using the magnetic core has no control over the The additional power loss due to ac flux swing in the coil
test setup, which can be quite complicated. These and the core is termed the ac loss.
models also have a low accuracy with pulsating and To produce empirical data, a pulsating voltage
triangular waveforms that characterize the SMPS. is applied to a simple LC circuit and load resistance.
This is because the core loss graphs are created The power input, Pin and power output Pout (across the
using the data from sinusoidal excitation. Similarly, capacitor in parallel with the load) are measured. Then
extensions of Steinmetz models work best only for PLoss=Pin-Pout is estimated and the ac loss of the Inductor
50% duty cycle and limited frequency ranges. PAC is separated out. This process is repeated over
There are other problems. Due to the wide range of parameters including variation of peak flux
complexity of estimating magnetic path length, it density swing, frequency, ripple current, and so forth, to
HANDBOOK
is challenging to estimate core loss using existing produce the empirical data. This empirical data is then
models for iron powder materials and metal alloys, used to create an equation to calculate ac loss in the form
and the accuracy of these efforts varies widely. of PAC=f(∆I,freq, DC, k1, k2).
As well, Steinmetz models don’t factor in losses The hysteresis loops shown in the typical core
in the component winding caused by skin effects, material data sheets represent the core overdriven by a
proximity effects, and similar issues. Nor do these sinusoidal waveform from + to – saturation. The hysteresis
methodologies include ac losses of the windings. loop area represents energy loss. This is the same
Finally, it is not practical to estimate losses in approach used to produce empirical data for the core loss
components which use more than one magnetic charts.
material. Of course, in an SMPS application, the core is usually
driven by a much smaller rectangular waveform with peak
A new ac loss model flux density limited by core losses to a minor hysteresis
Because of such difficulties, Würth Elektronik eiSos loop. Power loss depends on how many times per
has developed a state-of-the-art model aimed at an second the hysteresis loop is traversed. Thus, hysteresis
easier optimization of systems containing inductors. loss varies directly with frequency. The hysteresis loop
The model is based on empirical data derived from changes shape somewhat with wave shape, current or
real time application set ups. voltage drive, and temperature. This variability, makes it
In the Würth model the total loss of the hard to predict core loss accurately.
inductor is divided into two separate ac and dc The minor loop area depends on the voltage above
losses. The power dissipation is due to dc current the Inductor. Würth Elektronik’s ac loss model uses his
in the inductor windings and is listed as the dc loss. minor loop in a point-of-operation approach to produce
REDEXPERT is Würth Elektronik’s

online component selection
and simulation tool for selecting
power inductors. The user enters
their input and output parameters
in the desired topology, then the
tool calculates the inductance
value and displays the inductor
choices. The Würth Elektronik
ac loss model is implemented
in this tool. With AC loss being
calculated accurately, the
estimation of temperature of a
component is also apt with the
application.

MODELING OF LOSSES
Measured vs calculated ac losses
Pst, Pmse, and Pgse are core losses determined

using the Steinmetz power equation, the
Modified Steinmetz equation, and the
Generalized Steinmetz equation respectively.
Redexpert is the ac loss calculated using the
Würth Elektronik ac loss model. Real is the
measured ac loss.

POWER ELECTRONICS
Typical dc/dc converter
HANDBOOK
empirical model data. This approach has proven to be

robust and accurate over a wide range of parameters
like frequency, ripple current and duty cycle.
In Würth Elektronik’s ac loss model, empirical data Setup of dc-dc converter for loss determination
is purely based on real-time parameters with accurate estimation and resulting scope shots.
of losses for any given duty cycle. The model is also accurate
over a wide range of frequencies (10 kHz to 10 MHz) as the
constants of the power equation are derived over a wide range
with respect to the flux swing. And the model works for even
small changes in core material and winding structure.
Moreover, Würth Elektronik’s ac loss model is valid
for components which have more than one material. It will
accurately estimate losses of iron powder and metal alloy
materials and is valid for any core shape and winding structure.
References
And it includes dc winding losses.
Würth Elektronik model has been validated and compared Magnetics Design for Switching
with existing models and measured data. The ac loss for various Power Supplies, by Lloyd H.
materials like WE-Super flux, iron powder, NiZn, MnZn, and so Dixon. Available online from Texas
forth, are measured at a wide range of duty cycles, frequencies Instruments,
www.training.ti.com/
and other parameters compared with theoretical models.
The Würth Elektronik’s ac loss model is accurate and On the law of hysteresis, by C.P.
practical. The model has been experimentally verified over a Steinmetz. Available online from
wide range of frequency, ripple currents and duty cycles and several sources including here:
proved to be robust. This ac loss model is implemented in an www.garagehacker.com/files/C.P%20
Steinmetz%20-%20On%20the%20
online selection tool called Redexpert, eliminating the need for
Law%20of%20Hysteresis%20-%20
design engineers to request core loss charts. Pt%201.pdf
“Calculation of losses in ferro- and

ferrimagnetic materials based on
the modified Steinmetz equation”
An example illustrates how to use REDEXPERT.
by Reinert, J.; Brockmeyer, A.; De
Consider a buck converter application. Suppose
the user enters operational parameters of 8 – 12
Doncker, R.W.,
V for the input voltage, 5 V for the output, and a www.ieeexplore.ieee.org/
switching frequency of 800 kHz, with inductor ripple document/936396/
at 40% and output current at 1 A. The REDEXPERT
tool estimates the optimal inductance (Lopt) as “Improved calculation of core loss
9.6 µH, Ton as 550 nsec and duty cycle as 0.44. with nonsinusoidal waveforms by
It has also displayed more than 200 inductors
Jieli Li; Abdallah, T.; Sullivan, C.R.,
as candidates. Assume the application requires
a miniature and low-loss Inductor, and the user
www.wcmagnetics.com/wp-content/
selects the WE-MAPI series. REDEXPERT has three uploads/2015/02/circulation.pdf
topologies -- Buck, Boost and SEPIC – for which the
user can select the component. Additionally, there REDEXPERT,
is a loss calculator for a single inductor irrespective www.we-online.com/redexpert
of the topology. REDEXPERT is web based so users
needn’t bother downloading updates.

BETTER HIGH-FREQUENCY POWER
Better high-frequency
power design through
EM simulation
JOHN RIC E | TE X A S I N S TRU M E N TS I NC. .
Here’s how a 3D EM HIGH ELECTRON MOBILITY TRANSISTORS (HEMTS) were first introduced in
simulation can be used to the early 1980s and are touted for their exceptional switching qualities. These so-
called heterojunction, field effect transistors (FETs) were originally developed for
accurately gage gate-driver high-frequency RF power amplifiers. More recently, however, these heterojunction
trace inductance. transistors have evolved to address a broader scope of high-frequency, high-voltage
and high-current power applications.
Today power transistors built on wide-bandgap (WBG) semiconductor materials
Gate charge compared including silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) are
being used to realize higher power efficiency and higher power
density at a lower cost. In this regard, 3D electromagnetic
(EM) field solvers help isolate and resolve printed circuit board
(PCB) and component parasitic coupling that otherwise would
compromise the wide bandgap (WBG) transistor advantage.
MOSFETs built-in silicon and the latest WBG transistors
are both FETs. As such, the turn-on and turn-off behavior is
largely a function the device’s composite gate charge. Until
the gate-drain “miller capacitance” of the FET is charged, the
device remains in a high on-resistance state. The gate driver
Gate charge of a 650-V enhancement mode GaN transistor sources and sinks current into the gate terminal to move up
(green) and a super junction, silicon MOSFET (orange) of
and down the device’s gate charge curve. The rate at which this
comparable RDSON. Until the gate-drain “miller capaci-
tance” of the FET is charged, the device remains in a high happens is determined by the driver output current and the
on-resistance state. device gate charge. It is the ultralow gate charge characteristic
of WBG transistors that facilitates high-frequency operation in
high-power applications, reducing both power stage and gate
Voltage rise in a WBG buck converter
driver losses in hard-switch applications.
Also evident from a gate charge curve is that a full
saturation of the vertically-structured, super-junction transistor
requires nearly twice the gate potential compared with the
laterally-structured GaN device. In fact, gate-source voltages
exceeding about 6 V can damage some GaN transistors. GaN
FETs with a low-voltage gate oxide capability need specialized
GaN FET gate drivers like the Texas Instruments LM5113.
As we will see, the key requirement in advancing high-
frequency power is to minimize distributed parasitic coupling.
Switch-node voltage rise time (10-90%) transition to 48 V,
To help address this need, TI introduced the LMG3410. This
1.7 nsec for a 48 V to 1 V buck converter. 600-V, 12-A device integrates a gate driver with a depletion-
Texas Instruments - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 23 2/21/17 3:13 PM

POWER ELECTRONICS Typical distributed impedances
mode (normally on) GaN

FET that delivers high-
frequency, enhancement-
mode switch operation from
a logic-level input.
Some GaN
manufacturers leverage the
ultralow on-resistance of
GaN technology by building
Distributed gate/driver impedances and sink/source
HANDBOOK
high-voltage enhancement- currents for a half-bridge, gate-drive transmission line.

mode GaN transistors in
a cascode arrangement
of a low-voltage silicon MOSFET and high- Current flow from the gate driver of a power FET is
voltage depletion-mode GaN device. These GaN complex. It is affected by dc and ac parasitic impedances
devices typically exhibit a gate oxide capability including PCB layout copper, component internal
comparable to that of silicon MOSFETs. inductance, FET capacitances and driver dc resistance. If
the gate driver output is overdamped, the GaN advantage
What to expect with GaN will be partially lost. If the gate driver is underdamped,
The accompanying figure illustrates the half- oscillations at the FET gate and switch node can create
bridge switch node behavior of a 48-V-to-1-V excessive electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electrical
buck converter delivering 10 A. At 24 V/nsec, overstress (EOS).
the measured switch node dv/dt is at least ten The significant parasitic elements and gate drive current
times faster than what is typically seen with silicon vectors are evident in the nearby figure depicting the of
MOSFETs; and yet, GaN technology is capable of gate/driver distributed impedance and sink/source currents.
even faster dv/dt. Still, the PCB and component But it is difficult to quantify the actual circuit behavior when
parasitics that were benign with silicon MOSFETS parasitic elements are activated by switch-path di/dt and dv/
often become problematic when using WBG dt. Note that probing a switch node typically adds between
transistors. 3 and 20 pF of capacitance and should be considered as
an invasive measurement that
can mask parasitic behavior.
Trace inductance as a function of vertical height Measurement equipment
including scope/probe
bandwidth must be considered
carefully.
Now consider the parasitic
elements of a transmission
line. A transmission line is
any pair of conductors used
to move energy from one
point to another. In the case
of a MOSFET driver, the
transmission line is from the
driver decoupling capacitor,
CVDD, to the FET gate terminal.
It is essential to quantify the
distributed impedance to
ensure the resonant tank made
up of the gate driver, PCB
transmission line and the FET
gate capacitance is properly
damped.
Trace Inductance of a 250-mil-long and Consider the inductance
50-mil-wide trace above a reference plane.
of a trace as a function of the
Texas Instruments - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 24 2/16/17 9:37 AM

CONNECTIVITY
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Enabling Robust
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BODY • Transmission
• HVAC • Throttle Control
• Interior Lighting • Manifold Pressure/
• Power Seat Temperature
• RainASensor
smartphone you can charge without wires is not news. • Oil (Level, Temperature,
• Sun Sensor Pressure, Quality)
But using that same smartphone to wirelessly charge your smartwatch?
• Humidity Sensor • In-Cylinder Pressure
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IDT PEH 2-17.indd 25 2/16/17 4:31 PM
POWER ELECTRONICS
vertical height, h, above the reference plane. At h =
30 mil above the reference plane, the trace would
have about 750 pH of inductance. Reducing the
height, h, to 3 mils would result in a proportional
reduction of one-tenth the inductance or 75 pH.
Clearly, minimizing stack-up height is essential
for reducing PCB trace inductance. Note this
first-order approximation does not account for
the influence of other material including co-planar
HANDBOOK
copper, copper weight and material dielectric. It

takes a finite element analysis (FEA) to precisely
EPC EPC920X half-bridge power stage PCB layout (a); and
analyze the frequency-dependent PCB trace schematic (b).
impedance. To solve for the broadband surface-
current interaction requires the application of
Maxwell’s equations to the finite element mesh.
Fortunately, software and computing power has
advanced to the point where this kind of analysis
is now possible, even on a laptop computer. More
sophisticated analysis will become increasingly
important in high-frequency power applications to
realize optimal and reliable circuit behavior.
EM simulation tools like CST Microwave Studio
PCB import into CST Microwave Studio (a); small section
can quantify the frequency dependent, parasitic associated with low-side drive (b).
loop inductance in a gate drive circuit. Consider
the following example analysis conducted on
an Efficient Power Conversion (EPC) EPC920X
evaluation module.
The EPC920X half-bridge power stage layout
and schematic were both optimized by EPC
engineers who are well aware of GaN transistor
Board mesh of low-side gate sink drive (a); and port assignment
At left, plots of the entire loop inductance with and without R24, a 0402, to calculate partial inductance (b) for the EPC920X half-bridge
zero-Ohm gate resistor. At right, the partial inductance of the segment power stage.
illustrated in the board mesh of low-side gate sink drive. It is important to
point out that the physical dimensions of any discrete components (R24 in
this case) and even the analysis ports will affect the inductance calculation.
Texas Instruments - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 26 2/21/17 4:00 PM

BETTER HIGH-FREQUENCY POWER
An illustration of how “ports” are assigned to all relevant copper and components,
including the LM5113 gate driver, GaN transistors and discrete components. With this
assignment complete, SPICE/IBIS models (or scope captured waveforms) can then be
used to excite and interact with the EM-simulated PCB to determine high-frequency circuit
behavior. In this way all distributed PCB and component parasitic elements are consid-
ered; you can even determine the PCB electromagnetic interference (EMI) patterns
switching speeds; many designers who want to use GaN technology won’t
have the same kind of sensitivities.
A 3D EM simulation of a PCB section of the PCB helps to precisely
calculate the gate drive loop inductance. The analysis here focuses on the
References
interconnect impedance associated with the low-side copper from the gate LMG3410 data sheet
of Q2 through R24 to the LM5113 gate driver sink pin. The board design http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lmg3410.pdf
was exported from the Altium Designer layout tool as an OBD++ file and
Rice, John. Are you accurately measuring the
imported into CST Microwave Studio. OBD++ files export all physical picosecond rise time of your GaN device?,
properties of the board including the layer stack-up. To minimize analysis Power House TI E2E Community Blog, July
run-time, we mesh only the relevant portion of a PCB, in this case the low- 1, 2015
side gate driver. www.e2e.ti.com/blogs_/b/powerhouse/
archive/2015/07/01/are-you-accurately-
The 3D EM simulation of the section took four minutes to run on a measuring-the-picosecond-rise-time-of-your-
laptop computer with four cores. To calculate partial inductance, we assign gan-device
current ports to various copper segments of the loop. After meshing and
solving the EM coupling mechanisms, we apply a broadband current How to Drive GaN Enhancement Mode
Power Switching Transistors, GaN Systems
excitation from 500 kHz to 500 MHz to the gate drive loop to determine Application note, GN001 Rev 2014-10-21
the inductance. www.tinyurl.com/js2ymon
The real power of a 3D EM simulator comes into play with an EM
analysis of the entire PCB. The board can then be excited within the EM CST Microwave Studio
www.cst.com/Products/CSTMWS
simulator environment using waveforms representative of the application.
This “co-simulation” links all the physical coupling mechanisms of the PCB Rice, John. Get into electromagnetic
with a circuit-level SPICE analysis. In this way an accurate assessment the compliance with GaN. TI E2E Community
board’s high-frequency circuit behavior can be realized. Blog, August 26, 2015
The learning curve of any simulation tool can be steep; this is www.e2e.ti.com/blogs_/b/powerhouse/
archive/2015/08/26/get-into-electromagnetic-
especially true with 3D EM simulation. Application of these tools requires compliance-with-gan
a deep understanding of the EM simulator and the end application. If
possible, it’s best to pick a tool that has an intuitive user interface, practical Getting Ahead with Coupled 3D Field and
application material and excellent technical support. I found all of these Circuit Simulation, Computer Simulation
Technology (CST) Webinar
at Computer Simulation Technology (CST) and especially appreciated the www.cst.com/events/webinars/2016-02-18-
excellent technical support I received from Patrick DeRoy. field-circuit-simulation
Texas Instruments - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 27 2/16/17 9:37 AM

POWER ELECTRONICS
The basics of
thermistors in
thermal management
HANDBOOK
S ONJA BROWN | E P C OS , A T DK G ROU P C O.
Thermistors can reliably switch-in thermal

protection to keep power electronics cool.
ALL SEMICONDUCTORS generate Some thermal dissipation happens by Thermistors are good
thermal losses, of course. Thermal convection, but the limits of this method are candidates for detecting
losses in power semiconductors quickly reached – especially with small chips temperature limits.
can range from a few watts to that dissipate a lot of power. Consequently, Thermistors can be positive
multiple kilowatts. In heatsinks, the it is impossible to guarantee – and not wise temperature coefficient (PTC)
conductive capability is typically to rely on – convection cooling. Furthermore, or negative temperature
measured in °K/W. The smaller heatsinks are often too big for compact coefficient (NTC) devices.
the conductive capability value, designs. The best course of action is to With NTC thermistors,
the better the thermal dissipation actively dissipate heat via fans or combined air resistance falls with rising
capacity. and water-cooled heat exchangers, which are temperature. In PTC
Three entities are necessary often operated without regulation. thermistors, the resistance
to determine the right heatsink In many electronic power supplies increases as temperature
for a power semiconductor: the and converters, power dissipation is load- drops. On exceeding a
thermal contact resistance, the related. To improve the energy balance and specific temperature, PTC
maximum heat dissipation in the minimize the generation of noise, the active thermistors show a sharp
semiconductor, and the highest thermal dissipation switches on only when the rise in resistance, making
expected ambient temperature. electronics hits a defined temperature limit. them useful as temperature
Typical PTC resistance behavior Typical NTC resistance behavior
PTC thermistors have a sharp rise in resistance with

temperature. NTC thermistors have more linearity.
TDK.EPCOS - PE Handbook 2.17 V1.indd 28 2/21/17 3:14 PM

THE BASICS OF THERMISTORS
Example: Audio circuit with temperature protection
A complete high-performance audio end-stage

limit sensors. NTC thermistors, on circuit with double temperature protection. This
the other hand, exhibit greater circuit can monitor the heat of four heatsinks.
linearity and are therefore suitable for Above 85°C the fan activates. If temperature ever
reaches 100°C, the dc voltage protection circuit
temperature measurement.
receives a positive signal, causing its relay to trip and
Because of their steep disconnect the load.
temperature-resistance curves, PTC
thermistors can monitor temperature
limits and actuate a fan when
temperature is high enough. PTC
thermistors can connect in series and
when functioning as temperature
sensors can monitor several hot
spots. When a PTC sensor in a series
connection exceeds the specified
limit temperature, it switches the
circuit to the high-ohmic state. As
an example, this action can be used
in notebooks to monitor the main
processor, the graphics processor and
any other heat-emitting components
using SMD PTC sensors.
Another application of PTC
sensors is in the thermal monitoring
of motor windings. For example,
some manufacturers offer special
types of PTC sensors that can be
easily integrated into the windings of
three-phase motors.
NTC thermistors can also be used for temperature monitoring
– particularly when the linearity of their temperature-resistance
characteristic comes in handy. For example, a high-performance audio
References
end stage might use NTC sensors to detect two temperatures. In such a EPCOS, a TDK Group Co.
design, eight output transistors with emitter resistors can mount together www.epcos.com
on a cooling fan unit to minimize the housing dimensions. Four separate
heatsinks might be arranged point-symmetrically to one another, with
two power transistors on each heatsink.
Because the output transistors sit on four heatsinks that are both
electrically and thermally insulated from one another, each heatsink
must be monitored individually. This individual monitoring is necessary
because even if the heat sinks are adequately dimensioned, the
tolerances can result in a slightly uneven load distribution. The thermal
monitoring must let the circuit take two actions: First, as soon as one or
more heatsinks reaches a temperature of 85°C, the fan must switch on.
Second, a load must be shed on reaching a temperature of about 100°C. Examples of EPCOS PTC
NTC sensors available from certain manufacturers are useful in sensors include (from
scenarios where space is a constraint. They let a single NTC temperature left to right) an SMT-PTC
temperature sensor for
sensor do the job rather than two sensors.
mounting on printed
The design outlined above lets the fan switch on reliably at circuit boards; PTC
85 °C. As this design is relatively slow in thermal terms, there is no need sensors for integration in
to build in an on-off hysteresis circuit as would normally be the case. motor windings; and a
PTC sensor with lug for
A wide range of NTC and PTC sensors are available. These sensors mounting onto heatsinks.
can perform effectively and reliably in thermal management systems for
power electronics.
TDK.EPCOS - PE Handbook 2.17 V1.indd 29 2/21/17 4:02 PM

POWER ELECTRONICS
The different routes to

measuring electrical
efficiency
HANDBOOK
B OB Z OL L O | K EYS IG H T T E C H NOLO GI ES, I NC.
Power measurements made with conventional meters can

be drastically inaccurate. Here’s how to decide when to
bring in a specialized power analyzer.
IT’S IMPORTANT to measure energy efficiency accurately overall efficiency becomes quite challenging as
in applications running from limited power sources such as it becomes necessary to measure tiny differences
batteries. And an understanding of how a device consumes in power-in and power-out to determine the
energy can lead to a better understanding of operational energy lost.
costs regardless of whether the source of energy is limited First a few basics. Electrical power is
or not. Server farms, for example, consume enough energy usually calculated by measuring both voltage
to influence power consumption on a national scale, and the and current and then calculating the product
operational costs of the server farm are set to a great degree of the two. If the power is pure dc, this
by the cost of the power to run the servers. calculation is fairly straightforward. The
High accuracy is often a requirement in measurements measurement becomes more complex with ac
of energy efficiency. For example, developers may have to power because it involves phase relationships,
detect small changes in power consumption to determine and often engineers turn to power analyzers
if a new design hits overall device efficiency goals. As for these measurements. But regardless of the
efficiency approaches 90% to 100%, the measurement of
Power Analyzers such as the Key-

sight PA2200 Series IntegraVision
power analyzers easily measure
power conversion efficiency. They
also provide dynamic measure-
ment capability to capture and
display transient voltage, current,
and power waveforms.
Keysight - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 30 2/16/17 10:22 AM

THE DIFFERENT ROUTES
measurement tool (DMM, voltmeter,

ammeter, scope, power analyzer),
power measurements must take place
under the right conditions.
Suppose we measure the power a
light bulb consumes. We can measure
the ac power in, and this entity will be
static (assuming we are not measuring
an electronically dimmable LED bulb).
We can first measure RMS voltage on
the bulb, then the RMS current into
the bulb, then multiply the two entities
together and arrive at the right power
consumption, as the RMS voltage
and RMS current consumption won’t
change vs time.
This is not the case for the power
consumed by a washing machine.
The washer cycles between pumping,
soaking, agitating, and spinning.
Each stage draws a different amount
of power. So the manufacturer will
probably average or integrate the
power consumed over a full wash
cycle to come up with an average
consumption figure. This practice is
probably OK as this cycle is predictable
and repeatable. But other devices,
like electric vehicles or cell phones,
consume power in ways that are
unpredictable and based on the
behavior of the individual user.
In the case of these dynamic
power consumers, the usual approach
to measuring power consumption
is to decide on a specific power
consumption profile and only then
settle on a measurement method. The
reason is the power profile of devices
in the real world can be complicated
enough to demand specialized
measurement methods.
Suppose, for example, we use a
DMM to measure RMS voltage and
then switch over to ammeter mode and
measure RMS current. The current will
be measured at a different time than
the voltage. We won’t get an accurate
calculation of power if the voltage
and current are changing. Even
relatively simple devices increasingly
require a simultaneous voltage and
current measurement to calculate
instantaneous power accurately.
2 • 2017 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 31

POWER ELECTRONICS
The instantaneous measurements are then shape or skew of the voltage or current waveforms, the answer will
integrated or averaged over the time interval be correct as long as you are within the bandwidth of the power
of interest to determine the overall power analyzer (typically 10 kHz or higher).
consumption.
So much for dynamics on a macro level, Measuring static dc/dc converter efficiency
where it is obvious the power is varying. Now Under static conditions (basically, a constant load and supply of
consider power on a microscale. Most power power), it is relatively easy to measure the efficiency of a dc/dc
converters today are switch-mode devices converter. The inputs and outputs are dc, and if they not changing,
(or switching power supplies). The input then a DMM as a voltmeter can measure the input voltage. You can
HANDBOOK
voltage to the switch-mode converter can be also use the DMM as an ammeter to measure average input current
constant (dc or ac RMS), but the current will and calculate average input power. Similarly, a DMM can measure
not be. The switch-mode power supply draws output voltage and current. With all measurements in steady state
current nonlinearly – it does not look like a and in the form of dc, there is no concern about time skew between
resistive load. It draws current in pulses if the voltage and the current measurement or between input and
running from dc or in the form of non-sinusoid output power measurement.
waveforms if running from ac. DMMs can offer outstanding measurement accuracy so the
These nonsinusoidal waveforms make accuracy of efficiency measurements based on their readings will be
it difficult to calculate the instantaneous high as well. For example, in a Keysight 34460A DMM, the basic
power accurately. To properly measure power, measurement accuracy of 0.0025% for dc voltage and 0.007% for dc
you must simultaneously capture voltage current. The efficiency calculations based on these readings can be
and current, point by point, multiply them on the order of 0.1%, depending on the voltage and current range.
together to get an instantaneous power, Now consider the case where conditions on the dc/dc
then integrate the resulting relationship to converter change, as with a variable input voltage or variable load
determine the real power consumption. current. Now you must treat the converter as an ac device. When
Effectively, a power analyzer goes inputs or outputs are time varying, the DMM method will not always
through the above steps. That is why a work. Voltage and current will most likely not be in phase. An RMS
power analyzer is the weapon of choice when voltmeter can probably measure ac input voltage accurately, as it is
measuring power. Regardless of the wave most likely a sine wave. The current waveform will most likely not be
A screenshot from a Keysight IntegraVision power

analyzer shows the waveforms into and out of a
225-W dc-to-ac solar inverter. On the right, the
analyzer is making a power efficiency measure-
ment. Channel 1 is measuring the dc in from the
solar panel (30 V, 7.57 A, 235 W). Note the dc is
not pure dc and has some ac ripple, which is prop-
erly accounted for in the Channel 1 power mea-
surement done by the power analyzer. Channel 2
is measuring the ac out to the grid (242 Vac rms,
933 mAac rms, 225 W). The resultant calculated
efficiency is 96.05%.

THE DIFFERENT ROUTES
a sine wave. It may have a high crest factor or other Use of a power analyzer is
non-sinusoidal qualities, thus making RMS current a preferred method to measure
References
measurements challenging. power converter efficiency.
A four-channel oscilloscope can be a good These instruments are designed
tool for measuring efficiency. Most certainly, all specifically to make accurate,
four channels will simultaneously measure input simultaneous measurements of Keysight PA2200 Series
voltage, input current, output voltage, and output voltage and current. Multi-channel IntegraVision Power Analyzer,
www.literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/
current. However, oscilloscopes are typically ground analyzers can simultaneously pdf/5992-0324EN.pdf?id=2544198
referenced, which could pose a challenge for measure both input and output
measuring some power converters. But the problem power on a single-phase or multi-
can be addressed through use of differential voltage phase ac or dc signal.
probes and current probes. Most power analyzers are floating, capable of
However, the oscilloscope does have some measuring hundreds of volts without differential
limitations. In general, an oscilloscope has about probes, and can measure current directly. Power
3% error in its vertical measurements due to both the analyzers such as the Keysight PA2200 Series
oscilloscope gain error and the external probe error. IntegraVision Power Analyzer easily measure power
This 3% error will cause the oscilloscope to struggle conversion efficiency with high accuracy. With a
to accurately measure efficiencies over 90% or to power analyzer, you can expect to measure power
see incremental changes of 5% or less in efficiency. conversion efficiency with 0.25% to 0.5% accuracy.
For measuring lower-efficiency devices, or to get a Power analyzers also handle the complexity of multi-
general sense for the efficiency, an oscilloscope is a phase ac power measurement.
handy tool.
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www.ixys.com

POWER ELECTRONICS
Secrets of
measuring currents
above 50 A
HANDBOOK
G E ORG E S E L BACH A , EVA N S HORM A N, H A RRY C H A N DRA | A L L EG RO M IC RO S YS T E M S L L C
There is an art to getting accurate readings of high

current values. It pays to know a few of the tricks.
IT CAN BE CHALLENGING to sense currents exceeding 50 A because

the task often involves thermal management, must take place in a limited
PCB area, and in some cases, requires a voltage isolation device. Two
widely used methods for sensing high currents are a sense-resistor/op-amp
approach, and Hall-based current sensing. It is useful to compare these
two techniques. Recently developed Allegro MicroSystems integrated
current sensors, ACS780LR and ACS770CB, will be used as examples.
Traditionally, the typical way to measure current is by putting a sense
resistor in series with the current-carrying conductor. An op amp may then
measure the voltage drop across the resistor, and the current is calculated
from Ohm’s law. The nominal resistance of the sense resistor is selected
to supply a sufficiently large voltage while also minimizing the power
dissipation (P = I2R).
Large currents will require a low resistor value (usually 1 to 50 mΩ)
to minimize the heat generated on the board. However, too-low resistor
values will lead to a small sensed voltage and, in turn, a low-accuracy
measurement. Low resistor values will also have a large footprint that
consumes valuable PCB area. The thermal coefficient of the sense
resistor and the voltage offset of the op-amp will also contribute to the
measurement error. As a result, designers must balance among accuracy,
power consumption, thermal management, PCB area, and cost.
It’s often best to measure current near the supply voltage of the load
(the high-side) instead of near ground (the low-side). Measuring on the
high-side brings immunity to ground bounces and allows for the detection
of short circuits to ground. Depending on the supply voltage and the
application, basic or reinforced isolation might be needed for sense-circuit
connections. If a sense-resistor/op-amp are used to measure on the high-
side, an op-amp with a high common-mode input range will be necessary,
making the design more complex. To provide isolation, additional isolators
(such as optocouplers) and isolated power supplies will be needed,
increasing complexity and boosting costs.
Allegro - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 34 2/21/17 3:16 PM

SECRETS OF MEASURING CURRENTS
On the other hand, Hall-effect current sensor ICs, such as those

provided by Allegro, eliminate the need for a sense-resistor. The
current flows directly into the integrated conductor, generating a
magnetic field that will be measured.
The ACS780 sits in a 6.4 × 6.4-mm surface mount LR package.
Current flows into the integrated conductor and generates a
magnetic field that on-die Hall elements then sense. Use of a
flip-chip assembly technique brings the Hall elements quite close
to the leadframe where the magnetic field is at its highest point.
This packaging allows for superior signal-to-noise ratio. The
device uses two Hall elements to detect and reject any external
stray magnetic field. The integrated conductor has a low 200-µΩ
resistance to reduce power dissipation, allowing for more than 100
A of continuous current measurement with a 120-kHz bandwidth.
Thermal performance depends highly on PCB design and layout
The ACS770 sits in a 14 × 21.9-mm through-hole CB package.
As current flows in its integrated conductor, an integrated low-
hysteresis core concentrates the magnetic field which is then
sensed by the Hall element with a typical accuracy of ±1% and 120
kHz bandwidth. The core also acts as a magnetic shield, rejecting
external stray fields.
The integrated conductor has 100-μΩ resistance, providing
ultralow power loss. The ACS770 can measure 200 A continuously
at an ambient of 85°C and can be factory programmed to measure
inrush currents up to 400 A.
The ACS770 in the CB Package (left) and ACS780 in the LR

Thermal performance package (right). A phantom view of the ACS780 in the LR
To determine the appropriate sensor for an application, it’s Package shows how as the current flows into the integrated
important to understand the thermal performance under high-level conductor, a magnetic field is generated and sensed by the
on-die Hall elements. In the CB package, current flowing in the
transient currents and constant dc/RMS currents. For the examples integrated conductor generates a magnetic field that is concen-
that follow, all measurements took place at 25°C ambient and could trated by the integrated low-hysteresis core and sensed by the
be used to derate the sensors at different operating temperatures. Hall element. The core also acts as a magnetic shield, rejecting
external stray fields
High-current pulse testing of the LR package took place using
the Allegro ACS780 evaluation board. This is an eight-layer board
Allegro - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 35 2/16/17 11:37 AM

POWER ELECTRONICS
Temperature rise in current-sensors
with two-ounce (70 μm) copper and an FR4 substrate.
Thirty-six thermal vias of 0.2 mm diameter were placed
next to each of the solder pads of the integrated
current conductor.
The package then experienced a current pulse of
a set magnitude and the time was measured for two
conditions: the time for the die temperature to exceed
the maximum junction temperature of 165°C, and the
HANDBOOK
time to fuse the current conductor open.

All testing of the CB package took place using the
Allegro ACS770 evaluation board. This is a two-layer
board with four-ounce (140 μm) copper and an FR4
substrate. Sixteen thermal vias of 0.5 mm diameter
were placed next to each of the solder pads of the
integrated current conductor. Here’s how the die temperature rises in the two
When subjected to high-current pulse testing, packages as continuous dc is injected through the
the CB package did not fuse at 1.2 kA—the maximum sensors and temperature reaches steady state.
current capability of the lab equipment performing this
measurement. The nearby table shows the maximum
current pulse duration and duty cycle that could be Safe operation zone
applied to remain within the safe operating zone where
the die temperature of 165°C is not exceeded.
A nearby figure shows die temperature rises as
continuous dc current is injected through the sensors
and temperature reaches steady state. As expected,
the CB package shows a smaller temperature increase
because of its lower conductor resistance of 100 μΩ
compared to 200 μΩ for the LR package.
The system thermal performance depends
greatly on the PCB layout and can be improved in
several ways: by incorporating multiple layers of
metal to better dissipate the heat under the IC, by
adding a heat sink as close as possible to the IC, or
LR package fuse and overtemperature time as a

function of applied dc current. The green area
shows the safe operating zone where the die
temperature remains below 165°C. The orange area
shows the conditions under which the maximum
junction temperature is exceeded but the current
conductor is not fused.
A view of the ACS780

evaluation board. The
thermal via pattern used
for the solder pads of
the integrated current
conductor is at left.

SECRETS OF MEASURING CURRENTS
Thermal via patterns of the ACS780LR

evaluation board. Reducing the
number of thermal vias by 50% (18
instead of 36) brought a 5.6°C rise
to 156°C. Removing all thermal vias
brought a 33.5°C rise to 183.5°C.
by adding thermal vias (that connect all metal The small footprint of the ACS780 in
layers) surrounding the Allegro IC integrated the LR package and its ease of surface- Via count: 100%
conductor solder pads. mount assembly brings advantages for (original design)
Of the three methods, adding thermal vias measuring currents exceeding 100 A. The
has the least impact on PCB area and cost, approach is to reroute a portion of the
and it is easy to implement. To understand current to be sensed through a trace on
the impact of vias and how many to use, a the PCB. Thus, a portion of the current
simulation was run on the ACS780LR evaluation to be sensed does not pass through the
board using a natural convection model. Allegro IC. Here, the current ratio of the
The model assumed an air enclosure of splitter is critical. It must be set so the
300×300×300 mm with the enclosure wall set maximum possible current flows through
to 25°C. The injection of current caused the the sensor (while the sensor remains in the
steady-state die temperature to reach 150°C. thermal safe operating zone) to get the best
Reducing the number of thermal vias by accuracy.
50% (18 instead of 36 vias per solder pad), A simulation illustrates the thermal
brought a 5.6°C rise in die temperature to capability of this approach. Suppose we Via count: 50%
156°C. Removing all thermal vias caused a have a board with a current ratio of 6.7:1
33.5°C rise in die temperature to 183.5°C. (that is, current through trace: current
These results highlight the significant benefits through sensor) and the following specifications: six copper layers
of having thermal vias, while showing that a (top and bottom layer thickness of two-ounce (70 μm), inner
small reduction in the number of vias (much less layers of three-ounce (105 μm)), an FR4 substrate, 36 thermal
than a 50% reduction relative to the Allegro vias of 0.2-mm diameter around each pad, and 5-mm diameter
evaluation board) should have a minimal impact through-holes for current injection on the PCB. An aluminum heat
on the thermal performance. spreader of 94 × 70 mm connects under the PCB.
The Allegro ACS770

evaluation board. The
thermal via pattern
for the solder pads of
the integrated current
conductor is at right.

POWER ELECTRONICS
With 250 A injected in the PCB, a simulation assumed

natural convection with an air enclosure volume of 300×300×300
mm with the enclosure wall set to 25°C. The highest observed
temperature was 74°C on the top metal (~50°C rise relative to the
ambient temperature), while the die temperature reached 71°C.
References
Allegro current sensors are galvanically isolated, offering
an efficient way to measure on the high-side. The ACS780LR ACS780LR data sheet
targets applications where the supply voltage is less than 100 V. www.allegromicro.com/en/
HANDBOOK
Its construction provides inherent isolation, because the active Products/Current-Sensor-ICs/

circuitry on the die is not electrically connected to the current Fifty-To-Two-Hundred-Amp-In-
conductor. tegrated-Conductor-Sensor-ICs/
The ACS770 is certified to UL 60950-1 2nd edition, passing ACS780.aspx
4.8 kV for 60 sec. Its basic Isolation working voltage is 990 (Vpk or
ACS770CB data sheet
dc) or 700 Vrms, while its reinforced isolation working voltage is www.allegromicro.com/en/
636 (Vpk or dc) or 450 Vrms. Products/Current-Sensor-ICs/
All in all, advances in packaging and circuit design have Fifty-To-Two-Hundred-Amp-In-
simplified the task of using Hall current sensor ICs to measure tegrated-Conductor-Sensor-ICs/
currents exceeding 50 A on a PCB. Accurate and galvanically ACS770.aspx
isolated sensing can take place economically with little power
loss by using the small surface-mount ACS780 or through-hole
ACS770.
An illustration of the current

splitting principle using the
ACS780LR. At right is the
layout of the current splitting
board used in the thermal
simulation of the ACS780LR
package.
Allegro - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 38 2/21/17 3:22 PM

POWER MODULES
Power modules
lessen the load on
internal combustion
engines
THOMAS YIM | ON S E M ICON DUCTOR
Integrated smart power modules will

run mechanical loads that would
otherwise sap fuel mileage.
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS are stimulating demands for more

economical vehicles that produce not just fewer NOx pollutants, but also
less CO2. Vehicle tax policies currently favor less polluting models, and car
makers must cope with new legislation such as the EU average fleet emissions
directive which dictates the average CO2 emissions of all cars must not exceed
130 g CO2 /km. Non-complying manufacturers must pay an excess emissions premium
on every unit sold. The CO2 limit will be reduced to 95 g/km by 2021 and to even lower
levels as time goes on.
An important part of the strategy for meeting such demands is to replace major
subsystems usually driven by the engine with electrically-driven alternatives. Water pumps,
oil pumps, air-conditioning units, turbo chargers and power steering systems have all
been candidates. Reducing mechanical loads on the engine lets more fuel go toward
powering the wheels. Replacing mechanical motor loads such as pumps, fans,
compressors with an electric unit could reduce fuel consumption by as much as
3 to 5%.
The automotive industry is keen to ensure that the replacement electrical
systems are as efficient as possible. Another concern is how proliferating
electrically-driven systems may grow the size and weight of vehicle wiring harnesses.
Car makers must prevent harnesses from becoming excessively large and heavy.
Additionally, electrical systems replacing mechanical functions will make heavy use
of high-power motor drives. Here, the automotive industry can benefit from experience
from other industries. In domestic appliance markets, for example, energy-efficient motor
drives have been of paramount importance for years. Product-labeling schemes that let
The DBC (direct-bonded copper) substrate, as
consumers compare energy ratings have focused attention on efficiency and enabled
depicted on these chip package drawings, enables
informed buying decisions. economical and efficient thermal management.
The cost of energy-saving variable-speed drives has come down with advances in
power-semiconductor technologies and the maturing of intellectual property like Field-
OnSemi - PE Handbook 2.17 V1.indd 39 2/21/17 3:17 PM

POWER ELECTRONICS
Oriented Control (FOC) firmware.

Use of variable-speed drives has
gradually filtered down from high-end
equipment into mainstream products.
One result has been appliances that
cost less to run, are quieter, and are
more versatile.
HANDBOOK
Motor drives that are quiet,

as well as highly efficient, are
increasingly important for the
automotive industry. As vehicles
become more electric and adopt
stop-start (micro-hybrid) operation
to save fuel in combustion engines,
vehicle cabins are becoming
progressively quieter. Consequently,
mechanisms like electric motors must
also become more silent so they don’t
A screen-grab of a FAM65V05DF1 power module in
annoy passengers. operation illustrating the short circuit rate condition:
Variable-speed control isn’t just make electric motors more Vdd=450 V,Vcc=15 V Tj=150⁰C. Three individual
efficient. It also brings the opportunity to adjust oil and coolant single-channel high-voltage ICs control the gates
of the high-side IGBTs. A single low-voltage IC with
flow rates over a wide range of engine operating conditions. For three output channels controls the gates of the
example, suppose an engine has been running at high speed but low-side IGBTs.
then idles as the car waits in traffic. A conventional water pump
will slow down when the engine does. In contrast, an electronically controlled variable-speed pump
can be programmed to move coolant at a rate determined by the thermal conditions inside the
engine. It can also continue running after the engine has switched off to optimize the engine cool-
down profile.
The main power circuit in a variable-speed drive is basically an inverter. And drives with inverters
are more complex than simple fixed-speed drives. They comprise a controller that runs the FOC
algorithm, high-side and low-side gate drivers for the power-transistor bridge driving current into the
motor phases, up to six IGBTs or MOSFETs in a three-phase bridge, and protection against potentially
destructive hazards such as voltage surges, short-circuit currents, and excessive temperature.
Modern control modules for motor drives have a high
level of integration that lets automakers save space, boost
reliability, and keep down costs. And lessons learned
with motor drives for the appliance industry have helped
advance the trend. For example, Intelligent Power Modules
(IPM) created originally for appliances take advantage of
state-of-the-art fabrication and packaging technologies
to combine high-voltage, high-power circuitry with logic
circuitry all in the same device.
An IPM integrates the high-voltage power silicon of
the bridge in the same module as the gate drivers and
protection circuitry. This integration has several advantages
for motor-driven systems. For one thing, the modules
have low thermal resistance because their circuitry sits on
direct-bonded copper (DBC) substrates. Obviously, high
integration also simplifies the design of the power stage –
the circuit topology inside the IPM is not trivial.
OnSemi - PE Handbook 2.17 V1.indd 40 2/17/17 9:51 AM

It’s not a web page, it’s an industry information site
Stay current with the latest electronic tips, resources, and news, visit
eeworldonline.com and stay on Twitter, Google plus, Facebook
and Linkedin. It’s updated regularly with relevant technical information
and other significant news to the electrical design engineering community.
eeworldonline.com
EE Online house ad 2017.Vers2.LL.indd 41 2/21/17 1:09 PM

POWER ELECTRONICS
Moreover, it is space-efficient to concentrate

all the driver power-stage circuitry in a single
module. The module can occupy a smaller
footprint and also typically will weigh less.
Moreover, it has a high reliability because there
are fewer individual components to be placed and
connected.
Recently, ON Semiconductor’s FAM65V05DF1
Auto IPM Smart Power Module became available.
HANDBOOK
It is an automotive-qualified (AECQ100/101)
integrated power module containing a three-
phase bridge comprising six power switches
that each combine a 650-V high-efficiency IGBT
and a freewheeling diode having soft recovery
characteristics and a low reverse-recovery current.
The IGBT’s 650-V rating allows operation from a
bus voltage of up to about 400 V with adequate
safety margin. This high-voltage capability is
important because the industry increasingly
contemplates using high-voltage buses to
distribute power to electrical loads at low current.
Three individual single-channel high-voltage
ICs (HVICs) control the gates of the high-side
IGBTs, and a single low-voltage IC (LVIC) with
three output channels controls the gates of the
low-side IGBTs.
The FAM65V05DF1 block diagram illustrates the integration of
The LVIC and HVICs in the FAM65V05DF1
three HVICs, a three-channel LVIC and power semiconductors.
implement individual under-voltage lockout
(UVLO) circuitry to protect the IGBTs against
operation with too little gate-driving voltage. Bringing power semiconductors, drivers and
Over-current protection circuitry is implemented protection circuitry together in a single module
in the LVIC, with a soft turn-off feature that has enabled the realization of a complete three-
protects IGBTs from potentially damaging voltage phase bridge and driver in a footprint of just 44
surges by decaying the gate voltage instead of × 26 mm. This represents a 30% saving in PCB
turning the devices off abruptly. The module’s space compared to a conventional controller
temperature sensor, used to coordinate thermal implemented using individual automotive-
protection, is also integrated in the LVIC. In qualified components (discrete IGBT + external
addition, the LVIC has a fault output, which can three-phase gate driver, etc.).
be used to activate system-level protection for In a nutshell, energy-efficient integrated
optimum reliability. high-voltage power modules help eliminate
For automotive use, module thermal power-sapping mechanical actuators typically
performance is extremely important. Peak driven by the engine crank. Field-stop-trench
ambient temperatures can be high, especially for IGBTs, STEALTH diodes, HVIC, LVIC and DBC
modules sitting near the engine. technologies are the major enablers for this new
Size and cost constraints must also be taken generation of auto IPMs.
into consideration. A DBC substrate is economical
and thermally efficient. In the Auto IPM, the IGBT
References
and freewheeling diode dies attach directly to the
DBC substrate. This ensures efficient routing of
heat away from the power dies to the edge of the
ON Semiconductor
package, where a heatsink can aid dissipation. www.onsemi.com/PowerSolutions/home.do
OnSemi - PE Handbook 2.17 V1.indd 42 2/17/17 9:55 AM

HOW TO BE SMART WHEN SELECTING A FAN
How to be smart
when selecting a fan
for forced air cooling
JEF F SMO O T | CU I I NC.
It’s easy to over-specify a cooling fan. But

there are ways of keeping temperature
down with fans that are sized just right.
THE FIRST STEP in any thermal management task is

understanding the thermal path taken for removing excess
heat. Most systems, and particularly those that employ
an enclosure, will use some form of forced air cooling.
Invariably the cooling will involve a fan of some kind. The
choice of fan, particularly for an enclosed PCB can have a
significant impact on the overall lifespan of a system.
Conduction is the simplest means to remove
heat simply because heat spontaneously flows from
a hotter to a colder body. However, an electronic
assembly sitting in an enclosure such as a rack-
mount will not be able to dissipate much heat through
conduction. For this reason, assemblies that consume as
little as 25 W of power may require forced-air cooling.
To grasp the scale of the cooling problem, engineers
create what’s called a thermal profile. This is basically a
record of how much heat a system generates, when it gets
generated, and where the heat sources are. The approach
to creating the profile starts with placing temperature
sensors at various points on the PCB.
Also important for system profiling is how much
impedance to airflow a system exhibits. The system
impedance is expressed in terms of a drop in air
pressure between inlet and outlet. It plays a major part in An example of a computational fluid
calculating the overall airflow required from a fan and, in dynamics analysis (CFD) which can
accurately profile cooling requirements
turn, the selection of the size and type of fan. Designers
can determine system impedance by measuring the
pressure drop using sensors or, if possible, by placing the
CUI - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 43 2/16/17 4:13 PM

POWER ELECTRONICS
system in an air chamber. For larger systems --such as

Equation 1 shows the relationship
data centers – it may be possible to model the system
between temperature rise and airflow,
using CFD (computational fluid dynamics) to get an even
where q is the amount of heat absorbed
more accurate profile.
by the air (W), w is the mass flow of air
Forced air cooling plays a big role in thermal
(kg/sec), Cp is the specific heat of air (J/
management, but the question becomes how much
kg°K) and ΔT is the temperature rise of
forced air is enough. To get the answer, it is necessary
the air (°C):
to figure out by how much the internal temperature can
change without increasing the risk of failure.
HANDBOOK
The process begins with determining the ‘most (1 )

critical’ component in terms of operating temperature;
this component’s maximum temperature will give a Once we know the maximum
maximum ambient temperature allowable. The total permissible temperature within the
power dissipation for all relevant components -- such enclosure and we derive the amount
as power transistors, microprocessors, amplifiers and of heat generated (based on the
communication interfaces -- will provide a figure for the cumulative power/heat dissipated by the
amount of power the overall design dissipates. components) it is possible to calculate
Power dissipated, in Watts, converts linearly to how much airflow we need. Because
energy in Joules/second, which is in turn exhibited as mass flow (w) = air flow (Q) × density (ρ),
heat. One can assume that the temperature of the air substituting and solving for Q we can
around the components will continue to rise while the rewrite Equation 1 to get Equation 2
equipment operates. At some point air temperature will (where Q is the airflow in CMM (m3/min),
reach a level that will inhibit the removal of additional q is the amount of heat to be dissipated
heat. Thus he point of adding forced air is to replace the (W) and ρ is the density of air (kg/m3)).
heated air with cooler ambient air. The air flow must be
sufficient to accomplish this while keeping components (2 )
below their maximum operating temperature.
Typical axial fan performance Finding the operating point
A typical flow vs. pressure performance curve of an axial fan, A typical performance curve of an axial fan with system imped-
this one for the CFM-120 series from CUI. ance plotted overtop. The system operating point is where the
two curves intersect.

In many cases, it is not possible to

Substituting constants for Cp and ρ at 26°C, we can arrive at a general
measure the airflow through an enclosure
equation for calculating airflow, Equation 3.
using an airflow chamber. The alternative
is to specify the operating point above
(3) the figure derived from Equation 3. For
example, if the airflow calculated is 50
CFM with zero back pressure, there will
The calculated airflow figure can now be compared with the fan be a good margin of error with a fan
specification. Manufacturers characterize fans using these two parameters over-specified such that it produces a
to provide a performance graph that plots airflow (measured in either CMM maximum of 100 CFM with the intention
or in cubic feet per minute, CFM) against static pressure (measured in either of operating it at 75 CFM. The higher
inches or millimeters of water, often written as inch H2O or mm H2O). figure also provides some headroom for
Consider the performance curve of the CFM-120 Series from CUI, a 120 increasing airflow during operation.
×120-mm frame axial fan with dual ball bearing construction. Unfortunately, Obviously, minimizing system
the result given by Equation 3 is only accurate for ‘ideal’ conditions; with no impedance helps keep down the size of
back pressure from the enclosure (known as system impedance). In reality the necessary cooling fan. At a minimum,
there will always be some system impedance. So to determine the real-world it is good practice to keep the areas
requirements engineers must calculate or estimate the system impedance. around the air inlet and outlet as clear
This impedance can then be plotted on the fan performance curve, and the of components as possible. Also keep
point at which they cross should be taken as the operating point for the fan. in mind that an air filter will add system
you could incorporate the switch

functionality of a circuit breaker with
the high protection level of a fuse?
New Fused Disconnect Switch

UL98 Rated for CC fuses up to 30A & 600V
The new Fused Disconnect Switch (FDS) series incorporates the switch functionality of
a circuit breaker with the high protection level of a fuse. The FDS allows end-users to
shut off and isolate branch circuits in electrical control systems in order to safely perform
maintenance on the downstream circuit components.
To view the product data sheet and learn more about the FDS, please visit:
www.marathonsp.com/New Products/Fused Disconnect Switch
Regal and Marathon are trademarks of Regal Beloit

Corporation or one of its affiliated companies.
©2016 Regal Beloit Corporation, All Rights Reserved. MCAD16061E • SB0045E

POWER ELECTRONICS
Determining speed from sensor output
impedance. Component placement on the

HANDBOOK
PCB should encourage airflow to and around

critical components, using guides if needed.
In addition, note that the above
equations use air density at sea level. A
system that will work at altitudes significantly
above sea level must factor in the thinner air.
A significantly higher altitude would need
much more airflow to maintain the same level
of cooling.
A pulsed output from a tachometer can be used by control
circuitry to gage and adjust fan speed.
Choosing the Right Fan
Fans are generally categorized by the way
the air enters and leaves. If it exits in the same plane as it enters then the fan is normally termed an
axial fan, as to draw air in from one side and expel it from the other on the same axis. If the airflow
leaves in a different plane the fan is normally referred to as a centrifugal design because the air
drawn in changes direction inside the fan and is expelled in a different direction. This style of fan can
effectively compress the air, allowing delivery of a constant airflow under different pressures. Perhaps
the most prolific centrifugal fan design is the blower, which resembles an axial fan but typically
expels air at 90° to the intake.
The volume of airflow needed and the static pressure of the system will influence what style
of fan makes sense for a given application. Axial fans are predominantly suitable for high airflow in
systems with low static pressure, while centrifugal fans offer lower airflow but can deliver it against
higher static pressure.
Sensing stall/lock faults Both audible and electrical noise are also
important when selecting a fan. The general rule
of thumb is fans producing greater airflow will also
generate more audible noise. Thus, axial fans will
typically have lower audible noise than blowers. To
keep down audible noise, designers must optimize
airflow and reduce system impedance, thus reducing
the required CFM.
Besides generating audible noise, dc fans can
have other design considerations. The dc motor
within the fan creates an electromagnetic interference
(EMI) signature. These emissions are normally limited
to conducted EMI in the power leads. Ferrite beads,
shielding or filtering can all mitigate such effects. For
most PCB-based systems in an enclosure, the dc axial
fan provides the right balance among cost, audible
noise, EMI, and performance.
Differences in the construction of axial fans may
Fan can generate output signals indicating stall/lock fault. If the fan
motor stops, the output is driven to a logic high. It remains at a logic also impact how they are used. Generally, these
low during normal operation. differences relate to the bearings. Bearings on the
fan shaft can be either steel ball bearings or sintered

PWM duty cycle
powdered bearings, usually referred

to as sleeve bearings. At consistently
low temperatures, fans with sleeve
bearings can operate as well as ball
bearing fans. However, at variable or
high temperatures, ball bearings have
been shown to operate longer and
more reliably. Sleeve bearing fans, which are normally cheaper running on a microcontroller it is possible to create
than ball bearing fans, do have their place. But their relatively a sophisticated thermal management scheme that is
short lifetime and propensity to fail at high temperatures limits adaptable and efficient.
their use. A simple example of fan control could
Axial fans are widely used in rack-mount enclosures thanks include temperature sensors distributed around
to their combination of small size, low power and high airflow. a board. Each sensor could monitor a cooling
Many also include features that can boost system performance zone, a particularly helpful concept when there are
by controlling fan speed, optimizing a design to reduce power board components susceptible to heat variations.
consumption. Design calculations of minimum required airflow When the measured temperature approaches a
rate help specify a fan that can cool under all conditions. They predetermined level, the fan can turn on or speed
assume the fan runs constantly, even when maximum cooling up by changing the duty cycle of the PWM signal.
is unnecessary. Thus the design calculation assumes worst- Similarly, the fan can slow down if the internal
case conditions always. That means the fan is full-on even temperature cools off.
when cooling loads are not large. The result can be energy All in all, integrated circuits and PCBs
inefficiencies and shorter fan lifetimes. are becoming ever more complex and dense.
Consequently, it has become common practice to monitor Statistically, most components fail because of
the temperature in an enclosure and actuate the fan only when overheating or operating too hot for too long.
necessary. The downside is this practice can present problems With so much to risk, use of the right fan can be
in terms of thermal lag. It can also introduce a fault condition if, the difference between a premature failure and an
for some reason, the fan cannot start due to an obstruction. efficiently operating system.
To address this problem, modern dc axial fans like the
CFM Series from CUI include auto-restart protection as a
standard feature. This feature detects when the fan motor
cannot rotate and automatically cuts the drive current. Models
including the CFM-60 Series also offer optional controls such as
a tachometer and rotation detection sensors. The tachometer
produces a pulsed output proportional to fan speed that can
References
be used within control circuitry. If the motor stops, the output
stops pulsing and stays at either a logic high or logic low. The
CUI Inc.
www.cui.com
rotation detection feature doubles as a lock sensor; if the fan
motor stops, the output is driven to a logic high and remains at
a logic low during normal operation.
In addition, there is the ability to control the speed of
the fan using pulse width modulation (PWM); the duty cycle
of this input determines the speed of the fan rotation, the
relationship between the duty cycle and whether the fan speed
is linear. When used in conjunction with a simple algorithm

POWER ELECTRONICS
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LEADERSHIP TEAM SALES
Publisher EVP Mike Caruso Michelle Flando Tom Lazar

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February 2017 Teardown: IKEA’s Smart LED bulb Page 8

Secrets of measuring currents above 50 A Page 34

Power Electronics 2-17 Cover V1.indd 1 2/24/17 11:32 AM

HIgH PERfORmaNCE BaTTERy HOLdERS

It’s what’s on the InsIde that counts

www.keyelco.com • (718) 956-8900 • (800) 221-5510

The tough problems

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commentary - power electronics hb 2-17 v1.indd 2 2/21/17 3:25 PM

Gam ing console

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EDITORIAL DIGITAL MEDIA/MARKETING VIDEO SERVICES

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staff page -- power electronics 2-17 v1.indd 4 2/22/17 8:51 AM

The big name in miniature components.

TRANSFORMERS & INDUCTORS

Think Pico Small -

THE POWER ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

16 Modeling of losses in magnetic components 34 Secrets of measuring currents above 50 A

6 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 2 • 2017 powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com

Contents — PE Handbook 2-17 V1.indd 6 2/22/17 10:37 AM

It All Started in 1887 as a

© 2017 Sager Electronics, 19 Leona Drive, Middleborough, MA 02346 • 1.800.724.3780 • www.sager.com

Sager PEH 2-17.indd 7 2/16/17 4:30 PM

The Ikea TRÅDFI LED bulb can be dimmed and color-

8 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 2 • 2017 powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com

Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 8 2/21/17 3:47 PM

Ikea bulb, the wireless board mounts perpendicular Bulb architecture

Not much to see. Visible

powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2017 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 9

Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 9 2/16/17 7:47 AM

Silicon Labs EFR32MG1 Mighty Gecko Smart SoC

10 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 2 • 2017 powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com

Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 10 2/16/17 7:47 AM

With the elastomer housing for the remote switch cut

powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2017 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 11

Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 11 2/16/17 7:51 AM

And that reality probably explains why the

12 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 2 • 2017

Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 12 2/21/17 3:07 PM

Components on the bulb PCB might indicate

14 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 2 • 2017 powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com

Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 14 2/16/17 7:54 AM

Ikea board, top view

powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2017 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 15

Ikea Teardown - PE Handbook 2.17 V2.indd 15 2/16/17 7:59 AM

Traditional ways of calculating the loss in inductors and

IN A SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS) most of the power losses

where B is the magnetic flux density(Ø/A), μr is the permeability of the material, μo

16 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 2 • 2017 powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com

Wurth - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 16 2/22/17 8:46 AM

where N is the number of turns of the coil around the

Core loss graph for deriving constants

Core Loss graph plotted

powerelectronictips.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2017 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 17

Wurth - PE Handbook 2.17 V3.indd 17 2/21/17 4:45 PM

Energy lost in the core is the area

18 DESIGN WORLD — EE Network 2 • 2017