1

METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE ONE

THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. understand the meaning of research in its different categories

2. acquire a sense of commitment as a researcher and scholar

3. understand research as a discovery and problem solving process

Since the beginning of time the urge to look for the unknown, to look for something or
someone has been instilled in human beings. From Edenic paradise through the years the
search goes on. The term research stems from this continuing endeavor. In academe, this is a
skill that must be developed and enhanced and the graduate student must know how this is
done.

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LESSON 1 SOME DEFINITIONS CLASSIFICATIONS

OF
RESEARCH

Research has been defined in different ways by authorities. The definitions are based
on the intended output and purpose of the activity.

Classified according to purpose we have:

1. Pure/ Basic/Fundamental research, an inquiry to determine the truth about a

plunomenon. Its output is a contribution to a body of scientific knowledge.

2. Applied research, the use of existing scientific knowledge in order to solve a

problem or to make generalizations about behavior. This is a systematic endeavor a) to
locate b) to collect c) to evaluate d) to analyze and e) to interpret data.

These two basic definitions serve as the bases of understanding the task that a
researcher undertakes.

Research may be classified according to the method used. These are:

1. Historical research, an inquiry about past events

2. Descriptive - survey research, an inquiry about present conditions
3. Experimental research, an inquiry about cause and effect relationship
4. Case study, a merger of the other three methods.

Research is also classified according to subject matter as: natural science research,
social science research, educational research, theological research, literary research, and so
on.

In our globalized academic environment technological research has come into the
picture. The academic researcher must henceforth become familiar with the technological
devices used in the research process.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Discuss the types of research that are most applicable to problems in education.

2. What kind of basic or fundamental research can be carried out in education?

Explain and give examples.

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LESSON 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

RESEARCHER AD\ND
SCHOLAR

The researcher and scholar have characteristics that are often acquired in academic
institutions and developed through the years. Sometimes the student remains unaware of
these characteristics and fail to develop them.

Here are some of these characteristics:

Intellectual curiosity

This is the inquiring frame of mind, the desire for knowledge. This is the mind that
keeps asking “why?”

Prudence and Wisdom

While curiosity leads the researcher to the discovery of truth, it can also lead to
disaster. Hence, prudence and wisdom come in. This means knowing when to stop the
inquiry because its consequence can be dangerous or harmful.

Awareness of obstacles to Progress

As we walk along the highway of life we meet “obstacles to progress”. In research

these are hindrances to the realization of objectives that promote social, economic, political,
educational, scientific and moral development. The researcher must be aware of these in
order to conduct inquiries that can eliminate or diminish these hindrances.

Intellectual honesty

Intellectual honesty means acknowledging intellectual indebtedness. When one

quotes or takes information from existing sources, one must specify these sources. For
example, CD piracy is a violation of intellectual property rights. It is intellectual dishonesty.

Healthy skepticism

The healthy skeptic is an open-minded doubter. This is the “doubting Thomas” who
refuses to accept statements as true until the evidence is there.

Patience and determination

Research is a tedious, time consuming task. Locating, collecting, evaluating,

analyzing, interpreting information and writing the final research report, require a steadfast
commitment to the activities involved.
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Competence and Skill

The reliable researcher undergoes rigid training to develop his/her competence and
skill in the task of data collection, assessment and interpretation. Research is not a haphazard
undertaking, but a systematic endeavor to accomplish its goals and objectives.

Objectivity

The researcher must be free from bias and prejudices. The output of research can be
reliable and dependable if the researcher is objective in the task of data collection analysis and
interpretation.

From this discussion one can see that a researcher is not “produced” overnight. It
takes years to develop all these characteristics of a scholar and researcher.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Discuss the implication of intellectual honesty to the flagrant CD piracy even

in academe.

2. How does skepticism trigger research in the area of education? Explain and
give specific examples.

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LESSON 3 ETHICAL, SOCIAL AND SCIENTIFIC

RESPONSIBILITIES

The researcher operates in a community and interacts with individuals in this milieu.
He/She has responsibilities related to the sense of right and wrong, to the social and scientific
output. These are the ethical, social, and scientific responsibilities.

Ethical Responsibilities

The ethical concept applies to the sources of information and to the

participants/subjects/ respondents of the research. Here are some of the ethical
responsibilities of a researcher.

1. A researcher must respect the privacy of the participants. Only public not
private behavior can be the focus of observation.

2. Respondents have a right to confidentiality. The identity of the respondent is

not revealed unless permission is given.

3. The subject of research has the right to “informed consent”. This means that
the researcher informs the subject about the consequence of participating in the research.

4. The researcher must respect “intellectual property rights”. He/she must

acknowledge intellectual indebtedness.

Social Responsibilities

The researcher operates in a global milieu and the output of research will have social
and global significance. The researcher has a commitment to improve and develop the
“global village” although the immediate concern is the welfare of the people and the
surrounding environment.

The researcher output must enhance the life style of the community. It must
strengthen the positive cultural values and maintain cohesiveness among the social units. The
research output must not initiate divisiveness, it must inculcate unity.

The researcher is a “builder” not a “destroyer”. The socially responsible researchers

tries to build up family solidarity and community stability with a citizenry that is physically,
mentally, morally and spiritually healthy – a citizenry that is politically and economically
responsive. The socially – oriented output of research creates a community aware of
environmental issues and promotes ecological protection and nurture.

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Scientific Responsibility

Science is a discipline that focuses on the reliability and validity of research output.
Hence, the researcher has the scientific responsibility to interpret objectively and accurately
the data gathered through the research activity. The researcher maintains “emotional
distance” during the research process and the interpretation of results.

Research reporting must be accurate and complete. And a vital aspect of scientific
responsibility is the dissemination of research findings.

The out put of research must be reliable and dependable. The researcher must see to it
that reliable and appropriate data collecting devices are used. The researcher must interpret
the data objectively. He/she must be aware of technological techniques that enhance the
reliability of the research out put. As a part of the scientific responsibilities of the researcher,
he/she must share the output of research through the publication of the results.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Discuss the role of an academic researcher in the area of environmental

management. Give situational examples.

2. In what way can a researcher enhance the lifestyle of his/her social milieu?
Give situational examples.

3. How can an educational researcher eliminate or lessen the flagrant violation of

intellectual property right.

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LESSON 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process both as a problem-solving devise and truth discovery activity is
an expansion of the “reflective thinking” process. It starts with a felt need which brings about
a problem on to the options and choices, to the collection and evaluation of evidence, on to
the concluding belief and the decision to act.

Below is a diagram of the reflective thinking process.

Diagram

A “Felt” Need You feel the need to attend a

Luncheon meeting

A Problem But there is the problem of

reaching the venue on time

Options/Choices to You have the choice to take the

Solve the Problem LRT, the taxi, or jeep

Evidences for or You then analyze the pro’s and

Against Each con’s of these choices
Option

Concluding Belief You reach the conclusion that

the LRT would get you there on
time

Decision to Act You decide to follow this

concluding belief

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Attached is my diagram of the research process, which is the structural organization of

the modular discussion.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

STEP ONE Selecting the Problem Area

Defining and Initial Survey of

Stating the Problem Literature

Formulating the Survey of the Need

Hypothesis Situation

STEP TWO Review of the Related Literature

Determining the Research Design

STEP THREE

Determining the
Determining the Planning the Research Materials and
Data Collecting Writing The Research Proposal Instruments
Techniques

STEP FOUR Selecting the Sample/Subjects

STEP FIVE Collecting the Data

STEP SIX Classifying, Analyzing and

Interpreting the Data

STEP SEVEN Reporting the Results

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Illustrate how a need initiates a research project. Give examples using your
own work environment.

2. Explain how a researcher’s curiosity can trigger the research activity.

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METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE TWO

SELECTING THE PROBLEM AREA

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. understand the factors to consider when choosing a problem for research

2. identify the problem areas in educational research
3. identify the characteristics of a researchable problem

Selecting the problem area, which is the first stage in the research process, is a crucial
undertaking. The chosen problem serves as the main focus of the research activity. The
researcher must consider some guidelines when choosing the problem area, formulating the
problem and the hypothesis.

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LESSON 1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING

THE PROBLEM AREA

There are a number of factors that a researcher must consider when choosing the
problem area. Here are some of these factors:

First, the researcher’s curiosity interest and motivation serve as the primary
consideration in determining the area of research. For instance, the educational researcher is
interested in technological management. This is the focus of his/her inquiry.

Second, the researcher’s observation and experience both actual and vicarious can lead
him/her to the research area. Vicarious experience may be what other people communicate to
him/her or what is acquired through reading or media exposure. Internet exposure also serves
as a vicarious experience. This technological exposure serves not only to lead the researcher
to problems in education research but even to research methodologies.

A third factor is the availability and accessibility of the sources of data needed in the
research, the availability of tools and devices for data collection.

In some instances the information may be available but inaccessible. Accessibility

may refer to geographical distance or to the confidentiality of the information. For instance a
researcher wants to study the psychological orientation of teachers. There is the possibility
that some psychological test results of the respondents will not be accessible due to
confidentiality.

A fourth consideration is the researcher’s training and competence, both in

implementing the methodology in analyzing and interpreting the data. If the researcher has no
statistical competence the research problem should he in the area of qualitative research.

A fifth consideration is the “need situation” both practical and theoretical. One must
consider the contribution of the research undertaking to the social milieu and to the body of
scientific knowledge in education.

And finally one considers the logistics involved in the research activity – the
parameters and dimensions of the undertaking. Consider also existing literature and
documents in the problem area.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

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1. In your research experience what factors led you to a specific problem area?
Explain

2. Among the factors to consider when choosing the problem area for research
which is the most important? Why?

LESSON 2 PROBLEM AREAS IN EDUCATION

RESEARCH

The problem areas in education cover a broad spectrum. Just about every course of
the education program in the colleges and universities are problem area.

Below are some of these problem areas:

Curriculum
Development

− Formulating the curriculum

− Evaluation of the curricular offerings
− Relevance of curricular offerings
− Curriculum changes

Management of Technological
Changes

− On line teaching its acceptability

− Managing Audio-visual devices
− Effectiveness of T.V lecturing
− Power point and CDROM

Supervision and
Teaching Skills

− Leadership styles of supervisors

− Monitoring techniques
− Interpersonal interaction between supervisors and teachers
− Faculty development and training programs
− Communication strategies
− Classroom management styles
− Performance evaluation strategies
− Teaching methods
− Teacher-learner relationship

Values
Education
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− Values classification
− Values integration strategies
− Effects of internet and computer addition
− Environment values
− Split- level values resolution
− Work values classification
− Religion and cultural values
− Cultural values and beliefs integration
− Moral and social values integration
− Physical and mental health values education
− Nationalism and political values

Instructional Materials
Development

− Module monitoring techniques

− Instructional material evaluation
− Module writing skills development
− Lesson planning
− Internet access and material accumulation

The problem-area dimension in education is broad and there are others that one can
add to this list. Consult the Commulative International Abstracts of research in education to
discover the global dimension of research in this area.

Consult the Internet for global problem areas in education research.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. List down some specific problems in the area of curriculum change. Briefly
explain each problem.

2. Discuss the problem area of values education

3. List down some possible topics for research in the area of technological
management.

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LESSON 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

RESEARCHABLE
PROBLEM

The research problem must be chosen with care. Certain characteristics, must guide
the researcher when choosing the problem. Here are some practical considerations that can
enlighten the researcher.

Manageability
This refers to the scope and dimension of the problem. A complicated problem with a
wide frame of reference can be unmanageable when the allotted time is limited. The scope
and coverage must be determined by the time frame and logistics of the research.

Timeliness and Relevance

Education research operates in a dynamic environment, hence its output must resolve
contemporary problems. The focus of education research is the resolution of education issues
that beset educational institutions. The answer to the “question” must be pertinent to present
conditions. For example values education problems are very relevant and timely. The
“culture of death” and criminality in our social milieu can he traced to the educational
background of the citizenry.

Significance
The research problem serves an important purpose. It must reflect the needs of the
educational milieu. And it must provide answers to the questions raised by educators,
learners and society in general.
Originality
With the advent of globalization and the new millennium, no research problem in
education can perhaps be considered “original”. However one can equate originality with
“newness”:

− newness of the “question”, or

− newness of the answer, or
− newness of the method or
− newness of the milieu

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If the research problem reflects any one of these factors, then one can claim
“originality”.

Availability and Accessibility of Data

Availability means that information exists. Information about the research problem
must be within the access of the researcher. Accessibility means within reach geographically.
Confidentiality of information may he an obstacle to accessibility.

To a large extent the viability, feasibility and researchability of the problem depend on
these characteristics.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Discuss fully the characteristics of a researchable problem.

2. List down some timely and relevant topics in education research.

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LESSON 4 STATING THE PROBLEM

The problem statement is the researcher’s guiding light during the research process. It
is the verbalization and articulation as well as the analysis of the “question” which the
researcher wants the research to answer.

The problem statement must divide into the major or main problem and the minor or
sub-problems.

Main / Major Problem

The major or main problem corresponds to the verbalization of the specific “question”
which the researcher wants to answer. It may be stated declaratively or interrogatively.
Generally the researcher in education uses the interrogative form.

Here are some examples:

Major Problem: (Interrogative)

What are the factors that affect the teaching skills of teachers?

Major Problem: (Declarative)

This study aims to design and develop an On-line Course in Human Behavior in
Organizations at the graduate school level.

Major Problem: (Interrogative)

Is there a significant relationship between the academic environment and the morale of
the teaching staff?

Major Problem: (Interrogative)

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Is there a significant relationship between spiritual commitment and the performance

of teachers in the academic setting?

Major Problem: (Declarative)

This research aims to determine the attitude of school administrators towards

cyberspace teaching.

Minor Problem

The minor problem is an analytical presentation of the main problem. Below is an

example of the minor problems for the Cyberspace teaching main problem.

On Cyberspace teaching

1. Do school administrators consider Cyberspace teaching effective for the

learners?

2. Do school administrators consider Cyberspace teaching culturally viable?

3. Do school administrators consider Cyberspace teaching acceptable to the

academic environment?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. State the major problem and sub-problems for this topic: “The Effects of
Media on the Value Orientation of College Students”.

2. State the major problem and sub-problems for this topic “E-Learning and Its
Effectiveness in the Tertiary Level”.

3. State the minor problems for the examples of main problems presented in this
lesson.

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METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE THREE

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. understand the functions of the literature search in education research

2. recognize the importance of respecting intellectual property rights through the

acknowledgement of sources.

3. acquire training in the techniques of documentation

4. develop the ability of evaluating existing literature in the research problem area

5. develop the ability of presenting and writing the review of literature

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The literature search is a tedious and time consuming activity. But in research it is a
necessity. The researcher must know what other researchers had discovered in the past.
Literature as used in this context refers to all recorded information related to the problem
focus or the problem dimension of the research.

LESSON 1 FUNCTIONS OF THE REVIEW OF

RELATED
LITERATURE

The review of related literature has functions that every researcher must be aware of.
Below are some of these functions.

− It provides an awareness of the status of research in the problem area.

It gives the researcher an idea on how much research has been undertaken and it
serves as a measure of the “theoretical need” situation
− It provides suggestions on the techniques of problem formulation.
− It gives clues on methodology and research design.
− It provides information on instrumentation and analytical method in
quantitative research.
− It provides suggestions on tools and devices for data collection.
− It provides clues on the vocabulary that must be used in writing the
research report.
− It provides enlightenment on the viability and workability of the
research undertaking.

One can see that a systematic review of related literature serves as a cornerstone, a
stronghold of reliable research. It broadens the researcher’s understanding of the research
investigation.

The word “review” means that the researcher goes over the materials-books,
periodical articles, theses/dissertations and internet presentations. The purpose is to determine
what has been written about the “problem.” The word “related” means “similar” to,
especially on the problem dimension.

The researcher takes down notes on the findings of previous researches and
authoritative works. There are different kinds of notes that the researchers must take. These
are direct quotation notes, indirect quotation notes, comment notes and summary notes.

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Direct Quotations Notes

Direct quotations are word for word or verbatim notes from the contents of the
materials reviewed. These must be complete, exact and accurate. If any portion of the source
is omitted use the ellipsis – three spaced dots (…). If there is a perceived error in the source
use [sie] within a bracket after the error. Do not quote out of context.

Indirect quotations

These are paraphrases. The researcher uses his/her own words to express the ideas
from the source. When in doubt about the meaning of the words in the source it is better to
use a direct quotation.

Summary Notes

These are the synopses or abstracts of the materials. The abstract is a concise
statement of the “problem”, the method, the results and the generalizations or conclusions/

Comments Notes

These are the researcher’s evaluational statements about the source. These can serve
as parts of the presentation of the “review of related literature.”

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. In what way does the Review of Related Literature provide the vocabulary
needed to present the research output?

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2. In what way does the Review of Related Literature provide information on the
“viability” of the research project? Explain by giving specific examples.

LESSON 2 FORMULATING THE THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework is the conceptual base of the research. It deals with the
basic concepts, the definition of terms the assumptions and the hypothesis.

The Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a statement of expectations, a response to the question, to be tested

statistically. There are two categories of hypothesis: the Conceptual / Theoretical hypothesis
and the Predictive / Operational hypothesis. And there are two types of hypothesis formulated
under sea category: the null and the alternate or affirmative hypothesis.

The conceptual / theoretical hypothesis uses theoretical constructs. Here is one

example:

Null: There is no significant relationship between intelligence and achievement.

Ho

Alternate: There is a significant relationship between intelligence and achievement.

H1

In the predictive and operational hypothesis the theoretical constructs like intelligence
and achievement are changed to the quantitative measure to be used, intelligence becomes
I.Q. (intelligence quotient) and achievement becomes income.

For example:

Null: The income of bank executives in the upper quartile of the Stanford-Binet I.Q. test
distribution is the same of those in the lower quartile.

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Ho

Alternate: The income of bank executives in the upper quartile of the Stanford-Binet I. Q.
test distribution is higher than those in the lower quartile.
H1

These hypotheses are subjected to statistical tests of significance.

Assumption

The assumption is a statement that somehow echoes the limitation of the study. In a
sense it states the theories that are not to be “tested” nor proven in the proposed research, for
the researcher takes it for granted that these theories are acceptable to the recipients for the
research output.

Definition of Terms

This part of the research focuses on terminologies, on variables or concepts that are
used in a special way by the researcher. A dictionary definition is not acceptable. An
amplified and operational definition is required.

For example the word creative has a dictionary definition as the “ability to bring into
being or to produce”. In research this may have a different concentration. For instance the
researcher may define it this way “Creative refers to the teachers strategy of using visual aids
in different forms and styles”.

Paradigm

This section is sometimes included to illustrate the pattern of relationship among the
variables used in the research design. It provides a general framework for the
interrelationships among the variables visually. Below is an example of a paradigm.

training Working Teaching

incentives Environment Performance

motivation

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In some researches this paradigm is omitted, when the pattern of relationships is clear
and simple.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. List down related sources for a research topic that you have chosen.

2. Surf the internet and list down some sources related to a problem area like
values education.

LESSON 3 DOCUMENTATION STYLE

Documentation refers to the acknowledgement of sources. These sources are cited as

direct quotations or as indirect quotations (paraphrases). The citation of these sources follows
styles that have been used over the years by researchers.

The discussion in this Lesson is an excerpt from my book Writing Proposals: A

Concise Guide, Manila; UST Publishing House 1994.

There are three styles of documentation recommended in style guides. These are:

Documentation Reference Listing

− Foot note Bibliography

− Author-number References Cited

− Author - year References Cited (Literature

APA American-Psychological Cited)
Association

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Institutions make their own choice of documentation style, which is defined here as
the style of citation or acknowledgement of authorities or sources. Two commonly accepted
style guides are Kate Turabian’s and William Campbell and Stephen Ballou’s Form and Style
in Thesis Writing. These two books may be consulted for any clarification of instructions
given in this section.

The style presented here is the Author - year References Cited style which is also
called the journal style and the APA (American Psychological Association) style.

The brief explanations and illustrations on the following pages demonstrate the use of
this style. The abbreviation Doc. means Documentation and Ref. means Reference listing.

1. When the author’s name is mentioned in the text but no specific

statement is cited:

Doc. Maslow (1954) says that man has a hierarchy of needs which must
be satisfied.

Ref. Maslow, Abraham 1954. Motivation and Personality, New York:

Harper and Row.

2. When the author’s name is not mentioned in the text and no specific
statements is cited.

Doc. Ethnomethodologists tend to use direct rather than indirect

measurements in their study of human behavior (Churchill, 1971).

Ref. Churchill, Lindsey 1971 “Ethnomethodology and Measurements.”

Social Forces 50 (December): 182-191

3. When the author’s name is mentioned in the text and a specific

statement is referred to, indicate the page/pages:

Doc. According to Ardey (1961, p.87) the displacement activity observed

in animals is carried over into human psychology.

Ref. Ardey, Robert. 1961. The Territorial Imperative. New York:

Atheneum.

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4. When citing direct quotations:

a. Short quotations (five lines or less), run into the text and
enclose within quotation marks:

1.) At the end of the sentence:

Doc. Ethnography is defined as “the task of describing a particular

culture.” (Spradley and McCurdy, 1972, p. 3)

Ref. Spradley, James and David McCurdy, eds. 1972. The Cultural
Experience: Ethnography in a Complex Society. Chicago: Science
Research Associates

2.) In the middle of a sentence

Doc. The “killer instinct” in man can be given a new turn, a “redirection
of the attack is evolution’s most ingenious expedient for guiding
aggression into harmless channels” (Lorenz, 1971, p. 54) thus
neutralizing its deadly consequences.

Ref. Lorenz, Konrad 1971. On Aggression, New York: Bantam Books

Inc.

3.) Short quotations with omitted portions:

Doc. Critics note that the main artistic achievement of Finnegan’s Wake
lies in the way Joyce “found the absolute in time and … reconciled
it with eternity.” (Noon, 1957, p. 131 citing Tindall, p. 93).
Doc. Trying to explain the disunity that has stalked the nation for
Ref. Noon, William
generations, T.,(1994,
Polo S.J. 1957.
p. 79)Joyce
says:and Aquinas. New Haven,
Conn: Yale University Press.
While it is true that we are “one people when we pray” and we are
“one people when 4.) we sing”,
Long one generation
quotations is separated
(more than fromsettheoff the text;
five liens),
next by nochanges that marks:
quotation spell divisiveness. A national anthem sung in
three languages, four different constitutions, streets, towns,
provinces known to one generation go by different names in the
next generation. Church hymns, prayers, rituals even the name of
the nation, the color and design of the flag threaten to change. This
psychological manipulation must stop somewhere.

This perceptive reflection on the root cause of a people’s identity

crisis is worth considering.
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Ref. Polo, Elma Ursula. 1994. Reflections from the Cloister.
Himalayan Heights: Deo Press.
 26

From the reference listing entitled REFERENCES CITED use single space and
hanging indention. Each entry begins at the left margin and succeeding lines in the entry are
indented five spaces. Arrange the entries alphabetically. You may divide the listing into: A
Books, B. Periodicals, C. Unpublished Materials and D. Miscellaneous. For studies in the
Humanities the listing may be divided into: Primary Sources and Secondary Sources.
Double space between entries.

When there are two or more entries by the same Author, type ten hyphens in place of
the author’s name in the following entry.

A. Books

One
Author Bronowski, Jacob. 1973. The Ascent of Man. Boston: Little Brown.

Two March, James G. and Herbert, A. Simon. 1958. Organizations, New

Authors York: John Wiley and Sons.

Three
Authors Bereday, George Z., William W. Brickman and Gerald H. Read. 1960.
The Changing Soviet School. Boston: Houghton-Miffin.

More than Webb, Eugene J., et. al. 1966. Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive
three Research in the Social Sciences. Chicago: Mcnally.
Authors

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Anthology Spradley, James P. and David W. McCurdy, eds. 1972. The Cultural
with Editor Experience: Ethnography in a Complex Society. Chicago: Science
Research Associates.

Book Polo, Elena P. 1991. “Men and Women for All Seasons.” A Review of
Review Saints Are People by Rev. Fr. Alfred McBride, O. Praem. Makati,
M.M.: Salesiana Publishers Philippine Educational Forum 26:112.

Volume in Aronson, Elliot E. 1969. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Vol. 17

a Series ed. By William J. Arnold. Lincoln: University of Nebraska.

No author Restless Paradise in Anguish. 1991. Timbukto: Unbriddle Press.

Translation
of an old Freud, Sigmund. 1965. New Introductory Lectures in Psychoanalysis.
edition with Ed and trans. by J. Strachey. New York: Norton (First printing,
an editor 1993)

B. Periodicals

Journals Gillard, Thomas E. 1963. “Evolution of Bowerbirds.” Scientific

American. Aug.

Baxter, George W., Jr. 1973. “Prejudiced Liberals. Race and

Information Effects in a Two-Person Game.” Journal of Conflict
Resolution. 17 (March) 131-61.

Merill, J.C. 1965. “How Time Stereotyped Three Presidents.”

Journalism Quarterly. 42: 536-70.

Theses/
Dissertations

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Nalenpol, Minihaha. 1944. “Street Corner Society: The Social

Structure of Squatters on Paradise Street.” Unpublished M.A.
Thesis. Timbukto: University of Dreams.

Polo, Elena P. 1970. “Themes and Meanings in the American and

Filipino Novels of the Second World War in the Pacific.”
Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Mich.

Hotair, Bolabola, 1994. “A Political Utopia in Orbit.” A Speech

Speeches Delivered at the National Convention of Sleepwalkers, Inc. Bayan
Matapang, Nova Monde.

Mimeographed Lynch, Fr. Frank. 1977. “Pre-Departure Orientation Seminar

Material Information.” 14-26. Mimeographed. Center for Advanced
Studies, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City.

C. Miscellaneous

Government Clements, S.D. Minimal Brain Dysfunction in Children. Washington

Publication D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office NINDS Monograph No. 3,
U.S. Public Health Publication, No. 1415.

Corporate U.S. Printing Office. 1973. Style Manual. Rev. Ed. Washington,
Author/Author D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
s as Publisher

Piger, Lilli (Producer). 1991. War in Man’s Genes. Timbukto: New

Film Life Films.

Abstract on CD-ROM

Rodriguez, A.M. 1991. Multicultural education: Some considerations for a university

Setting (CD-ROM). Abstract from: Silver Platter’s Eric Item: ED337094.

Online Abstract

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Lawrence, O.J. 1984. Pitfalls in electronic writing land. (Online). English Education, 16.
2;94-100. Abstract from: Dialog file: Eric item: EJ297923.

Online Journal Article

Herz, J.C. 1995, April. Surfing on the internet. A net head’s adventurers online. (Online
serial). Urban Desires 1.3. Available internet: www/desires.com/ud/html.

Electronic Correspondences, such as e-mail messages and conversations via bulletin boards
and electronic discussion groups, is typically cited as personal

Author, date, subject of the

message
communication.

Name of the listserv, bulletin board, or e-mail discussion group Available from: e-
mail address.

On the footnote-bibliography, here are some reminders:

• The footnotes which appear at the foot of the page may be numbered
sequentially either throughout the page, throughout the chapter or throughout the
whole work.

• The footnotes may be placed at the end of the work and labeled Notes

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Submit an example of an abstract.

2. Explain briefly the footnote-bibliography style of documentation. Consult

William Campbell and Stephen Ballon: Form and Style in Thesis Writing. 4th Edition.

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LESSON 4 ORGANIZING THE REVIEW OF RELATED

LITERATURE

Researchers in academe organize the review of related literature, chronologically,

according to variable relatedness and according to venue. When the researcher wants to show
the changes in research generalizations over the years, the chronological organization is used.
When the authoritative sources deal with related variables, the review is organized according
to variables or conditions studied. And when the researcher wants to show the differences in
results according to the place where the research was conducted, then the review is organized
according to geographical venue.

Chromological Organization

Many researches have been conducted through the years on educational changes-such
as curriculum changes, technological strategies management, changes in instructional material

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development. When presented in the review of related literature these works can be presented
from the earliest to the most recent studies to illustrate the differences in research findings
through the years.

Topical Organization

The works discussed are organized according to the variable/problem areas covered.
For instance: in the examples given on teaching strategies in communication skills, studies
may be presented thus, those using audio-visual devices, lecture, group dynamics and role
playing. This provides coherence in the discussion.

According to Venue

Studies done in different milieus, foreign, tribal, rural urban and so on may be
presented according to locale. This is to show the differences in findings based on the venue
or setting of the study.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Explain and give the justification of organizing the review of related literature
chronologically.

2. Consult the theses/dissertations in the library and photo copy at least two pages of the
review of related literature organized topically.

METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE FOUR

SELECTING THE RESEARCH METHOD

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OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. comprehend the guidelines in the selection of research methods

2. understand the different methods of research

3. implement each method of research

Research method and design refers to the process of locating, collecting, analyzing
and interpreting information. The method usually depends on the time focus, source of
information and purpose. If the focus is the past and the sources of information are existing
records the documentary methods (historical research and content analysis) are need. When
the research focuses on present conditions, on trends and future condition the descriptive-
survey method is appropriate. When the focus is “futuristic”, experimental designs may be
used. If the research activity is a merger of these three, then the case study is the appropriate
method.

LESSON 1 DOCUMENTARY METHODS

Documentary methods rely on existing records as sources of information. The two

methods presented here are the historical research method, and content analysis.

Historical research is defined as an endeavor to:

- locate

- collect

- evaluate

- analyze

- interpret

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-
synthesize
There are two types of sources in historical research- primary and secondary.

Primary sources refer to “first hand information, usually found in archives and
museums. These are:

- manuscripts - remains
- relics - artifacts
- diaries - memoir
- letters - murals

For example in recounting the Rise and Full of the Third Reich historical events were
recapitulated in the investigation. Letters and diaries of Adolf Hitler and his deputies were
used as primary sources. Diary of Anne Frank records the Jewish experience during the
tyranonical regime of Adolf Hitler and his gas chamber. In the canonization process of
Catholic saints, the Vatican inquirers go to the catacombs to examine the remains and relics of
those recommended for canonization.

Secondary sources refer to “second hand” information, opinions, perceptions, about

past events. These may be documents, periodical articles, books and other recorded data
pertinent to the events being investigated.

These primary sources are collected and evaluated. Evaluation divides into two
stages: external criticism to determine the authenticity and genuineness of the evidences and
internal criticism, to determine the meaning and significance.

External criticism deals with the form. The researcher evaluates the genuineness of
the relics and remains, the authenticity of the handwriting and so on. Internal criticism deals
with the content, to determine whether this has any relationship with the events under
scrutiny.

These evidences are then analyzed, broken down and classified according to periods of
occurrence. These historical periods serve as bases for the synthesis, the summing up.

Interpretation means deriving meaning from the information collected. In the process
of synthesis this meaning serves as the eventual generalization.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is defined as the “quantitative description of the manifest content of

communication”. It deals with materials used to communicate, to transmit messages. It deals
both with the past and the present.

Below is a diagram of the communication process to illustrate the focus and intents of content
analysis:

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Communicator Message Channel Receiver

or or or
Source Medium Audience

Analyst

The analyst/ researcher goes over the message revealed by the materials. After the
analytical process the analyst makes his/her prediction/judgment about the communicator/
source, the medium/channel and the receiver/ audience.

The materials subjected to content analysis are the following:

- text books - songs

- contents of - folk tales
newspapers - billboards
- T.V. commercials - cartoons
- radio commercials - teaching materials
- movies - letters
- speeches - memorandums

Through the problem formulation, the content analyst can decide on what must be
measured. In written materials the researcher may focus on the sentence, the paragraph or the
central idea/ theme. When analyzing figurative illustrations like billboards cartoons, T.V.
commercials, and advertisements the content analyst may use the characters as measuring
devices.

While historical research focuses on the past and is organized chronologically, content
analysis focuses on the present.

As a guide to the content analyst here are some points to consider:

− the hidden meanings in the communication materials

− the stress on the celebrity status in TV commercials, radio commercials and print
advertisements
− the values “insinuated” in text books and other devices of communication
− the use of songs, jokes, riddles in classroom materials to disseminate value
− consider the internet materials that promulgate globalization.

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− consider the use of soterical devices to instill discrimination through the learning
process

For example, in the days when discrimination was rampant in the United States
learning materials contained figures of villains as “Niggers” and characters whose eyes were
oddly made.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. List down some research topics (at least five) that can use the descriptive survey
method.

2. Discuss the causes of some unreliable surveys.

3. Discuss the difference between the cross-sectional and longitudinal design in

descriptive survey research.

LESSON 2 DESCRIPTIVE – SURVEY METHOD

The descriptive- survey method focuses on present and existing conditions. It deals
with the opinions, perceptions and attitudes of a chosen population. When evaluation is
involved it is called descriptive-normative-survey. Standards or norms are used in the
evaluational process.

The descriptive- survey may use the cross-sectional design which is the collection of
data from one set of participants at one point in time. The output serves to describe the
existing conditions during the time of the survey. Another type is the longitudinal design
which collects data over a period of time. This is sometimes called the time series design or
trend study. The output determines the trend.

For instance, the researcher wants to determine the enrollment trend for the last ten
years, then the yearly enrollment data from the universities are collected and analyzed.

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The descriptive- survey method is also used in corelational studies. These are
inquiries that try to establish the relationship between variables. For example the research
problem states: “Is here a significant relationship between teen-age delinquency and parental
indifference?”

A causal- comparative study also uses the descriptive-survey method. This is the
study that tries to compare the casual factors of behavioral problems, among pre-school
children from different socio-economic levels.

The descriptive-survey method has a broad applicability. It is one of the most

commonly used strategies of eliciting the reactions of a community to issues which
predominate in the social, political, economic and cultural milieu.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. List down some research topics (at least five) that can use the descriptive
survey method.

2. Discuss the causes of some unreliable surveys.

3. Discuss the difference between the cross-sectional and longitudinal design in

descriptive survey research.

LESSON 3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Experimentation is a study of cause and effect relationship under controlled

conditions. The cause which is manipulated during the research process is called the
independent / experimental/treatment variable. The effect is called the dependent variable or
criterion variable.

There are two categories of experimental designs.

They are the: Pre-test Post Test

Before and After design

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− Post test only

and the
− After only
design

Under these categories we have:

− One group design

− Control group design
− Parallel group designs

You are conducting an experiment to determine the effect of music on the learners
performance.

Below are diagrams to illustrate these experimental designs.

In the diagram t = test, O = observation, d = difference.

- One group/ quasi – experimental designs

Pre-test Pre-test (t1/O1) Experimental Post-test (t2/O2)

Treatment d = t2 -t1
(Exposure to
Music)

Post-test Only x Experimental Post-test

Treatment
(exposure to
Music)

- Control Group Design / Classical Design

Experimental Pre-test Experimental Post-test d e = t2-t1)

Group (t1/O1) Treatment (t1/O1)
(Exposure to music)
Control Pre-test Post-test (d c = t2-t1)
Group (t1/O1) (no music) (t1/O1)

Experimental Experimental Post-test

Group Treatment (t2/O2)
(Exposure to music)
Control (no experimental Post-test
Group treatment no (t2/O2)
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exposure to music)

- Parallel group designs / Solomon three groups/ four group designs

These are the designs used when the independent variable/treatment/experimental

variable has several levels. For example Music can be classical and pop music.

Experimental Pre-test Experimental Post-test d exp = t2-t1)

Group 1 (t1/O1) Treatment (t2/O2)
(Classical music)
Experimental Pre-test Experimental Post-test (d cx2 = t2-t1)
Group 2 (t1/O1) Treatment (t2/O2)
(Pop music)
Control Pre-test No exposure to Post-test d e = t2-t1
Group (t1/O1) music (t2/O2)

Experimental Experimental Post-test

Group 1 Treatment (t2/O2)
(Classical music)
Experimental Experimental Post-test
Group 2 Treatment (t2/O2)
(Pop music)
Control No exposure to
Group music

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. List down at least five topics that can use experimental research methods
2. Illustrate the experimental design that you will use for each of the topics you have
listed
LESSON 4 CASE STUDY

The case study deals with the history, growth and development of a unit called the
case which has a “problem”. But one can also use this method positively by investigating a
“success” case. The case may be an individual, an institution, a community, an organization,
a tribal group, a state or a nation. There are some terminologies that must be understood in
connection with the case study. These are case method and case work.

The case study is the research process as well as the output. The case method is the
instructional strategy in medicine, law, business and psychology which uses case studies to
illustrate concepts and theories. The case method is also used to demonstrate problem-solving
techniques.

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Case work is the follow-up of the suggested remedy for evaluation purposes to
determine whether the “therapeutic intervention” solved the problem.

As a research process the case study follows the following stages:

Stage One – Identification of the unit called the case giving the demographic profile

Stage Two – Historical development

a) The beginning or the initiating stage
b) Growth and development
c) The “problem” or “crisis” stage

Stage Three – The present condition of the case

a) The nature of the “problem”
b) Positive and negative aspects

Stage Four – Analysis and diagnosis

a) Identification of the casual factors, the root causes of the
problem
b) Identification of the “problem,” naming the “conflicting” issues
c) Suggestions and prescriptions of remedial, measures, also called
“therapeutic intervention”

Stage Five – Evaluation of the prescribed remedies

Aside from these stages there may be others that can be utilized depending on the
complexity of the problem.

Here are some guidelines in carrying out each stage of the case study.

Identification of the Case

In the case identification the researcher presents the background of the case. If the
case is an individual the demographic profile – age, gender, marital status, place of origin,
educational background, religion, ancestry, cultural origin, socio-economic status is
presented. This gives the case analyst a comprehensive idea about the individual involved. If
the unit is a state, a nation, a community or a tribal sector, the geographical, cultural,
economic, political boundaries are presented.

Historical Development

This section includes the beginning, growth and early years of the individual. The
family, social and educational upbringing as well as the changes in the environmental milieu

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are presented. It deals with the problem, conflicts and achievements in the growth process
until the point of crisis.

In the case of groups this section constitutes the chronological changes.

Present Conditions

This is the description of the present set up, the present situation. If the case’s
problem is an illness, a psychological disorder or an educational set back, the researcher
provides both a physical and a psychological description. The techniques of testing,
questioning, interviewing and observation may be used to gather the needed information. If
the case is an institution or an organization the assets and liabilities are presented.

Case Analysis and Diagnosis

At this stage the researcher identifies the problem – the illness, the disorder, the set
back as well as the casual factors. The acceptability and reliability of the diagnosis depend to
a large extent of the training, skill, competence and experience of the case analyst.

After the diagnosis, a prescription or remedy is given – the solution to the problem

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Present a case study taken from an authoritative source

2. Briefly explain the usefulness of a case study as a means of problem solving.

LESSON 5 E – RESEARCH

E-Research is defined as both a conceptual and practical guide for current researchers
using the Internet as a source of information. However, it does not eliminate nor demolish the
old methods and techniques of research. It enhances the researcher’s curiosity to enter
uncharted seas and horizons of research. The use of the Net does not increase the intrinsic
value of research, but it provides opportunities to improve the research practices and
introduces new challenges. The Net broadens the researcher’s global vision.

Some of the information materials that E-Research brings are:

- on-line evaluation and assessment of performance

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- analysis of social behavior in a realistic setting

- retrieval of text-based surveys
- net-based telephone interviews
- net-based video or audio conferencing
- computer-mediated conferencing

There are perhaps even more informative devices that one can get via E-research. The
quantity of information available is even more. And one advantage of Net research is that one
does not have to be a Network engineer, a systems analyst or a computer programmer to use
the Net devices. All that is needed is a basic understanding of the operational features of the
Internet.

E-research also serves as a tool of communication between the researcher, other

researchers, communities and the subjects of research. The speedy interaction among the Net
groups is also another advantage.

While E-research allows the researcher to get information for the remotest segments of
our global village, it has “perils” that one must be aware of. Here are some of these:

- it is capable of amplying the best and the worst of human nature

- it can disseminate misleading results because of the speedy interaction
- it can easily plagiarize the work of other researchers
- it can rely on the broad dimension of coverage rather than its depth
- it can ignore the moral, ethical and legal aspects of research.

One must, therefore, be cautions in the use of E-research.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Discuss how you can overcome the “perils” of E-research.

2. Explain how you can magnify the use of E-research in your own work environment.

METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE FIVE
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SELECTING THE PARTICIPANTS,

THE TOOLS AND THE TECHNIQUES
OF DATA COLLECTION

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module the student should be able to:

1. understand the techniques of selecting the respondents/participants representatives of

the population

2. determine the appropriate technique of collecting data

3. understand how the data collecting tools/ instruments are constructed

Selecting the sample and determining the data collection tools and procedure are vital
consideration in order to have a reliable and dependable research output.

LESSON 1 SAMPLING PROCEDURE

There are two categories of sampling: random and non-random sampling. Random
sampling gives every unit of the population an equal chance of being chosen, while non-
random sampling depends on the researcher’s judgement.

Sample refers to the units that will provide the information. These units are taken
from the population, a part of the universe, which refers to the totality of units. The
population refers to the accessible portion of the universe.

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For example the researcher wants to conduct a study to determine the effect of video
cassette on the reading comprehension of grade six pupils. The universe will be all grade six
pupils; the population will be the grade six pupils in the Philippine Women’s University. And
the sample will be those chosen from the JASMS area (Jose Abad Santos Memorial School)

Random Sampling Techniques

There are three random sampling techniques often used.

Simple random/lottery style. The researcher puts the names or the assigned numbers
in a box. Then the names/numbers are taken from the box until the corresponding number of
units are obtained. The number of units corresponds to the percentage desired. For example
if there are 500 names/numbers in the box and the researcher wants 50% of these, then 250
names/numbers are drawn.

One can also use the table of random numbers taken from any book in statistics.

The key in obtaining a random sample is to ensure that each and every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected. One technique of doing this is to use a
Table of Random numbers: This is shown in Table 1

TABLE 1
Part of a Table of Random Numbers

011723 223456 222167 032762 062281 565451

912334 679156 233989 109238 934128 654678
086401 016265 411148 251287 602345 659080
059397 022334 080675 454555 011563 237873
666278 106590 879809 899030 909876 198905
051965 004571 036900 037700 500098 046660
063045 786326 098000 510379 024358 145678
560132 345678 356789 033460 050521 342021
727009 344870 889567 324588 400567 989657

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000037 121191 258700 088909 015460 223350

667899 234345 076567 090076 345121 121348
042397 045645 030032 657112 675897 079326
987650 568799 070070 143188 198789 097451
091126 021557 102322 209312 909036 342045

The Table of Random Numbers is found in statistics books.

Systematic Random. In this technique the names are systematically arranged

randomly, from 1 to 500 and from a random start the researcher takes every nth number. The
nth number depends on the percentage of the units in the population needed. If 50% of the
population will be chosen, then the researcher takes every 2nd unit. Below is an illustration of
this technique

1. Annalisa 6. Paulo
2. Petria 7. Perla
3. Pedro 8. Janice
4. Juan 9. Jose
5. Nestor 10. Lalia
11 Cynthia
12. Jake
Stratified Random The researcher divides the population into clusters or strata using a
relevant stratifying variable. For instance we want to determine the effect of socio-economic
level on the performance of fourth year college students in school. The illustration below
shows how the students will be stratified

N n
Upper Socio-economic 100 50

Middle Socio-economic 300 150

Lower Socio-economic 50 25

This means that altogether there are 450 students in the population and the researcher
wants 50% of them as participants. The sample will be 255 with 50 coming from the upper
socio-economic group, 150 from the middle group and 25 from the lower socio-economic
group.

Non-Random Sampling

In the non-random sampling techniques the researcher’s judgement and the “need
situation” serve as the guide in the choice of respondents. Since the sample will not be
representative of the population, the generalization of the research will apply only to the
chosen sample and to groups with the same characteristics.

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Here are some of these techniques: purposive sampling, convenience or opportune

sampling, incidental sampling and volunteer sampling

Purposive sampling. In this technique the researcher sets down the characteristics to
be used in choosing the sample. For instance, the sample will include only those who have
Internets, those who are fifteen to eighteen years old, those who have been enrolled in the
school for five years with no interruption.

Convenience/opportune sampling. This technique uses units that are immediately

accessible to the researcher. Hence, one conducting a study on the attitude of barangay
dwellers on the operations of the barangay will choose respondents who live close to his/her
place of residence.

Incidental sampling. The researcher gets information from whoever happens to come
along and who belongs to the population. For instance, the researcher wants to find out the
soft drink preferences of grade school pupils. He/she stands at the doorway and asks whoever
happens to pass by about his/her soft drink preferences.

Volunteer sampling. When the variable to be measured is unique or when

confidentiality requires the non-recognition of participants, the researcher uses this technique.
For example the focus of the study is extra-sensory perception (ESP). The researcher looks
for volunteers, for people who think they have ESP. Suppose the research deals with the
moral behavior of participants only volunteers will provide this kind of information.
Sample selection is crucial in quantitative research. The generalization depends to a
large extent on the reliability and appropriateness of the sampling technique.

So that we can see at a glance, the different types of nonrandom sampling methods,
the Figure presents an illustrative example.

Nonrandom Sampling Methods

Can you explain each?

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Sample Size

After studying the different methods of selecting the sample population, we have to
consider this question: “What constitutes an adequate or sufficient size for a sample?
Unfortunately, there is no clear-cut answer to this question. Some sample sizes are too small
while others can be too large. The question is “at what point exactly, does a sample stop
being too small and become sufficiently large? The best answer is that a sample should be as
large as the researcher can obtain with a reasonable expenditure of time and energy. This
suggests that we as researchers, should try to obtain as large a sample as we reasonably can.
However, if we want to be scientific about the sample size we can use Slovin’s (1960)
formula.

N
n = ---------
1 + Ne2
Where:
n = sample size
N = population size
e = desired margin of error

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Explain how you will choose the sample for this research topic. Effects of Peer Group
Relationship on Employee Morale.

2. When is volunteer sampling appropriate? Give situational example.

LESSON 2 INSTRUMENTATION: QUESTIONING AND
TESTING TECHNIQUES

In research instrument refers to the tool or device used to collect data. In descriptive
survey and experimental research we use the questioning and the testing techniques of data
collection. The questionnaire and the interview are the devices used in the questioning
technique and the standardized psychological tests are used in the testing technique.

The Questionnaire

Constructing, validating and administering the questionnaire require training and skill.
The questionnaire as a tool in data collection has many advantages: a wider range of
coverage, easier to administer, not expensive and lesser time needed.

When formulating the statement in the questionnaire consider the variables to be

measured as indicated in the problem statement. Specify the items under each variable for the
purpose of validation.

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Here are the types of questions used in a questionnaire. Consider the variables to be
measured as indicated in the problem statement. Specify the items under each variable for the
purpose of validation.

Here are the types of questions used in a questionnaire.

The open ended question does not include the response categories. The respondent is
free to answer in his/her own way. For example:

How is values-education implemented in your school?

In the close ended question the responses are specified

The close-ended “question” has several advantages:

- They are easy to tabulate

- They are easy to categorize
- They are easy to quantify

Construction. The questionnaire may contain close ended and open ended questions.
In the close-ended questions the categories of response are included and these may be
interogative or declaration in form. For example:

Are you in favor of including population education in the grade school curriculum?
Yes No

Environmental values must be integrated in every subject

Strongly Agree (SA

Agree (A)

Disagree (DA)

Strongly Disagree (SDA)

Undecided (U)
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The main advantage of the open-minded “question” is that it allows the researcher to
have an insight on the factors that the respondents consider important. Hence a combination
of the close-ended and open-ended questions is suggested.

Constructing the questionnaire is not an easy task. Hence if there are previously
validated questionnaires related to your work, use it with acknowledgement.

Here are some guidelines in questionnaire construction.

• Determine the objective of your research. The title of your questionnaire implies
these. For example; “A Survey to Determine the Spiritual Commitment of the
Teaching Staff in the Philippine Women’s University”
• Determine the variables to be measured. Use the sub-problem as the bases.
• List Down as many items as possible under each variable
• Eliminate the irrelevant items through item analysis
• Block the related items to eliminate the possibility of confusing the respondents
• Determine the format and physical layout
• Determine the types of questions to be asked
• Make a draft and submit it to “judges” for validation
• Make a copy of the items rated valid
• Pre-test this by letting a group identical to the respondents answer the questions to
determine the reliability and comprehensibility of the items.

Here are some illustrations of the different types of items that may be included in the
questionnaire.
Matrix Type

Please check whether you strongly Agree (SA); (A); Disagree (DA) Strongly Disagree
(SDA) or Undecided (U)

1. Spiritual commitment does not concern any of the teachers

( ) SA ( ) A ( ) DA ( ) SDA ( ) U

2. Spiritual commitment is a vital factor in improving teaching skills

( ) SA ( ) A ( ) DA ( ) SDA ( ) U
Contingency Questions

Some questions do not apply to all the respondents. The questions are called
contingency questions. Below is an example.

Have you ever tasted “ecstacy”?

Yes No

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If yes, about how many times?

Once
Twice to seven times
Eight to twenty times
Many times

If the categories of responses in the close ended questions do not include some choices
you may include

Others (specify)_______________

These are the parts of the questionnaire

- Title of the survey

- A cover letter which contains the following
a) purpose of the survey
b) why the respondent was chosen
c) the expected date of returning the questionnaire
- The instructions
- The items, systematically and logically organized to avoid confusing the
respondents

Here are some criteria for a well-designed questionnaire

• Instructions are clear; no complicated questions to confuse the respondents

• Items are organized logically from the easiest and most familiar to the most
difficult and least familiar
• There are no double-barrelled questions – two questions in one
• There are no ego threatening questions, making the respondent feel ignorant or
unknowledgeable
• There are no words with double meaning
• There are no “leading questions” where the answer is already suggested
• The layout has eye appeal, pleasing to the sense of sight.

Administration. There are two ways of administering the questionnaire through

personal or group contact with the researcher or by mail (or e mail) or hand-carried. Both
have advantages and disadvantages. To save time and money the mailed questionnaire has
more advantages. But the percentage of return is low and one cannot be sure that the chosen
respondent answered the questionnaire. In the personally administered questionnaire the
return is 100% but this can be expensive since one has to pay the expenses of the participants.

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Another disadvantage could be the feeling of self-consciousness which can affect the
candidness of the response to the question.

The Interview

The interview is the person to person technique of data collection. Using an interview
guide (like a questionnaire) the researcher goes to each chosen respondent. This can be time
consuming and expensive.

When conducting the person to person interview here are some guidelines.

• Set the time for the interview and be there on time

• Be properly attired
• “Break the ice” by making a pleasant introductory statement
• If the interview is taped ask the permission of the interviwee and make the taping
subtle.
• When taking down notes be subtle about it
• Keep the communication line open by not asking ego-threatening questions or talking
too much
• Give the interviewee the chance to talk and to answer in his or her own way.

The group or panel interview is another type of interviewing. The interviewer gathers
a group or a panel and presents to them the purpose/objective of the interview. Questions are
asked and each member of the panel responds. Here are some disadvantages or weaknesses
of this technique.

- the bandwagon effect where the respondent merely goes long with the responses of
the other members.

- the self conscious feeling of members who tend to avoid answering frankly

- the time and expense of gathering the respondents in one place.

The telephone interview has become one of the least time consuming and expensive of
the techniques. And with “Texting” in the communication area this can be used as an
interviewing technique.

Testing

Standardized tests are often used when educational research is related to psychology.
The help of psychometrician to interpret the test is needed.

Here are some kinds of tests used in research:

- Pencil and Paper Tests

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a) Personality tests
b) IQ tests
c) Emotional quotient tests

- Projective tests

a) Inkblot or Rorschrach test

b) Draw a house, tree-person test
c) Hand test
d) Creativity test

To be able to use these tests one must consult a psychometrician or enroll in a course
in psychological testing.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of panel interview

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the open-ended question.

3. Discuss the use of the interview as a device in data collection.

4. Explain how modern technology can be used in the questioning technique of

data collection.

LESSON 3 OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUE

Observation is defined by authorities as the “systematic process of witnessing and

recording the behavior patterns of objects people and events without directly communicating
with them.

Observation is the least reliable technique of data collection. But when the focus or
the source of information is human and animal behavior or when the subjects are illiterate,
there is no other technique that can be used except observation or photography.

Types of Observation

There are several types of observation in the study of human behavior. These are:

- direct or deliberate observation

- indirect or non-deliberate observation

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- disguised observation
- structured observation
- unstructured observation

Direct or deliberate observation. The researcher watches the behavior or event as it

occurs. For example supervisor observes the classroom management of a teacher or the
strategies of value demonstration in the classroom.

Indirect or non deliberate. The researcher describes the patterns of behavior or events
through the effects of the behavior rather than the behavior itself. For example an observer in
the educational setting watches the students behavior after the teacher’s CD presentations,
visual devices and on-line strategies.

Disguised observation. In this technique the observer becomes part of the observed
group, he or she becomes “one of them”. One advantage of this technique is that the natural
behavior of the units observed is revealed. One disadvantage is bias that can be generated by
the observer’s close interaction with the subjects, hence “emotional distance” must be
maintained. In anthropological or tribal research, this is usually one technique used. The
researcher becomes immersed in the cultural milieu that allows him/her to understand and
interpret better the behavior and events.

Undisguised observation. In this observational technique the subject in aware that

he/she is the focus of observation. Because of this the subject becomes self-concious1, hence,
the observed behavior may not be the “real” one. There can be lack of spontaneity in the
behavior of the subject.

Structured Observation. In this technique the behavior to be observed is specified

before the observation. For example the researcher specifies that the focus of observation is
the way the teacher comments on the responses of students in the classroom. Only this
behavior and no other will be observed.
Unstructured Observation. The observer notes and records all the behavior of the
subjects in the site of observation. In the analytical stage the researcher notes the relevance of
the behavior to the problem under investigation.

From the discussion one can perceive the weakness of observation as a data gathering
device, but there is no substitute when the focus is behavior. And its one real advantage is the
authenticity of recorded information assuming that the observer is objective and the observed
subject is unaware of the observation.

To increase the reliability and validity of observational outputs here are come
suggections

• Use a machine called people meter if this is available

• Plan the observation
• Segmentalize the observation using relevant segmentalizing variables, i.e. area
segmentation, behavior segmentation, time segmentation and others
• Record the observation as soon as possible; use recording gadgets (tapes, video,
camera) when possible.

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• Make several observations

• Have several trained observers observing the same units or subjects
• Record facts rather than impressions
• Maintain “emotional distance” in the disguised observation or “immersion” technique

Increasing Observation Reliability

To recapitulate here is a quotation” a limitation of observation is that motivations

attitudes and other internal conditions cannot be observed. Only when these feelings are
relatively important or readily inferred from the behavior is it appropriate to use observational
research methods” (Burns and Bush, 1998, p. 216)

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Explain how you can maintain “emotional distance”. Give examples.

2. Explain “segmentalized observation. Give examples.

3. Discuss the types of observation as means of data collection. Explain, with

situational examples, how the reliability of observation can be increased.

METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE SIX

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WRITING THE THESIS PROPOSAL

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. understand the purpose of writing a research / thesis proposal

2. understand the strategy of organizing the thesis / research proposal
3. acquire knowledge about how to write the different sections of the proposal; the
problem section, review of related literature and the methodology section.
4. write a thesis proposal

The thesis proposal is the agenda for research. It provides the guide line in carrying
out the research process. The viability or “do-ability” of the research study is demonstrated
through the formulation of the thesis proposal. Basically It presents a discussion of the
following

1. The Problem and Its Background

2. The Review of Related Literature
3. The Method Research Design

It also includes the Bibliography / References Cited, the Thesis Outline (if the
institution requires it) and the curriculum Vita (if the institution requires it)

This Module is actually a recapitulation of Module 2, Lesson 4 and Module 3.

LESSON 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

In the introductory portion of this section present the “context” of the problem. You
may cite your rationale for conducting the research study. It is assumed that you have chosen
a title that reflects the main problem of the study; For example “ The Effect of Teaching
Strategies on the Performance of Students in the Tertiary Level”

This section includes the following:

Statement of the Problem

Objectives of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitations
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Theoretical Framework
Assumptions
Hypothesis
Definition of terms

Below is a discussion of these topics following the format of a thesis proposal.

Statement of the Problem

This is the verbalization / articulation of the problem (main problem) and its analysis,
demonstrated through the sub-problems

Main Problem:

Is there a significant relationship between teaching strategies and the performance of

students?

Sub problems

1. Is the lecture strategy an effective teaching technique?

2. Is role-playing an effective teaching strategy?
3. Is group dynamics an effective teaching strategy?
4. Are technological devices effective teaching strategies?

The problem statement can also be declarative

Purpose / Objectives of the Study

In this section do not repeat the problem statement. State the aims of the research
endeavor. For instance say: This study aims to determine the effectiveness of teaching
strategies on the performance of students in the tertiary level. It will also try to determine
which of these strategies is the most effective.

Significance of the Study

State how the output of the study will contribute either to theory or practice or both.

Here for instance one can say : The output of this study will help the teachers to
choose the teaching strategy that will effectively improve the performance of students.

Scope and Limitations

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Present the coverage. Specify the population and the specific variables to be studied.
One can say that this study will deal with the use of several teachings tragedies in teaching
communication skills to freshmen college students of the Philippine Women’s University.
Only four strategies will be the focus : lecture, role playing, group dynamics and
technological devices.

Indicate what will be excluded, the limits of the study.

Theoretical Framework

This section presents the theoretical conceptual aspects of the research. It includes the
assumptions, the hypothesis, the definition of terms. If the theory is conceptualized or
operationalized (stated in the operational dimension) a paradigm is sometimes included here.

In the problem discussed here the basic theory is the theory of teaching / instructional
strategy, operationalized into lecture, role playing, group dynamics and technological
(audiovisual) devices.

Assumptions. The assumption is a statement that needs no proof in the study. Hence
the assumption for this problem discussed here can be :” It is assumed that teachers use
different strategies in teaching communication skills

Hypothesis – The hypothesis is a “statement of expectations” an informed guess” on

the possible answer to the Problem. This is required in quantitative research that requires
statistical comparison. It is a statement of differences or relationships.

There are two types of hypothesis:

Null: There is no significant relationship between teaching strategies and student
performance Ho

Alternate:
H2 There is a significant relationship between teaching strategies and student performance

The hypothesis can also be categorized as:

- Conceptual or theoretical hypothesis uses theoretical constructs

- Operational or predictive hypothesis, uses the operation to measure the construct.

Here are some examples:

“Teaching strategies affect the performance of students. This is a conceptual

hypothesis and the theoretical constructs are teaching strategies and students performance.

When operationalized this becomes:

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“There is a significant difference in the communication skills of students taught

through audio-visual devices and those exposed to the lecture strategy.”

Definition of Terms. In this section define the variables / terms that are used in a
specific way: Avoid dictionary definitions, if possible. In the example given here one must
define the lecture strategy, role playing, group dynamics and audio-visual / technological
devices.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Write down the problem statements (main problem and sub-problem) for a thesis
proposal that you plan to work on when you finish your course.

2. Present the scope and limitation of the problem you have stated.

3. Discuss the significance of your problem.

LESSON 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This is the part of the proposal that presents previous studies dealing with a similar
problem dimension. This was thoroughly discussed in Module Three.

In professional research this forms part of the theoretical framework. Therefore cite in
the theoretical section the works that serve as the theoretical basis for the study. But in this
section cite the applied researches, based on the same theories.

Studies may be related in any one of the following dimensions problem, variables and
population. Variables refer to the factors / conditions being studied. In the example given
here the variables are the teaching strategies and the performance in communication skills.

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In the introduction to this section state the status of research in the problem area, the
similarities, the disagreements among the previous research outputs. Then in the succeeding
paragraphs cite the researches to illustrate the initial statement.

For instance, one can start by saying, “Researchers disagree about the effects of
teaching strategies on the performance of students. But many studies show that some
strategies are more effective than others.”

Then the conclusions and generalizations of the studies can be cited to prove the
introductory statement.

In this section show how your proposed study intends to bridge the inconsistencies in
the findings of previous researches.

Remember that the works cited must be documented. Consult Module Three on the
documentation style recommended.

This section can be organized topically, chronologically and geographically.

If the purpose is to show the relatedness of research findings on the different variables
and conditions, the topical organization is logical and appropriate.

If the purpose is to show the changes in research output through the years, then the
chronological organization is pertinent.

If the purpose is to illustrate the differences or similarities of research outputs in

different geographical areas – Western, Asian, European – Local – Then the geographic
organization is reasonable. Remember, be both exhaustive and selective.

In the concluding paragraph for this section discuss the linkage between the proposed
study and the related literature cited. Include only worthwhile studies and choose from those
works only the facts that will clarify and present a total picture of the “problem” involved.
Indicate the gaps, the inconsistencies that your proposed study intends to bridge.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

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1. List down some works / research studies that can be part of your Review of Related
Literature for the problem presented in Lesson 2.

2. Explain how you will organize the Review of Related Literature for your chosen topic.

LESSON 3 METHOD AND RESEARCH DESIGN

This section of the proposal presents the procedures for data collection and analysis. It
includes a discussion of the technique of selecting subjects / respondents and the
instrumentation. In the introductory paragraph state the methodology and in the succeeding
paragraphs describe the procedure. For instance one can cay “This study will use the parallel
group design in experimental research”

Selecting the Sample

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Consult Module Three for the various technique of sampling. Define the population
from which the sample will be taken. For this proposed study for instance, one can state the
process in this way, “Four sections of freshmen students taking a course in Communication
Skills at the Philippine Women’s University will be participants in this experiment.

Below is the diagram:

Section One - Lecture Format

Section Two - Role playing

Section Three - Group Dynamics

Section Four - Audio Visual Voices

Instrumentation

The instrument in research is the tool or device for data collection. The basic tools are
the questionnaire and tests. If the research requires the use of standardized tests specify what
test will be used. If the questionnaire is the instrument explain how this will be constructed,
validated and administered.

Consult Module Three for guidelines on questionnaire construction and

administration.

Include a copy of the questionnaire in the appendix of the proposal.

Research Design / Procedure

Explain the procedure to be used in carrying out the research. Specify the stages of
the data collection process, the variables and the administration of data collecting devices.

Consult the Module on Methods and Research Design for guidelines on the
specification to be included in this section.

A graphic illustration may be used to clarify the design

Data Analysis Plan

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Explain how the collected data will be analyzed. Visualize the outcome of your
research investigation, if possible. You can use simulated data and dummy tables for
purposes of clarification.

You can include the statistical formulas you plan to use in your data analysis. Consult
Module Seven for guidance on the statistical treatment of data.

After this section on Methods and Research Design present the Bibliography and the
Outline / Thesis Organization. Exclude from the Bibliography books on Statistics and
Research Methodology. The listing must be divided into Primary and Secondary Sources or
into Books, Periodicals, Unpublished Materials and Public Documents.

The Outline / Thesis Organization follows the organizational format approved by the
school or institution where the Thesis will be submitted.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Explain the Methodology that you will use for the Problem you presented in Lesson
One

2. Explain the sampling technique that you will use. Demonstrate/discuss your sampling
strategy.

METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE SEVEN
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STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

OBJECTIVES

At end the of this module, the student should be to:

1. Select the appropriate statistical technique to the used in analyzing and

interpreting quantiative data.

2. Distinguish between parametric and non-parametric statistics.

3. To compute data using the following measures:

3.1 Central tendency

3.2 Variability

3.3 Relationship

LESSON 1 SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE

STATISTICAL
TREATMENT

Once we have collated our data, we decide on the statistical technique to be

used in the computation. The choice of the statistical test for the analysis of raw
data depends largely on the questions we asked in our study and the purpose of our
investigation. This means we have to go over our questions and determine how to
compute the data to answer our questions. For example, if a question calls for
relationship, among variables, then we use measures of relationship.

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To review our knowledge of statistics, Figure 1 can help refresh our memory.

STATISTICS

Parametric Statistics

Descriptive Statistics Inferential statistics

Statistics involving Statistical involving

The measures of Inferences
Central tendency Estimations
Variation Predictions
Correlation Hypothesis testing

Non parametric

Statistical Techniques

Figure 1. The Realm of Statistics

As the figure shows, there are two general types of statistics: the parametric and
the nonparametric tests. Parametric tests are usually used for data that are of the interval
or ratio levels. Further, the within group scatter of scores of each of the groups to be
compared should be equal. As we can see, parametric tests are most appropriate with
desciptive and inferential statistics. The nonparametic test are sometimes called
distribution free statistics, since their use do not depend on some specific types of score
distribution.

The most frequently used parametric tests are the Z-test, t-test, and the F-test.
The t-test for independent sample means is used to determine if an observed difference
between the averages of two independent groups is statistically significant while the t-test
for dependent means is and to determine of there is a significant difference between the
two groups of correlated scores in terms of their means.
LESSON 2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

One of the techniques of summarizing quantitative data is the measures of

central tendency. These include the averages such as the mode, the median and the mean.

The mode is the most frequent score in a distribution. In the following

distribution, what is the mode? 25, 20, 19, 17, 16, 16,16. The answer is 16. Why?

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Since the mode doesn’t tell much about a distribution, it is seldom used in
research studies.

The median is the point below and above with 50 percent of the scores in a
distribution fall. We can compute the median roughly by using the counting median.

For example:

Scores (X)
90
88
86
82 = Median
74
70
65

The median is 82. Why? Count the number of scores or cases. Is the total an
even number or odd? This technique is used when only there are few number of cases, at
least 30 scores or less.

When the total number of scores is even, we can find the median in this manner.

Scores
90
88
86
82
74
70
65
58
How did you get 78?

Outside the school setting, median is seldom used. For one thing, the median does
not make use of all information in each and every score in the distribution. It tends to
ignore the actual numerical values of extremes scores.

The mean is commonly used in many types of researches. The long method of
computing the mean is done by adding up all the scores and divide the total by the number
of scores.

The formula is:

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X= X
N

Where X - mean
- sum of
N - total number of cases/scores

Find the mean of the following scores:

25 13 26 30 47 42 28 35 32 39 55 50 48 42 36

Why is the method long, when the formula is just very simple?

Table 1
Computing the mean by the Short Method.

Step Distribution Mid-points f d fd

57-59 58 1 5 5
54-56 55 1 4 4
51-53 52 3 3 9
48-50 49 2 2 4
45-47 46 7 1 7
42-44 43 6 0 0
39-41 40 6 -1 -6
36-38 37 9 -2 +18
33-35 34 5 -3 -15
330-32 31 3 -4 -12
27-29 28 4 -5 -20
24-26 25 1 -6 - 6
—— ——
N=48 fd=48
Formula: M = AM fd ci

N
Where: M - mean
AM - assumed mean
fd - algebraic sum of the products of the frequencies and their
corresponding deviations from the assumed mean.

Steps:

1. Prepare a table having step distribution column, mid-point column,

frequency column, deviation column and fd column.

2. Group the scores under the Step Distribution column using a class interval
of 3, 5, etc.

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3. Find the mid-point column.

4. Determine the step where the assumed mean lies and enclose it with
horizontal lines across the width of the table. The assumed mean is the mid-point of
the scores where the assumed mean lies.

42 + 44
AM = 2 = 43

5. Fill the f column by getting the total of N. N = 48

6. Fill the d column beginning from the step where the assumed mean lies,
give this O deviation. Number the steps from O upward 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., using positive
signs. Below 0, number the steps downward
- 1, - 2, - 3, - 4 etc using negative signs.

7. Multiply the frequency by the deviation for each step to get the fd column
and get the summation ( ) fd. fd - 48. Summation fd is the algebraic sum of the fd.
Divide the summation fd by N and multiply by the class interval (ci).

fd ci = - 48
N 48

8. Add the correction -3 to the assumed mean, 43 + (-3), equals 40. See
the computation below:

AM - 43 Formula: M = AM + ( fd ) ci
fd - - 48 N
ci - - 3
N - - 48 43 + ( -48 ) 3
48

43 + (-1 ) 3
43 + (-3 )

43 - 3

M - 40

The short method of computing the mean is used when number of cases is large,
that is more than 30.

Let’s have a pratice: Compute the mean.

Step Distribution f

65 - 69 1

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60 - 64 0
55 - 59 4
50 - 54 3
45 - 49 7
40 - 44 10
35 - 39 11
30 - 34 7
25 - 29 3
20 - 24 2
15 - 19 1

Key Concepts

central tendency parametric class interval

average nonparametric step distribution

Let’s do these:

ACTIVITY 1 Encirle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.

1. The best measure of central tendency is

a. mode
b. mean
c. mean

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2. In computing higher statistical data, the most approriate measure is

a. median
b. mode
c. mean

3. In computing the mean, we can assume mean at any point in the distribution.
This statement is

a. true
b. false
c. absurd

4. When the number of cases is 51, the counting median is the

a. 25 th score
b. 26 th score
c. 27 th score

5. If the assume mean is 57 and the correction is 2.6, the mean is

a. 83
b. 59.6
c. 54.4

6. The deviation is the distance of a score away from the

a. median
b. mean
c. mode.

7. The mean is affected by the

a. number of scores
b. total number of scores
c. size of the scores.

8. The mean is affected by the

a. number of scores
b. total number of scores
c. size of the scores

9. What do we do when the number of scores is too large that adding them to find
the sum is too cumbersome?

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a. make a step distribution of the scores

b. arrange the scores from the highest to the lowest
c. group the scores

10. Central tendency shows or indictes the:

a. general ability of a group of individuals

b. ability of each individual
c. the ability of a few members of a group

ACTIVITY 2 The following are the ages of the participants in a research

study. Find the average age. Use both the long and short
method of computing the mean. ci = 3. Start with the lowest
age as he first step in the distribution.

19 30 21 19 20 31 21
33 21 19 20 31 20 22
22 21 31 28 29 19
22 31 20 30 20 21
20 24 19 23 24 25
21 22 20 23 22 21
19 20 23 24 19 20

LESSON 3 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

While the measures of central tendency are useful statistics for summarizing the
score in a distribution, they are not sufficient because the spread of scores may differ from
one distribution of scores to another. There is a need therefore, to describe the spread of
scores or variability that exists within a score distribution. This statistical measure
refers to the tendency of the scores to scatter or dispense above or below the center
point in a distribution.

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The most commonly used measures of variability are the range and standard
deviation. The range represents the distance between the highest and the lowest scores in
a distribution. To find the range we simply subtract the lowest score from the highest
score. Thus, if the highest score is 90 and the lowest is 19, the range is; 90 - 19 = 71. The
range is used in determinng the class interval in a step distribution.

Although the range is a crude indication of variability, it gives a quick estimate of

variability. With a range of 71 in our example, we can quickly tell that there is a wide
variation of scores between 70 and 19.

The standard deviation (SD) is used in the computation of Pearson coefficient of

correlation. It is also used in comparing groups. The higher the standard deviation, the
more heterogeneous the group is in terms of the abilities and other characteristics of the
members. The smaller the SD, the more homogeneous the group members are.

The steps involved in calculating the standard deviation are as follows:

a. Calculate the mean of the distribution

b. Subtract the mean from each score. Each result is symbolized X – X
c. Square each of the squares of these scores: ( X – X)2
d. Add up all the squares of these scores: (X – X)2
e. Divide the total by the number of scores. The result is called the variance.
f. Take the square root of the variance. This is the standard deviation.

The above steps can be summarized as follows:

SD = (X - X)2
n

where SD is the symbol for standard deviation,

Z is the symbol for “sum of;;
X is the symbol for the raw score, x is the symbol for the mean, and
N represents the number of scores in the distribution.

Let us calculate the standard deviation of this distribution of ten score: 80, 85, 60,
55, 25, 70, 40, 45, 50, 30. Follow along in Table 2.

Step 1. Calculate the mean.

X
X= n = 54
Step 2. Subtract the mean from each raw score.

(X - X)
Step 3. Square each of these scores.

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(X - X)2
Step 4. Add up the squared scores and divide by the total number
of
such scores.

(X -X)2
n
The total is 3640, which, divided by 10, equals 364. This is the
variance.

Step 5: Take the square root of the variance (use a calculator). It is

19.08. This is the standard deviation.

You will notice that the more spread our scores are, the greater the
deviation scores will be and hence the larger the standard deviation.

Table 2

Calculation of the Standard Deviation of a Distribution

Raw
Score Mean X -X (X -X)2
85 54 31 961
80 54 26 676
70 54 16 256
60 54 6 36
55 54 1 1
50 54 -4 16
45 54 -9 81
40 54 -14 196
30 54 -24 576
25 54 -29 841
X = 540 = 3640

M = 54 Variance (SD2) = (X - X)2

n

= 3640
10

Standard deviation (SD) = (X - X)2

√ n

= √ 364 = 19.08b

The standard deviation is 19.08. Is the group heterogeneous or

homogeneous?

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Key concepts

Variability Standard deviation

Deviation Range

Let's try these:

ACTIVITY 1 Solve for the Standard deviation.

A. Scores (X)

23 25 14 30 28 18 24
19 22 26 12 23

B. 48 47 46 44 51 51 47
45 42 37 47 52 50

Solution:

LESSON 4 MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIP

Measures of relationship are used in correlational research. They are used in

determining whether relationship exists between two or more quantitiative variables, such
as age and reading ability or smoking and lung cancer. The goal of correlational research
is to explain or identify the causes of relationship. A common weakness among graduate
student researches is to establish a relationship between two variables by using statistical
data as the frame of reference. Causes of such relationships are not explained. Although

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causal relationship cannot be proven through correlational studies, we have to make

causal statements as an outgrowth of our research work. For example, a soon as we have
establish the quantitative relationship between smoking and lung cancer, we have to
substantiate this by providing an explanation. It is not enough to say that there is a
positive correlation between smoking and lung cancer. In other words, we have to explain
why such relationhip is positive rather than negative.

The relationship or correlation is expressed by a factor called coefficient of

correlation. It can range from zero where there is no correlation up to positive one
(+1.00) where there is perfect positive correlation, It can also range from zero to negative
one (-1.00), where there is perfect negative correlation.

Correlational research is carried out for one of two basic purposes - either to help
explain important human behaviors or to predict likely outcomes.

A positive correlation means that an increase in the amount of one of the variables
produces a corresponding increase in the amount of the other variable. For example.

Grades

Pupils Reading Spelling

Jose 88 90
Pedro 90 89
Maria 85 86

As we can see, the pupils’ grades in Reading are high as their grades in
Spelling. Without any computation, we can tell that there is a positive correlation
between Reading and Spelling. If the correlation is negative, high grades in Reading
would have a corresponding low grade in Physical Eduction.

Computation of the coefficient of correlation. The formula that is most

frequently used is the Person product - moment coefficient of correlation. The Formula
for calculating the Person coefficient is:

n XY - ( X) ( Y)
√ [n X2 - ( X)2 ] [nXY2 - ( Y)]

Where:

n - number of pairs of scores

- sum of

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X - one variable
Y - another variable

Example: Sets of scores for Variable X and Y.

Student Variable
X Y
A 20 20
B 18 16
C 28 20
D 15 12
E 10 10

Solution:

1. Find the sum of X and Y

Student X Y X2 Y2 XY
A 20 20 400 400 400 X = 81
B 18 16 324 256 288 Y = 78
C 18 20 324 400 360
D 15 12 225 144 180
E 10 10 100 100 100
81 78 1373 1300 1328
X Y X2 Y2 XY

2. Find the X2 = 1373

3. Find the Y2 = 1300
4. Find the sum of the products of X and Y = 1328
5. Substitute the formula

r= 5(1328) - (81)(78)
√ [5(1373) - 812][5(1300) - 782]

1. First, multiply XY by n: 1328(5) = 6640

2. Multiply X by Y: 81 (78) = 6318

3. Subtract step 2 from step 1: 6640 - 6318 = 322.

4. Multiply X2 by n: 1373(5) = 6865.

5. Square X: (81)2 = 6561.

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6. Subtract step 5 from step 4: 6885 - 6561 = 304.

7. Multiply Y2 by n: 1300(5) = 6500

8. Square Y: 782 = 6084

9. Subtract step 8 from step 7: 6500 - 6084 = 416.

10. Multiply step 6 by step 9: 304 (416) = 126464.

11. Take the square root of step 10: √ 126464 = 355.61.

12. Divide step 3 by step 11: 322 = 90

355.61

Our answer or correlation index v is 90. At this instance, we ask the

question: When can a correlation v be considered high or low? The following
categorization can be used for our interpretation.

r Indication
between + .80 to + 1.00 : High correlation
between + .60 to + .79 : Moderately high correlation
between + .40 to + .59 : Moderate correlation
between + .20 to + .39 : Low correlation
between + .01 to + .19 : Negligible correlation

Since .90 is beetween + .80 to + 1.00, then we can say that there is a high
correlation between variable X and variable Y.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Authorities said that correlation coefficient does not necessarily indicate a

cause – and effect relationship between two variables. It means it does not always follow
that one variable is causing the scores on the other variable. How do you account for this?
2. In what way does correlational research predict achievement from scores on an
intelligence test?
3. What constribution(s) can correlational research offer in your work
environment?
METHODS OF RESEARCH

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MODULE EIGHT

WRITING AND DISSEMIANTING

THE RESEARCH REPORT

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module the student should be able to:

1. acquire the ability to analyze, interpret and organize data adequately

2. present data logically and cohesively
3. acquire the ability to illustrate the data presentation through the use of graphic
illustrations
4. know the format and style of the thesis
5. understand the technique of research report dissemination

The last stage of the research process is reporting the research findings disseminating
these through publication if possible. Writing the research report requires training; the report
writer must know how to organize the result, how to present these aesthetically and articulate
these in comprehensive language.

LESSON 1 ORGANIZING THE RESULTS

In research there are two ways of presenting and interpreting the results. One is the
qualitative or verbal interpretation. Another way is the quantitative presentation and
interpretation which uses statistical data.

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Authorities in scientific writing have set down guidelines when writing the scientific /
academic research report. Here are some of them:

1. Have a specific reader in mind Who will read the paper?

=

2. Have a specific purpose of goal Why am writing this report

=

3. The language must be clear and Will my reader comprehend the

comprehensive to the intended reader = Report?

4. Organize the report logically and = Have I followed the old writing
cohesively cliche:
a) tell them what you are going
to tell them. (the Introduction)
b) Tell them (Body)
c) Tell them what you told them
(summary / conclusion)

5. Consider the layout and format Do I have enough illustrations to

= break the monotony of the printed
page and to clarify the explanation

These guidelines are clear enough for graduate students in education. These are basic
course directions in written communication skills

Thesis organization

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The thesis / dissertation is organized according to the specific guidelines given by

academic institutions. However, the basic concepts and consideration are the same. Below
are two ways of organizing the / thesis . dissertation

Here is one way :

A. Approval
Title Page
________

Table of Contents

I. The Problem and Its Background.

Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation
Theoretical Framework

II. Review of Related Literature

III. Method and Research Design

Procedure
Sampling
Instrumentation

IV. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Findings (This is sub divided into
topics corresponding to the problem formulation)

V. Summary Conclusion and Recommendation

Bibliography
Appendix

Below is another way:

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A. Approval Sheet
Title Page
Abstract

I. Introduction

The Problem and Its Background

Review of Related Literature
Method and Research Design

II. The Lecture Strategy : Its Effect

Description of the Lecture Process
Performance rating results

III. Role Playing and Communication Skills.

The Role Playing Strategy
Performance Rating Results

IV. Audio – Visual Devices

Description of the Process
Performance Rating Results

V. Group Dynamics Strategy

Description of the Strategy,
Performance Rating Results

VI. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

Bibliography
Appendix

The second type of organization is organization is topically based on the sub-problems

of the thesis.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Explain the basic guideline in Thesis Organization

2. Which type of organization do you prefer? Why?

LESSON 2 LANGUAGE IN RESEARCH REPORT
WRITING

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In research report written communication skills are important of course. It is generally

assumed that when one reaches the graduate school level, these skills are fully developed.
The discussion in this lesson serves as a reminder about the scientific and the dynamic use of
language in research report writing.

In scientific writing the following considerations in the use of language are suggested.

- precision and concreteness

- unity and coherence
- formal and objective language

Any book on scientific and technical writing will present a detailed explanation of
these factors.

Here is a brief over view that will remind us of these language requirements

Precision and Concreteness

Precision means avoiding unnecessary repetitions, Wordineans or redundancy

manifests a lack of precision. Here are some redundant expressions found in scientific
research reports

redundant corrections

- make contact with meet

- collaborate together collaborate
- repeat it again repeat it
- absolutely essential essential
- completely eliminated
eliminated now
- at the present time to
- with the object of raised his hand
- raised up his hand blue
- blue in color few
- few in number

There are many other redundant expressions found in academic writing

For a more comprehensive consult. Gordon H. Mills and John A. Walter, Technical
Writing. Rev. Ed. New York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980 pp. 15 – 47

To be concrete is to avoid ambivalent words or words with double meanings. It means

avoiding abstraction and indefinite references.

Unity and Coherence

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Unity means “oneness” wholeness or harmony; while coherence means the sticking
together of ideas. In a sense they are synonymous.

Sometimes the researcher gets over enthusiastic in the presentation of the research
findings. Because of this he/she tends to become haphazard in the writing style.

Here are some reminders to achieve unity and coherence in writing

- Have a specific idea to be developed in each paragraph

- Avoid wordy and complex sentences
- Have a” topic sentence” for each paragraph
- Use complex sentences with discretion
- Use transitional devices, such as conjunctions, linking sentences and paragraphs.

In quantitative research, tables and graphic illustration can also serve as means of
providing unity and coherence.

Objective and Formal Language

Research reports are intended for academic, professional and technically-oriented

readers. “Imaginative” language has no place in scientific report writing.

Here are some guidelines in the use of formal and objective language

- Avoid expressions that arouse emotion

- Avoid abstract figurative metaphoric language
- Maintain a calm and restrained tone
- Use the personal pronoun “I” with discretion
- Use the third (he/she) person pronoun to replace the first person “I” when possible.
- Avoid slang and idiomatic expressions

The third person and the passive voice of the verb are suggested in order to project a
formal and objective presentation. However, there is no need to stick to this suggestion. The
active voice conveys a more energetic tone.

Consider the examples below

Passive Voice

The teachers were exhilarated by the presence of the university president at the
Faculty Development seminar.

Active Voice

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The presence of the university president at the Faculty Development seminar

exhilarated the teachers.

First Person Singular

(Active Voice)

I. distributed the questionnaires among the participants.

Third Person
(Passive)

The questionnaires where distributed by the researcher among the participants

Third Person
(Active)

The researcher distributed the questionnaires among the respondents

These examples serve as brief reminders on the formal and objective use of language
in research.

In summary, the most effective research report is one that is well organized and
coherent and uses language that is precise, formal, objective and adapted to the intended
readers.

LEARNING ACT IVITIES

1. Explain the role of formal language in research report writing.

2. Give examples of idiomatic and metaphoric language that should be avoided in

research report writing.

LESSON 3 FORMAT AND STYLE

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The format and style of presenting the thesis/ dissertation follow the conventional
guidelines of academic writing. These terms refer to the page layout and the use illustrations
or graphic aids.

Headings

Headings indicate the relationship between the topics discussed. They also suggest the
organizational positioning of these topics. Generally these are three levels of heading : Main
Head (Centered Head), Free – Standing Side head (flashed to the left margin) and the
Paragraph Head (at the beginning of the paragraph). The layout of this page illustrates this.

Main head. The title at the top of this page – Format and Style is the main head
(centered head)

Free-Standing Sidehead. This is the second level of importance which is flushed to

the left margin. On this page this illustrated by the sub-heads- Headings, and Graphic-
illustrations

Paragraph heads. This is the third level of importance. And on this page the terms,
Main head, Free – standing side head and Paragraphs head are illustrations of the paragraph
head.

If there is a fourth level this is indicated by simple enumeration.

Here is one reminder in dividing topics for discussion: Logically there must be at least
two divisions.

Graphic Illustrations

Graphic Aids in the presentation of research findings “communicate facts dramatically

emphatically. They serve as the aesthetic device to break the monotony of the printed page.
They also clarify the textual discussion especially in quantitative research.
The following are the graphic aids often used;
- Tables - Graphs
- Charts - Pictograms
Here are some examples.

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PIE CHART

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CY 1999

PIE CHART

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Agency’s SHARE IN NATIONAL GOVERNMENT TAX REVENUES, CY 1998

CY 1999

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COMPARATIVE
NUMBER OF
TAX RETURNS

For the Period

of January to
December 1998-
1999

Bar Graph

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agres, Alexander. 1995. Learning Module in Methods of Research. Manila: Phil. Women’s
University.

Barrones, H.S. 1985. How to Design a Problem based Curriculum.

Baker, Theresa L. 1994. Doing Social Research. York: McGrac-Hill Book Co.
. New
Bell, Earl, 1995. The Practice of Social Research. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Bell, Judith. 1993. Doing Your Research Project Buckingham: Open University Press.

Breskwell, Jack R. and Norman E. Wallen. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.

Bums, Alvin C and Ronald Bush. 1997. Marketing Research. London: Prentice Hall
International

Kearsley, Greg. 2000. Online E Learning and Teaching with Technology. New York:
Wadsworth Research Center.

____________. 2000. Teaching and Learning Cyberspace. New York: Wadsworth Ed.
Research Center.

Kuahl, Robert, 2000. Design of Experiments: Statistical Principles of Research Design and
Analysis. Second Edition. Desbury, CA.: Pacific Grove

Lewis-Beck, Michael S. 1994. Research Practice. London: Sage University Papers

McMillan, James H. 1993. Research in Education: A Conceptual Introduction. New York:

Doneley & Sons., Co.

Polo, Elena P. 1994. Writing Proposals: A Concise Guide. Fourth Edition. Manila: UST
Publishing House.

Rittsaran, Daniel. 1992. Research Methodology. New York: MacMillan.

Sherman, David. 2000. Learning Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook. London:

Sage Publishing.

Wiersma, William. 1995. Research Methods in Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Veit, Richard. 1990. Research the Student Guide to Writing Research Papers. New York:
MacMillan.

Methods of Research