Chapter 4 Atoms and Elements

p. 100
4.1 Elements and symbols
4.2 The Periodic table
4.3 The atom
4.4 Atomic number and mass number
4.5 Isotopes and atomic mass
4.6 Electron Energy Levels
4.7 Electron Configuration
4.8 Trends in periodic properties
Chemistry Link to Health
- Toxicity of mercury
- Elements essential to health
- Biological reactions to UV light
Chemistry Link to the Environment
- Many forms of carbon
1
4.1 Elements and Symbols
p. 100
Elements
- are pure substances from which all other things are built.
- cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
- are listed on the periodic table on the inside front cover of this textbook.
Element symbols
- are one- or two-letter abbreviations for the names of the elements.
- Only the first letter of an element’s symbol is capitalized.
- Most of the symbols use letters from the current names, some are
derived from their ancient names. Eg., sodium (Na) is derived from the
Latin word natrium. Iron (Fe) is derived from the Latin name ferrum.

2
 p. 100
Some Elements and Their Names
• Element names come from planets, mythological figures, minerals,
colors, geographic locations, and famous people.

3
 p. 100

Aluminum (Al) Carbon (C) Gold (Au) Sliver (Ag) Sulfur (S) 4 4
 p. 101
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.1 Names and Symbols of Chemical Elements
Complete the following table with the correct name or symbol for each element:

Study Check 4.1

Write the chemical symbols for the elements silicon, sulfur, silver, and seaborgium.

Silver Sulfur

Answer Si, S, Ag, and Sg 5

Chemistry Link to Health
Toxicity of Mercury
Mercury (Hg)
- is a silvery, shiny element that is a liquid at room temperature.
- can be inhaled (vapor), contact with the skin, ingested food or water contaminated with Hg.
- destroys proteins & disrupts cell function
- in water, bacteria convert mercury toxic methylmercury which attacks CNS
- fish absorb methylmercury, then we eat fish…..
- fish higher in the food chain, such as swordfish and shark, can have such high levels
of Hg. (Don t eat more than once per week).
- In the United States between 1988 and 1997, the use of mercury decreased by 75%
when the use of mercury was banned in paint and pesticides, and regulated in
batteries and compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFL) contain mercury, and
instructions for their safe disposal should be followed.

The element mercury is a slivery,

shiny liquid at room temperature. 6
4.2 The Periodic Table
Periods and Groups
• Each horizontal row in the periodic table is a period.
• Each vertical column on the periodic table contains a group (or family).
- A group number is written at the top of each vertical column (group) in the periodic table.
- The representative elements have had group numbers 1A to 8A.
- In the center of the periodic table is a block of elements known as the transition
elements. (Group numbers followed by the letter “B”).
- A newer system assigns number of 1-18.
- The two rows of 14 elements called the lanthanides and actinides (or the inner transition
elements, which are part of periods 6 and 7, are placed at the bottom of the periodic
table to allow it to fit on a page.

7
 p. 102
The Periodic Table (The arrangement of 118 elements)

Fig. 4.1 On the periodic table, groups are the elements arranged as vertical
columns, and periods are the elements in each horizontal row. 8
Identify the element described by each of the following groups and periods:
1. Group 7A (17), Period 4
2. Group 2A (2), Period 3
3. Group 5A (15), Period 2

9
 p. 103
Names of Groups
• Several groups in the periodic table have special names.

Fig. 4.2 Certain groups on the periodic table have common names. 10
 Alkali Metals p. 103

Group 1A (1), the alkali metals, includes the following:

• lithium (Li)
• sodium (Na)
• potassium (K)
• rubidium (Rb)
• cesium (Cs)

Fig. 4.3 Lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium

(K) are some alkali metals from Group 1A (1).

• Alkali metals are soft, shiny metals that are good conductors of heat and
electricity, and have relatively low melting points.
- They react vigorously with water and form white products when they
combine with oxygen.
11
 p. 103-104

Alkaline Earth Metals

Group 2A (2) elements, the alkaline earth metals, are shiny but not as reactive as
Group 1A metals. They include the following:
• beryllium (Be)
• magnesium (Mg)
• calcium (Ca)
• strontium (Sr)
• barium (Ba)
• radium (Ra)

Strontium provides the red color in fireworks.

12
 p. 103
Halogens
The halogens are found in Group 7A (17):
• fluorine (F)
• chlorine (Cl)
• bromine (Br)
• iodine (I)
• astatine (At).
- They are highly reactive and form compounds with
most of elements.
Nobel gases
The Noble gases are found in Group 8A (18):
• helium (He)
• neon (Ne)
• argon (Ar)
• krypton (Kr)
• xenon (Xe) Fig. 4.4 Chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2)
• radon (Rn). are examples of halogens from Group 7A (17).
- They are quite unreactive and are seldom found in combination with
other elements. 13
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids p. 103-
104
• Metals are located to the left.
- are shiny and ductile, and conduct heat and electricity.
- are solids, except for mercury (Hg), which is a liquid.
• Nonmetals are located to the right.
- are dull, brittle, and poor conductors but often good insulators.
- have low densities and melting points.
• Metalloids are located along the heavy zigzag line.

Along the heavy zigzag line on the periodic table that separated the metals and
nonmetals are metalloids, which exhibit characteristics of both metals and nonmetals.
14
 p. 104

Metalloids
- locate along the heavy zigzag line on the periodic table (except for
aluminum and oganesson).
- exhibit properties of metals and nonmetals.
- are better conductors than nonmetals but not as good as metals.
- are used as semiconductors and insulators, because they can be modified
to function as conductors or insulators.

A silver is metal, antimony is a

metalloid and sulfur is a nonmetal. 15
p. 104

16
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.2 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids p. 104

Use the periodic table to classify each of the following elements by its group
and period, group name (if any), and as a metal, a nonmetal, or a metalloid:
a. Na, important in nerve impulses, regulates blood pressure
Na (sodium), Group 1A (1), Period 3, is an alkali metal.
b. I, needed to produce thyroid hormones
I (iodine), Group 7A (17), Period 5, halogen, is a nonmetal.
c. Si, needed for tendons and ligaments
Si (silicon), Group 4A (14), Period 3, is a metalloid.
Study Check 4.2
Strontium is an element that gives a brilliant red color to fireworks.
a. In what group is strontium found?
b.What is the name of this chemical family?
Answer
c. In what period is strontium found?
d.Is strontium a metal, a nonmetal, or a metalloid? a. Group 2A (2)
b. alkaline earth metals
c. Period 5
d. a metal
17
Chemistry Link to Health p. 105
Elements Essential to Health

Of all the elements,

• 20 are essential for the well-being and survival of the human body.
• four—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen—make up 96% of our body mass.
• most of our hydrogen and oxygen is found as water, which makes up 55 to 60% of
our body mass.
18
 p. 105

Macrominerals—Ca, P, K, Cl, S, Na, and Mg—located in Period 3 and Period 4

- are involved in the formation of bones and teeth.
- maintenance of heart and blood vessels, muscle contraction, nerve impulses,
and acid–base balance of body fluids.
- regulation of cellular metabolism.

Microminerals or Trace elements

- are mostly transition elements in Period 4 with Si (Period 3) and Mo and
I (Period 5).
- are present in the human body in very small amounts, some less than 100 mg.
- Arsenic, chromium, and selenium are toxic at high levels in the body but are
still required by the body.
- Tin and nickel are thought to be essential, nut metabolic role has not yet
been determined.

19
p. 105

p.106

20
4.3 The Atom p. 107
• All the elements listed on the periodic table are made up of atoms.
• An atom is the smallest particles of an element that retains the characteristics of that
element.
• John Dalton (1766-1844) developed an atomic theory that proposed that atoms were
responsible for the combinations of elements found in compounds.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matters are made of tiny particles called atoms
2. All atoms of a given element are similar to one another and different from atoms
of other elements.
3. Atoms of two or more different elements combine to form compounds. A chemical
reaction involves the rearrangement, separation, or combination of atoms. Atoms are
never created or destroyed during a chemical reaction.

Aluminum foil consists Fig. 4.5 Images of gold atoms are magnified
of atoms of aluminum. 16 millions of times by a scanning tunneling
microscope (STM). 21
 p. 107

Electrical Charges in an Atom

Atoms contain the following subatomic particles:
• protons that have a positive
(+) charge
• electrons that have a negative
(–) charge
• neutrons that have no charge (neutral)

- Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Fig. 4.6 Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

22
 p. 105-106
Structure of the Atom
• In 1897, J.J. Thomson, an English physicist, applied electricity to a glass tube,
which produced streams of small particles, called cathode rays.
• These rays were attracted to a positively charged electrode. Thomson realized
that the particles in the rays must be negatively charged.
- Later, these particles called electrons were found to be much smaller than the atom
and to have extremely small masses.
- Because atoms are neutral, scientists soon discovered that atoms contained positively
charged particles called protons that were much heavier than the electrodes.

Negatively charged cathode rays (electrons)

are attracted to the positive electrode.

23
 p. 108

• Thomson proposed a “plum-pudding” model for the atom in

which the electrons and protons were randomly distributed in a
positively charged cloud like “plums in a pudding” or “Chocolate
chips in a cookie”.

Thomson’s “plum-pudding” model had protons and

electrons scattered throughout the atom.

24
 p. 108
Rutherford’s Gold Foil
- In Rutherford’s gold foil experiment, positively charged particles were aimed at
atoms of gold. mostly went straight through the atoms.
- were deflected only occasionally.
• Rutherford’s experiment concluded that there must be a small, dense, positively
charged nucleus in the atom that deflects positive particles that come close to the
dense positive center.

Fig. 4.7 a) Positive particles are aimed at a piece of gold foil. (b) Particles
that come close to the atomic nuclei are deflected from their straight path. 25
 p. 109

• An atom consists of a nucleus, located in the center of the atom, that

contains protons and neutrons and represents most of the mass of an atom.
• electrons that occupy a large, empty space around the nucleus.
The nucleus of a typical lithium atom
contains three protons and four neutrons.

Fig. 4.8 In an atom, the protons and neutrons that make up almost all the mass are
packed into the tiny volume of the nucleus. This rapidly moving electrons (negative
charge) surround the nucleus and account for the large volume of the atom.
26
 p. 109
Mass of the Atom
• One proton has a mass of 1.67 x 10-24 g, and the neutron is about the same.
• One electron has a mass of 9.11 x 10-28 g.
• Because the masses of subatomic particles are so small, chemists use a very small
unit of mass called an atomic mass unit (amu). 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 g
- An amu is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon atom, which has a
nucleus containing 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
- In biology, the atomic mass unit is called a Dalton (Da) in honor of John Dalton.
- On the amu scale, the proton and neutron each have a mass of about 1 amu.
- The electron mass is so small (0.000 55 amu) so it is usually ignored in atomic
mass calculations.

27
 p. 110
4.4 Atomic Number and Mass Number
• The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in every atom
of that element.
• The atomic number is the whole number that appears above the symbol of each
element on the periodic table.
Atomic number = number of protons in an atom
• We can use an atomic number to identify the number of protons in an atom of any
element. For example, a Li atom with the atomic number 3, has 3 protons.
• An atom is electrically neutral. For every atom, the atomic number also gives the
number of electrons.

All atom of lithium (left) contain 3 protons, and all atoms of carbon (right) contain 6 protons. 28
Atoms Are Neutral
• For neutral atoms, the net charge is zero. p. 110
number of protons = number of electrons
• For example, aluminum has 13 protons and 13 electrons. The net
(overall) charge is zero.
13 protons (13+) + 13 electrons (13–) = 0
Mass Number
• represents the number of particles in the nucleus.
• is equal to the number of protons + the number of neutrons.
• is always a whole number.
• the mass of a single atom does not
appear in the periodic table.

29
p. 111

30
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.3 Calculating Numbers of Protons, p. 111
Neutrons, and Electrons
Zinc, a micromineral, is needed for metabolic reactions in cells, DNA synthesis, the
growth of bone, teeth, and connective tissue, and the proper functioning of the
immune system. For an atom of zinc that has a mass number of 68, determine the
number of:
a. protons Zinc (Zn), with an atomic number of 30, has 30 protons.
b. neutrons Mass number − atomic number = number of neutrons
68 − 30 = 38
c. electrons A zinc atom has 30 electrons.

Study Check 4.3

a. How many neutrons are in the nucleus of a bromine atom that has a
mass number of 80?

b. What is the mass number of a cesium atom that has 71 neutrons? Answer
a. 45
b. 126
31
 p. 111-112
Chemistry Link to the Environment
Many Forms of Carbon
• Carbon (C) atoms can be arranged in different ways to give several different substances called
allotropes.
- In diamond, carbon atoms are arranged in a rigid structure. A diamond is transparent and harder than
any other substances.
- Graphite is black and soft. In graphite, carbon atoms are arranged in sheets that slide over each other.
- Buckminsterfullerene or buckyball (named after R. Buckminster Fuller, who popularized the
geodesic dome). 60 carbon atoms are arranged as rings of five and six atoms to give a spherical, cage-
like structure.
- When a fullerene structure is stretched out, it produces a cylinder with a diameter of only a few
nanometers called a nanotube.
* Practical uses of buckyballs and nanotubes are not yet developed, but they are expected to find
use in lightweight structural materials, heat conductors, computer parts, and medicine.
* Recent research has shown that carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can carry many drug molecules that can
be released once the CNTs enter the targeted cells.

Carbon atoms can form different types of structure. Graphite,

diamond, buckyball and nanotube are all allotropes of carbon.
32
 p. 112
Complete the following table for atoms of essential elements in the body:

Zinc 30 30 36 30
Magnesium Mg 24 12 12
K 19 39 19 19
Sulfur S 16 31 16
Iron Fe 26 26 30

Nitrogen 7 7 8 7
Ca 20 20 22 20
Iodine I 53 125 53
Silicon Si 30 14 14
Copper Cu 29 36 29
33
4.5 Isotopes and Atomic Mass p. 113
Isotopes
• are atoms of the same element
• have different mass numbers
• have same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
• An atomic symbol indicates the mass number in the upper
left corner and the atomic number in the lower left corner.

The nuclei of three naturally occurring

magnesium isotopes have the same
number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. 34
 p. 113
Sample Problem 4.4
Chromium, a micromineral needed for maintenance of blood sugar levels,
has four naturally occurring isotopes. Calculate the number of protons and
and number of neutrons in each of these isotopes.
a. 50Cr b. 52Cr c. 53Cr d. 54Cr
24 24 24
24

Study Check 4.4

Vanadium is a micromineral needed in the formation of bones and teeth.
Write the atomic symbol for the single naturally occurring isotope of
vanadium, which has 27 neutrons. Vanadium along with calcium is import in forming
strong bones and preventing osteoporosis.

Answer 35
 p. 114
Atomic Mass
• is the weighted average of all naturally occurring isotopes of that element.
• is the number on the periodic table below the chemical symbol with two
decimal places.

Calculating Atomic Mass

• To calculate the atomic mass of an element, the
percentage abundance and the mass of each isotope
needs to be determined experimentally.

To calculate atomic mass

- use the experimental percent abundance of each isotope
of the element.
- multiply the percent abundance by the atomic mass of
that isotope.
- sum the total mass of all isotopes.

Chlorine, with two naturally occurring isotopes, has an atomic mass of 35.45 amu. 36
 p. 115
To calculate atomic mass of chlorine, use experimental data for both isotopes.

37
 p. 115-116
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.5 Calculating Atomic Mass
Magnesium is a micromineral needed in the contraction of muscles and metabolic
reactions. Use Table 4.7, calculate the atomic mass for magnesium using the
weighted average method.

Atomic mass of Mg = 18.88 amu + 2.531 amu + 2.902 amu

= 24.31 amu (weighted average mass)

Study Check 4.5

10
There are two naturally occurring isotopes of boron. The isotope 5B has a mass of
10.01 amu with an abundance of 19.80%, and the isotope 115B has a mass of 11.01
amu with an abundance of 80.20%. Calculate the atomic mass for boron using the
weighted average mass method.

Answer 10.81 amu 38

 p. 117
4.6 Electron Energy Levels
• We experience electromagnetic radiation in different forms, such as light,
the colors of a rainbow, or X-rays.
• Electromagnetic radiation consists of energy particles that move as waves of energy.
• All forms of electromagnetic radiation travel in space at the speed of light,
3.0 x 108 m/s, but different in energy and wavelength.
- The distance between the peaks of waves is called the wavelength.
- High-energy radiation has shorter wavelengths.
- Low-energy radiation has longer wavelengths.

FIGURE 4.9 The electromagnetic spectrum shows the arrangement of wavelengths of

39
electromagnetic radiation. The visible portion consists of wavelengths from 700 nm to 400 nm
Chemistry Link to Health p.122
Biological Reactions to UV Light
• Our everyday life depends on sunlight, but exposure to sunlight can have damaging effects on living cells.
• The light energy, especially ultraviolet (UV), excites electrons and may lead to unwanted chemical
reactions.
• The damaging effects of sunlight include sunburn, wrinkling, premature aging of the skin, changes in the
DNA of the cells, which can lead to skin cancers, inflammation of the eyes, and perhaps cataracts.
• Some drugs, like the acne medications Accutane and Retin-A, as well as antibiotics, diuretics,
sulfonamides, and estrogen, make the skin extremely sensitive to light.
• Phototherapy can be used to treat certain skin conditions, such as psoriasis, eczema, and dermatitis.
- In the treatment of psoriasis, oral drugs are given to make the skin more photosensitive and then
exposure to UV follows.
- Low-energy light is used to break-down bilirubin in neonatal jaundice.
- Sunlight is also a factor in stimulating the immune system.
• Seasonal Effective disorder (SAD), people experience mood swings and depression during the winter,
is possibly the results of a decrease of serotonin, or an increase in melatonin, when there are fewer hours
of sunlight.
- One treatment for SAD is therapy using bright light provided by a lamp called a light box.
- A daily exposure to intense light for 30 to 60 min seems to reduce symptoms of SAD.

A light box is used to provide light,

which reduces symptoms of SAD

Babies with neonatal jaundice

are treated with UV light. 40
 p. 121

Atomic Spectrum
• When the light from the Sun passes a prism, the light separated into a
continuous color spectrum, which consists of the color we see in a rainbow.
• When light from a heated element passes through a prism, it separates into
distinct lines of color separated by dark areas called atomic spectrum.
• Each element has it own unique atomic spectrum.

In a atomic spectrum, light from a heated element separates in to distinct lines.

41
 p. 118
Electron Energy Levels
• The lines in an atomic spectrum are associated with the changes in energies of the
electrons.
• In an atom, each electron has a specific energy, known as its energy level, which
is assigned principal quantum numbers (n) = (n = 1, n = 2, …).
- increases in energy as the value of n increases and electrons are farther away
from the nucleus.
- The energy of an electron is quantized—electrons can have only specific energy
values.
- Electrons with the same energy are grouped in the same energy level.

Principal Quantum Numbers (n)

1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < 6 < 7
Lowest Highest
energy energy

42
 p. 119
Changes in Electron Energy Level
• Electrons move to a higher energy level when they absorb energy.
• When electrons fall back to a lower energy level, light is emitted.
• The energy emitted or absorbed is equal to the differences between the
two energy levels.

FIGURE 4.10 Electrons absorb a specific amount of energy

Flame test to move to a higher energy level. When electrons lose
energy, a specific quantity of energy is emitted. 43
Sublevels p. 119
It is the arrangement of electrons that determines the physical and
chemical properties of an element.
• Each energy level consists of one or more sublevels.
• The number of sublevels in an energy level is equal to the principal
quantum number n of that energy level.
• The sublevels are identified as s, p, d, and f.
• The order of sublevels in an energy level is
s < p < d < f
Lowest Highest
energy energy

FIGURE 4.11 The number of sublevels in an energy level is the same as the principal quantum number, n44
 p. 120
Orbitals
The location of an electron is described in terms of probability.
• Orbitals are a three-dimensional volume in which electrons have the
highest probability of being found.

s Orbitals
• The s orbitals are shown as spheres.

Figure 4.2 (a) The electron cloud of an s orbital represents the

highest probability of finding an s electron. (b) The s orbitals are
shown as spheres. The sizes of the s orbitals increase because
they contain electrons at higher energy levels.

45
p Orbitals p. 120

There are three p orbitals, starting with n = 2.

• Each p orbital has two lobes, like a balloon tied in the middle, and can
hold a maximum of two electrons.
• The three p orbitals are arranged perpendicular to each other along the
x, y, and z axes around the nucleus.

Figure 4.13 A p orbital has two regions of high probability, which gives a “dumbbell”
shape. (a) Each p orbital is aligned along a different axis from the other p orbitals. (b)
All three p orbitals are shown around the nucleus.
46
 p. 120-121
• In summary, the n = 2 energy level. which has 2s and 2p sublevels,
consists of one s orbital and three p orbitals.

• Energy level n = 3 consists of three sublevels, s, p, and d.

FIGURE 4.14 Four of the five d orbitals consist of four lobes that are aligned along or between
different axes. One d orbital consists of two lobes and a doughnut-shaped ring around its center.
47
 p. 121
Sample Problems 4.6 Energy Levels, sublevels, and orbitals
a. 3p sublevel (The 3p contains three 3p orbitals)
b. n = 2 (The n = 2 energy level consists of one 2s and three 2p orbitals
c. n = 3 (The n = 3 energy level consists of one 3s and three 3p and five 3d orbitals)
d. 4d sublevel (The 4d sublevel contain five 5d orbitals)

Study Check 4.6

a. What is similar and what is different for 1s, 2s, and 3s orbitals?
The 1s, 2s and 3s orbitals are all spherical, but they increase in volume
because the electron is most likely to be found farther from the nucleus
for higher energy level.

b. How many orbitals would be in the 4f sublevel?

The 4f sublevel has seven orbitals.

48
 p. 121-122
Orbital Capacity and Electron Spin
• The Pauli exclusion principle states that each orbital can hold a maximum
of two electrons.
• When two electrons are in the same orbital, they will repel each other unless
their magnetic fields cancel. This happens only when the two electrons spin in
opposite direction.
• We can represent the spins of the electrons
in the same orbital with

49
 p. 122
Number of Electrons in Sublevels
• There is a maximum number of electrons that can occupy each sublevel.
- s (one orbital), p (three orbitals), d (five orbitals), and f (7 orbitals)
- Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.

50
4.7 Electron Configurations
p. 123

FIGURE 4.15 The orbitals in an atom fill in order of increasing energy beginning with 1s
51
Orbital Diagrams p. 123-124
• use boxes to show how electrons are arranged in the orbitals of an atom.
• fill the orbitals and energy levels from lowest to highest energy level.
• fill orbitals within the same sublevel one at a time, before pairing the electrons.

Electron Configurations
Chemists use a notation called electron configuration to
• indicate the placement of electrons in an atom.
• show how electrons fill energy levels and sublevels in order of increasing energy.
• write an abbreviated form using a noble gas to represent all electrons preceding it.

Electron Configuration for Carbon

52
 p. 124
Period 1: Hydrogen and Helium

Period 2: Lithium to Neon

53
 p. 125
Period 3: Sodium to Argon

54
 p. 125-126

Sample Problem 4.7 Orbital Diagrams and Electron configuration.

Silicon is a micromineral needed for the growth of bones, tendons, and ligaments, Draw
or write each of the following for silicon: Si (atomic number is 14 => 14 electrons)

a. orbital diagram

b. abbreviated orbital diagram

c. electron configuration

d. abbreviated electron configuration

Study Check 4.7

a. Write the complete and abbreviated electron configurations for sulfur, a macromineral
in proteins, vitamin B1, and insulin.

b. Write the complete and abbreviated electron configurations for phosphorus needed for
bones and teeth.
Answer 55
Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table p. 126
1. The s block contains elements in Groups 1A (1) and 2A (2). This means the final one
or two electrons are in the s sublevel.
2. The p block consists of elements in Group 3A (13) to Group 8A (18). There are six p
block elements in each period, because three p orbitals can hold a maximum of six
electrons.
3 The d block, which contains transition elements, first appears after calcium (atomic
number 20). There are 10 elements in the d block, because five d orbitals can hold
a maximum of 10 electrons.
4 The f block, the inner transition elements, is the two rows of elements at the
bottom of the periodic table. There are 14 elements in each f block, because seven
f orbitals can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.

56
Electron Configurations: Period 4 and Above
p. 127
Beginning in Period 4,
• the 4s sublevel fills before the 3d sublevel, because the 4s sublevel is slightly
lower in energy than the 3d sublevel.
• the 5s sublevel fills before the 4d sublevel.
• the 6s sublevel fills before the 5d sublevel.

57
p. 127

58
p. 127

59
 p. 127-128
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.8 Using Sublevel Blocks to Write Electron Configurations
Selenium is a micromineral used in the immune system and cardiac health. Use the
sublevel blocks on the periodic table to write the electron configuration for selenium.
Selenium is in Period 4 and Group 6A (16).

The electron configuration for selenium (Se) is 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4.

Study Check 4.8
Use the sublevel blocks on the periodic table to write the electron configuration for
each of the following:
a. cobalt, a micromineral needed for vitamin B12

b. iodine, a micromineral needed for thyroid function Answer

a. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d7
b. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p5
60
 p. 128
Some Exceptions in Sublevel Block Order (3d)

• For chromium (Cr), moving one of the 4s electrons to the 3d sublevel adds
stability with a half-filled d subshell, and the resulting configuration is 4s13d5.

• For copper (Cu), moving one of the 4s electrons to the 3d sublevel adds stability
with a filled d subshell, and the resulting configuration is 4s13d10.

61
Learning Check
Use the periodic table to give the symbol and name for the element
with the electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d7.

There are seven electrons in the 3d sublevel. Thus, the element is

cobalt (Co).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

62
 p. 130
Group Numbers and Valence Electrons
• For representative elements in Groups 1A (1)–8A (18), chemical
properties are mostly due to the valence electrons.
• Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy level.
• The group number gives the number of valence electrons for the
representative elements.

63
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.9 Using Group Numbers p. 130
Using the periodic table, write the group number, the period, the number of valence
electrons, and the valence electron configuration for each of the following:
a. calcium
Group 2A (2), Period 4; two valence electrons
a valence electron configuration of 4s2
b. iodine S
Group 7A (17), Period 5; seven valence electrons Ca
Sr
a valence electron configuration of 5s25p5 I
Pb
c. lead
Group 4A (14), Period 6; four valence electrons
a valence electron configuration of 6s26p2

Study Check 4.9

What are the group numbers, the periods, the number of valence electrons, and the
valence electron configurations for sulfur and strontium?

Answer
Sulfur is in Group 6A (16), Period 3, has six valence electrons and a 3s23p4 valence electron
configuration. Strontium is in Group 2A (2), Period 5, has two valence electrons and a 5s2 valence
electron configuration. 64
 p. 131
Lewis Symbols
Lewis symbols represent the valence electrons as dots placed on sides of the symbol
for an element.
• One to four valence electrons are arranged as single dots.
• Five to eight valence electrons are arranged with at least one pair of electrons
around the symbol for the element.
Lewis Symbols for Magnesium

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 p. 131
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.10 Drawing Lewis Symbols
Draw the Lewis symbol for each of the following:
a. bromine b. aluminum
Br (Group 7A) Al (Group 3 A)

Study Check 4.10

Draw the Lewis symbol for phosphorus, a macromineral needed for bones and teeth.
P (Group 5 A)

66
 p. 132
4.8 Trends in Periodic Properties
The atomic size of representative elements is affected by the attractive
forces between the protons in the nucleus and the electrons in the
outermost energy level.

67
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.11 Size of Atoms p. 133
Identify the smaller atom in each of the following pairs:
a. N or F b. K or Kr c. Ca and Sr
F Kr Ca

Study Check 4.11

Which atom has the largest atomic size, P, As, or Se?
As

68
Ionization Energy p. 133
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove one of the outermost electrons.

• As the distance from the nucleus to the valence electrons increases, the ionization
energy decreases.
• The ionization energy is low for metals and high for the nonmetals.
• Ionization energy decreases down a group and increases going across a period
from left to right.
FIGURE 4.18 As the distance from the nucleus
to the valence electron in Li, Na, and K atoms
increases in Group 1A (1), the ionization energy
decreases, and less energy is required to
remove the valence electron.

69
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.12 Ionization Energy p. 133
Indicate the element in each set that has the higher ionization energy and explain your
choice.
a. K or Na
Na. In Na, an electron is removed from a sublevel closer to the nucleus, which
requires a higher ionization energy for Na compared with K.
b. Mg or Cl
Cl. The increased nuclear charge of Cl increases the attraction for the valence
electrons, which requires a higher ionization energy for Cl compared to Mg.
c. F, N, or C
F. The increased nuclear charge of F increases the attraction for the valence
electrons, which requires a higher ionization energy for F compared to C or N.

Study Check 4.12

a. Arrange Sr, I, and Sn in order of increasing ionization energy.

b. Arrange Ba, Mg, and Ca in order of decreasing ionization energy.

Answer
a. Ionization energy increases going from left to right across a period: Sr, Sn, I.
70
b. Ionization energy decreases going down a group: Mg, Ca, Ba.
 p. 133-134
Metallic Character
An element with metallic character is one that loses valence electrons easily.
• is more prevalent in metals on the left side of the periodic table.
• is less for nonmetals on the right side of the periodic table that do not lose
electrons easily.
• decreases going down a group, as electrons are farther away from the nucleus.
• The metallic character of the representative elements increases going down a
group and decreases going from left to right across a period.

71
p. 134

72
Clinical Update Improving Corp Production p. 135
• Plants need potassium (K) for many processes, including the regulation of growth,
protein synthesis photosynthesis, and ionic balance.
• Potassium-deficient potato plants show purple or brown spots and reduced plant,
root, and seed growth.
• If tests on soil samples show that the potassium levels are below 100 ppm,
indicating that the potato plants need supplemental potassium.
• The farmer (John) applies a fertilizer containing potassium chloride (KCl). after
calculating, he applies 170 kg of fertilizer per hectare.
Clinical Applications
• Potassium has three naturally occurring isotopes. They are K-39, K-40, and K-41.
Using the atomic mass of potassium, determine which isotope of potassium is the
most abundant. (K-39)
• How many neutrons are in K-41? (41 – 19) = 22 neutrons
• Which is the larger atom, K or Cs? (Cs)
• Which is the smallest atom, K, As, Br? (Br)
• If John’s potato field has an area of 34.5 hectares, how
many pounds of fertilizer does John need to use?
170 kg = 1 hectare 1 kg = 2.20 lb
34.5 hectares x 170 kg x 2.20 lb = 12903 lbs
1 hectare 1 kg => 12900 lbs
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