i.

CHAPTER -2

Hydraulics of Flow Regime

In drip irrigation water is distributed tlu·oughout the field from a system of

pressurized pipelines. The pressure must be sufficient to overcome the friction:.t!
losses and elevation differences. The system also deserves discharge from all
the emitters and the emitters must dis~ipatc tht' pressure difference between
the inlet to emitters and atmospheric pi;e-.;sure .
The flow through the drip pipes may be laminar or turbulent or a combination
or both. The laminar flow is characteri71ed by the layers of cylindrical tubes of
which the maximum velocity is at the center about double of th e a\'eragc
velocity. The turbulent flows having pulsatory cross cunent velocities and
maximum velocity is about only 1.25 time of the average velocity. Turbuknt
flows loss more energy than laminar il.ow du e to development of the cross
c urrent velocity.

2.1 Reynolds Number

Thf' LTiterion for distinguishing the flO\,\ from laminar to turbulent was
developed hy Osborne Reynolds ( 184:2-1900) and was named as Rc ynuld.-.;
number, R~. The Reynolds number in circular pipes flowing full is exprc~scci
as

vd
R I
2. 1
V

\Vhere. v = the average velocity of flmv. mis

d = the diameter of pipe, 111

I-' = kinematics viscosity of:wat~r, rn ~is

•
The pipe diameters in drip system are usually low and expres.'> ed m mffl1 111c'.ter-: .
Therefoff, che Ey.2 . I may be re\1,:ritten by
110 B.b
</ .., I~-,
..._( :J' f'
 __________________ __ o_r_
22 ip a_
nd_ Sp~n_k_le_r lr~i~_
at_io~

·1
R _ vd (2.2)
,. -
Kv
\Vhere, the diameter of the pipe is in millimeter
I
and K i~ a co nstant. which
eq uals to I 000 .
The Eq.2. 1 may be written as below by· introducing the d isc harge . q

(q!a ) d
R
' \,'
l
qa
,rd : v
4
4q
ndv ( 2.~)

lf th e d i:--.ch;1rge 1q ) .i s take n in 1/h an d d ia met er (d 1 in 11111 1111 ,cte r. the Lq 2. 1i

-+ c1 I 3.6xl0ti
R = - · --
,,
4q
1Tcl I '.d 000
. , I ~ 41
f.: xd 1 1

The ,·:llue 11f 1..' ()J1Slam K 1-; eq ual t(1 J ()()l) _

2.2 Darcy-Weisbach Equation

Tlw It h \ ( ) ! cnt'. r~y in pipes 1..:an he L·;tku b ted h, thL' \\ --:I i k : h11,•. 11

I \.
D:H\ ·c:y-\ \ .e ish:11..· h l'qu:, t11m ;1:-- iz ., ,- ,
1 .., , ,

(1 - "

\Vhcrc. h --
1 th e crwrg)- lu., ~ m a pipe \1! knf th l
f -- the frirt1nn L'ueffic 11:·. nt
d -- the intern al diamr ter pf pipe
\ = the ~t \ ·crnQe
... \'t' loc itv
.
.~
:::· :::: rtCL'C-lc'rat1,,n due· ft'1 g:r~,, it1.
 Hydraulics of Flow Flegime 23
-- --· - --·- -- - ------ - - -- - -

By inrrnd11cing the di., cliargc q, Eq.2.5 is t--~come •A.

I lj - - -- -
/1 / =f / (- ··/-~ ] '
c. m 2g
4

= 8/ _i_~_g_~
)'
- (2.6)
u/ J'[" j}
''

The frfrlrl>ll cuet-fi c it:11! i J epencb on R and the relative roughness of pipe wall
t'

(Table 2. I)
Table 2.1 T he fll>W r e g1111,·\ d\ defined as a functi o n of R, and the friction factor formul:l

Ff <, w rep 1111c l~ n rnJ/d s number. Re

/ , ;1111111.1 1 ~. $ 2.000
f = 64
R ('

{ l11 \ lah lc
-' 0 1 xJ ( R, $ 4,000
'
l = 3.42xl0 -5 R t.'
'Js,

•>
P.,malh 1urbulen1
4 .1)00<R I
~ I 0.000 f' = 0.3164
R o 25
,·

h1l/ v 1urhulc-111 R ) I 0,000 f = 0.3164

R 02c;

- .. ------- -~--- -- - -- --
- - --- I'

/ ~' Darcy-Weisbach equation for different flow regimes

i. Laminar flow

(,4
If flu,\ i-, laminar, I = N . , 2.7)
'
rlw fnction coetficiern t is independent to relative roughness of pipe. Jr
onl) depend_-, on R.. B: introducing Eq.2.7 in Eq.2.6
 L 23l$1--i.Q ~ m 11111 I~~ I, •n~"'I•
~
' it ' t ·.... 1- • 1", ,:'°'
_. ..
,,.!
I , , · it ' • I ;
,I I

·I

-
~
~ ',
24
______ ____
D, 1p and Sprinkler Irrigation
_________
, ,

~~ h = 64 I V:
d2g
'~
. R,

= vd
64 11-!_ v 1
d -::;-· puttin11R vd
,:, , _- ---

'~
_g
32vl - ~,
1
7 -g
~ 32vl
d: d1
q

►~ gff -
4

~
_ i 28vlq
(2.8)
~ - ;rd .. g

or = l1i7rd.1g = Ch = Jrd4g
~ q 128 vl ''
C
128 vi
(2. 9)

r--:, ID Eq.2.9 , C is a constant in a pipe at a gi\ L'I1 l)perating condition and·

temperature. The kinemi0cs viscosity is great!) infl uenced by the change of
~
temperature. This is known as te nperature sens11_iv1ty
,.._
.....__, Assuming the normalized flow at 20t)C, the flow at other tempe rature is
-... multiplied by a factor. The kinematics viscosity of different temperature (after
~ Daugherty and Franzini, I 979) and the multiplication factors are giv~n as below :
~
-· -...J
Temperature (°C) Kinematic , ,i~ --:o~ity ( V uo-rn:/s
0

~ 0 I .· •~5
10 I . ,:)6
-~ 20 ! 1)0:l

--
~·
30
40
, )..'<0(1
U.f-> 5S
0 , 55:~
50
60 (U74
~~ 70 (). _,ju
-----------
~ Temperature (°C) Tempera ture factor
-------------- ---- ·- - -- - ----- --- -- - -·- - - - --- -
5 (i 6~
""111 10 \ I 75

~
,
...
15
20
(l 87
l 00
25 i 13
~ ...
,,J 30 I 4:1
- - -- - - - ----·-- ,. ·- -- --·- -- -·-·- - ----
Courtesy: Nakayama & Bu~~s ( 1980) & Vem1eiren & JPbli11g ( 1980)
,.i
, ~
 l-
Hydraulics of Flow Regime 25

/ ii. Unstable flow

/

The Reynolds number in the range of 2000-4000 the flow changes from laminar
to rurbulem . The values off are somewhat uncertain in this range. However. it
may be taken as below for first approximation as shown in Table 2.1.

f = 3.42 rlO -~ R oR'i ( 2. IOJ

I/ iii. Turbulent flow

\Vhen the t1oVv occur~ at Reynolds number over 4.000, the value off lkpcnJc')
on the roughnt.':-;s of ripe as well as the vi:')cosi ry and the dcnsit;, <Jf w:lli..:r. The
turbulc>nt tlcJ\\ m Jy be divided as belo\v:
aJ flo w in '-> mnoth pipe
b) flow in relatively rough pipe
c) flow in the ; one berween abo ve two
(a) Fluw iii ~uiUoiii pipe

ln ,·mooth pipe the rl'l atn·e roughnt;S~ rs unimportant and the ,,.~due ul ! can bl·
obtained by Rla~1u ,-., and Karman - Prandt4·eyuation\.

0. 3164 .
Wh en R, 80.00U. I = , ( Blasius)
R,.0 --5 (~-I i I

1
For all \'alLk''- ll f R . .. = 2 log(R \f r )- 0.8 t Karman- Pr and!I 1 (2 12 I
' I

Bis was et aJ (2005) o.;r udied the head Iosse:-- in I 0m m larer~I pipe and --i1111 11 :--ub-
!a1cr;il pipe :1r diffnc>nl pressure ::ind depc>nding on the Reynold, 11 urnh,:::r-., _ tlw
frict10n facror, (fl were found out by using th t· Eq .2. 11. The fn ct 1u 11 ld:-;,l'~ ~:nJ
!"ht: frictron fodor" ,,,,.~re related to the foilu\\'mg equations:
For I 0mm pqx :

Ii = ll.0--+:'..-; 1-/ - (1.0003 t ---, . II '\ '

I

t' =- () _( )()()8f/ + 0.03 -·.

' -, I ..,. l

Fu1 -l-mm pipe

'1 ::-: tl n..i..i2H -- 0 0035 ) ·1-:. ,

~ '

; .- o ooo9H + o.o-i~ {-'~- '. t' i

 Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation
..{""::u
("
- • _______ _ A_ .___ _ -- -·--·- -~---- ------ _,_ ~ -

\\'hen.· . h = fricti on Im,:-. l)L' I 111c tL·r length of the pipe. m/111
1

f = fri ction focto1

H = pressure head. m . '
(b) Flow in rcl~tively rough pipe
The Reynolds number R, i, unimportant when turbulent flow occurs on a rnugh
~urfoce. The values ot f may be calculated by the fo llnwing equation :

l d .
r ;~ = 2 log - + 1. 1-1- 1 ,'v ,~11rnc/ 'ie ) (2 . 17 I
,j _r s

\V lwrc . s = ciimen sm11 11r tile rough ness

Since the abcwe eq uall un 1, independent to R,. value. by putting the f ,·,du e> 111
Darc:-•- \Vei , h ach e qu :1 t11 1n (Eq ..'=i .6) it can be s.,een that the discharge q 1,
prnp(.1 nional to squan:' r c1(1l 1) ! h, and all othe r value:-, are con~tanl for a ~' \ ' t' rl

ripe. Therefore. LJ=C \ , /1 , 1'r q=Cl-,l 1 ~ where C is., a co ns., tant and Hi :-. thl' h~.id
losE- .
(c) Flow in the transition zone between smooth and rough hounc\arie..,
The value or r in thi s particular case 1s influenced by Re a" well a,
rebti \'e ro ughness of pipe. The fo llowing equation can he used for this cnndi tiun .

I
-- = 1.1-l- -
\ •'{
,'
l\ <).~5 ll(
2 l og - + . r . • Colebrook.- \Vhite 1
d l1 . \ : I J
I_:'. J ~ \

Example 2.1 Determme the characteristics of flow regime in a dnp pipe- ,\\ ,l
cfo,charge rate of 600 l/h . diametbr of pipe 15mm and k111ematic ,·i-.,~·n'--i 1y 1 •I
water 5.6x I o-- m 2/s.

! -+(j
Solution: Revnolds m1mlx·r. R _
=·~ /
, 1\. i 'Jr[

-1- \"6l)0
=
3600x.').6xl0-- ,uni 5
=--=25262.68. w hich 1s more t.h;_.m -l-000
S()_ the l1c)\\• i:-- turbuknt
 Hydraulics of Flow Regime 27

Example 2.2 What is value of friction coefficient fin Example 2.1 when flow
takes place through smooth pipe and relatively rough pipe of roughness
dimension O.Smm?

Solution: In Blasius equation for flow thn ugh smooth pipe,

...
f = 0.31 64
· R~2s

= -- ~~ } ~ ~ - = 0.3164 = 0.025
(2.526-L68) 0 25 l 2.61

For relati vely rough pipe.

I
~ -- J·-/ o g -d
- 17 + 1. 14
y.l s

)l l5
or. r = ;_ og - + I. 14
-\// 0.5

= ~.95+ I. / 4=4.09

l ;· -
: . f = ( -- =- 0. 06
4.09

Example .2.3 Compar<-' rhe friction coefficients following Blasius (Eq .2. 11)
and Bisv-.,as et al ( Eq 2 I--i & 2. 16 ) equations for the flo w of 500 1/h and 200 I/
h rn 10 and 4mm pipe H>,pectively. The in / :t pre~sure for both the p1pts ' " Rm.
A ""ume kinematic \·1.st-,J, it v of water 5.6,\ I O·-rn-:-; ,·,
.Solution:

10mm pipe :

r:, == .2L 1
,rm.Iv
4x500
~
- 3h00lz:t5 .6.rl o-~ xI 0
)()( ,o
.:::: .: - - ::: 3 1578.J 6
() ()(l_i
'
-41
 ~
~~
Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation
28 -- - - - - -- -- ·- --- - --- -
~~
~ ( = 0.3164
R
~
Blasiu~ equation. 025
r

~ 0 .3164
- - O 25

~ - J 1578.36 .
= 0.0237
~
0 .3164
= - 13.33 ,
~ Biswas et al, f -= --0.0008H + 0.03
- ~
~· ~~
= -- 0 .0008x8 + 0.03
....
~ = ·--0.0064 + 0.( -3 = 0.0236

~ 4 mm pipe:

~ R = 4q
~
·-~~ ,., ' Kmiv
4x200
7
(1-~ J600JZX5.6xl0- x4
= J I578 .36
tt-1~
-~
Blasius equation .
r~ Biswas et al.. / = - 0 .0009H + 0.042
r. '"f-✓ = - 0.0008x8 + 0.042
,. ~ = 0.0348
(l Example 2.4 Determine the energy loss in a drip lainimu- pipe fl ow \.vhen
·- .;) Reynolds number is 1600, length of pipe 15m, diameter of pipe 16mm an1

~--;-..;;,
, . , i/ -i
velocity of water 45cm/s.
64

~tr_; Solution: The flow is L.,~1ninar, so, f = R ,·

64 . = o 04
'- /~ = 1600

l~'
!I ...,. ,
""-l ~ r

1111· ·~· ff'¾· ,,;~½; re a :.;fj •· ii

 ·,gation Hydraulics of Flow Regime 29
- - - -- --·------- -- - -- -- -

2
l v
The energy loss. h, =f - -
d 2g

= 0 _04 15m __ J4c111/_,-

l6mm 2x9.8 lm Is ·

== 0.04x 15 X (0.4- 5 /
I 6 /1000 2x9.8 1
= 0.387m
.I
/If: 2.3 Hazen-William Formula
-~
There are some empirical fornrnlae to pipf' flow. ,vhich have been developed
by using laboratory or field data though Dc..1rcy-\Veisbach equation giv~s rational
c;olution of pipe flow. Among these HazenhVilli am fonnu la is commonly used :
•• I ") ') / , fJ (J (> 'i r Ii , .! I I"'"\ I I\ \
I - l . 1L I... 1\ ;, ,) I l -· 1 'I)

Where. v = the vc lucity

C = the discharge constant
R1i =- rhe hydra ulic radius

S, = the s;Jope of the energy line i'.e .. the head los:s di vided by tht: pipL:
length
The value·., o( Care given in Table 2 ..2 .
'fohle 2.2 \ . illlL' '- ()J ( fo r H~ zc11-Will1an, fo n11uL1

Dncnpr1on of Pipe C
---- ------ ---·- - --·•- - - - --
P() IV\ 111_v l diloride ripe • I-'; -,
, .) L: \!Jt'lllL'ly.;month and straighr I -i I I
'
Very smonrh I , 1,
S1111x1th Wt)<ld and \\'OOd st::n·c• l~ll
VnrifieJ 11 /J
Old ri,·eted ,let> I I { Ii l
Old ca., r m,n t) 5
()Jd pipe in had co11di1io11 hO u l ~:u
.':i1nJll pipe:., bJdly tuberculared -HJ [\ l 60
···- ---- ---------- -- -- - -- - -- - - -- -- ------- -------··. --- --·-- ·-- - - -----· ---------- ---·- .- -·-
 30 Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation Hyd
- - -- -- -- - - - - -

2.4 Hydraulic Characteristics of Distributors

Thi' dist1~butors are the accessories fitted to the pipes, or the holes m the pipe
1:/
• ,I l
/

fC'r the purpose of allowing water to drip. flow out o r spray at a In,\ and
constant discharge. Hydraulic characteristics include the operating pressure. \\'
the r::rnge of operating pressure and the normal flow rates at 20"C water
te mperature and pressure head of 1Om of water excepting if any different
pressure head is mentioned. A disttjjmtor should posses the charactenstic-., of \
uniform and lov-; discharge. sufficient aperture to prevent c logging and foreign
m:itr er :ind chemical depos its . low cost. robu stne ss and hom ogcne1ty.
T
D1st1ibutors may be grouped as (i) orifice or nozzle type . and t 1i : long path
type. Accordingl y dissip:Hion in the distributors follcrn·.., ei ther the long fl o,\
path:- or the nozzle orifi ces. \\'harever may be the method of energ:- dis~1patt1)n :
tile di scharge through .1 distributor can be expre'-.St'ci b~ the equation

t/ = A...I H ' ( : 2 ()1

" ·L • •_ _ • t.. • -1 : S _ 1_ , _ • • _• • 1, , -1 : L" • ...: 1.. . • . , _ , n.

\\ IICl .: . Lj = lll C- Ul. l..l1 Lll2:-1. l' l I JI C Ul c~U III L.ll'i. 1 l / 11

K = a coeffil'!t'!H , [lccific w each d1 ~tnhut L1r

~ l

H = the prc>sstirc at \\·hich the distributor t)pe ratl·,. Ill

\ = an e"\ponenr. th t' ,·alue of which depend, on fl t'\\\ rc·~imt'

The 1110st common method of deteniuning the \·a lue, of K, and ~ h~ th1..' li11L' LLr
1
n~~rt'ssio n 0 11 the loganrlun of fl ow and operatmg prc-;surc thin~ l:q .: ~t )
In (q'I = lnK . :. . \lnH
\\'hll..'h 1-:; the linear f1..)rn1 ,,f
\ = mz...:.. 1..'

\\ h1..· re. y = lntq 1. m = \. z = ln (_ H). c = ln ( Kd1

.-\ lint:':1r regressil1 n of the ln H on -~1q will gi, e the
,·aJ ue , of m ,.lnd· 1. " 11L~
"·=In K , then K,=e- . Eq. ~ 20 m:n be expres:-:ed .t,.
\.I \. ..

q==t· H ..
l-
. . --.. l
For ,1 set of discharges ~md pre~sur~~- the reg-re~'°-ll.) n cqu,ttl\ )n ~i\ e,

In A _
··-
~ In q}~ (In lJ \-'
L_,.
-
-
°"
.--,
(In a.'ln H )),'--4 ln ff
'
7 ''
n'\: (h f-(r - (~ ln H \·
.;._ - ~', .' ~I
I a: ::,:-:-c C ~

Hydraulics of Flow Regime 31

-- -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - -

// r=
n_Llrl lf.lnH -- _Lin ,;
-
f
- ---
lnH
,:,
11 '°' (1n H )2 - ("'y·-- In H f
L
(2.23)

½-'hen n=2

r = _ln(q, I q~)
__:.. .;_____::__ (2. 24)
ln(H, I H ~)
•A
The emission exponellt , liarncterizes the f ww of distribution
For x = 0.5. th~ tfov.1 is full y turbulent
x = 1.0. rhe tfo" 1" Luninar

U.5 ( x ( 1.0 . r/1c· rl 1>w al 1ntem1edia1c stage of laminar and turbulent.

Srudy ing the va lue nt , , < rre-;ponding !he Il l)\\' regime it may be staled that
1 10
!1'r' "' '' .. ;n ],,,.,.., , (q --Kd.1w.
~ ..... fl c 1.11
l'l tlP> • , • ,v
... -- l.. ',.
) •J:;'0 ,,- ,,
•t t11·'
" 1"=' C h q.-(Yl' \ " " '! " '' ' '
l.! L C.U ,,::- lH H., ,, u..,u.1.J
1.ll l \ ' 1 1 ,
1 • I •"\<'
J ,., fl t\.UI 111 "

µrt>s-a 1re variarinn <1/ I(1 111:rcenr the di~c harge \'a1ia1ion will be 10 percent. ln
wrbulent fl o\, , ., =0 5 J , , ,rh a press ur~ \'ana1i~)f, of IO percent th e expecteJ
di ~charge variation 1c., lJII '.' 5 percent. Therefore. to ensure the low and uni fonn
discharge agains r the u11 1.folated ropograph_v and friction losses in pipe.s, high-
pressure dissipatiun i11 d1.'- tributors is required. Adopting small flow path does
higher dissipation of (: 11< -rgy in distributors. However. narrow the path higher
i-; the risk of d nggint! .1 id \\'ider the path less the dissipation of pressure and
higher flow rate . Fip .'. illustrates the discharge varia tion res ult ing frc)m
1

. pre.ssure head varia r1< ,n /(,r differen t cmitta.

--r-.- t.arn,natiil
J l1
I
Orrfice o,
lutbulent.x~O
5
~ :o -• - Long
path x •O 75

~
/
I VorteJC ,,.o •

-----=-~-
I
C
m •· I
!
Cl t) f--
I :a FuNy
COfl ,pt!OHllng
/i 1

0
~ " ---- ,,,,.,., /
1.
zo/, - --
l Q ,,C
- l
, ,,/'
;>l)
-
10
- · -·
n
-
- 1(1
-
"
"0
'
30 _J
•0 oressure head v1rla1/011, . •

L__ _ _ __ - -- -

Fig . .2. 1 Dischar.~c· \ ,uu r,,, re,ultrng fr0m pres., urc head ,anat1on for differenr em,rrer,
( -'.d .. pred fr,,,n Kt'ller and Rhs',ner. /QGOJ
•
' 32 Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation

i. Flow iu orifict or nozzle type distributor~...

Fl.1w thwu,1.b any onfke or nozzle:. are turhuknt, th•:n :tc,rl; , the vuluc of x i~
0 .:5 111 th~ h .1,2.2 1
q = Kll() ', (2 .25 J

or, K., = aC'.t(2g)" :, (2.26)

Where,

a == cross-sectional area of the orifice

...
C,i = a discharge coefficient dcpenus on the characten st1c ~ of ()ri fi ce or nozzle
g, = ac.:c.:ekration Jue to gravity.
ii. Flow in long path distributors

----
According t'o Darcy-Wei sbach formula (Eq . 2.6 and 2.::0l .

q =KdH ' = l Hd ~ jf 7! J
-- 8 Ti-
ln case of laminar fluw. the Eq.2.20 becomes
, 2.27 i

ml -1 g H
q = KH =--- ( 2. 2~)
" I 28v/
Tac Eq.2.27 and 2.28 are expressed for turbulent and lami r1;.ir nr1w respectively.
Example 2.5 The di~:charges against the pressure head r .:'.C ()rcled t,) a distributor 1

are given helow :

q(l/h/ o.:-: I. l 1.7 2 I 2 lj 7

l ~ -+ (,
H(m) l. 5 2 4 fi ),I I'I ,_i
I
1.:;

I •
Develop the head-discharge relati onship.

// SoluHon:
---
H q lnH
, ..
ln<..J ___ LnH li 1q i! nH r
---- - -- - -- - - - -- ---· - -·
l.5 0 .8 0.405 -0 .223 l ) l il/(/ (I l 6-1
2 l I. 0.693 U.095 ) ., 16( U 4811
4 17 l.386 U SJ l 7 3f 1
l I 1)21
6 2. l l.792 0 .742 : 111 I .~.2 lf.l
8 2 .9 2.079 I 065 2. ~ i J 4 :\22
10 37 2.3025 1. 308 -~ , l 1 °' .30:
12 4 .2 2.485 I 4 35 ~ . c:: f_, (' 6 !7)
I .5 4 .6 2.708 1.52h -LP.;_ :' 3J-l
I ==13.8505 I =b.479 I = \4: -)AA -y - "l ,;} (l l

- -·---· - - -- ....--•- ·- - .• , -•--'..., __I:..,,,__ _- · · ~ •."l , l

- •jllllJll"
f f i ~ ~- -
••uw•
w1f?!1\31,JUllrn:illmmswana1mi!11K:sDut.llfllUQ:~1.ttanmuu,...- .- -

Hydraulics of Flow Regime 33

- ----- - - --- --·- -- - --

lnK , = ~~~IOnH_ )~-I(lnqlnH)I:lnH

" n.I:(lnH) ~ - (I:InH )°' ;
6.479x28 .9 I -- l4.966xl3.8505
=
8.r28.9 I - (13 .8505) 2
= 187.3079- 207.2866 = -19.9787 :.= -0.,5065
23 1.28 - 191 .8364 39.4436
:. K" = 0.6026 0.6 =
;.
_ __ 11 L I
In q. ln H - In q. In H
•l - - - - - - ' - - --- - -- - .
I 8.d4.966 - 6.479xl 3.8505
=- -- - - - -2-
2
/'/ ~(1 11 H )-' -- (Iln H ) 8x28.9 1-(1 3.8505)
29.99
39.4436
= 0. 761

.'. Cf = () .61.Lj ''' h

2.5 Manufacturing Variation of Distributors
The parameter that describes the anticipated variation of Ji scharges of a ser uf
new disfribur ors caused by the vari:1 tion in the manufacturing of the distributl)r-~
is called 11iarwfacturer 's 'coefficient of vruiatiun· . The manufacturing varia tion
may occur in different way such as. inability to hold dimensional tokranL·L·:--.
due ro nwld1ng press ure and temperatJre. variation to material used, 11llild
parting linr /lash. welding and gluing .flash and mold wear. The cx ttnt 1,1"
conrrullin&- the va narion not only depends on the qu aliry of the ma11uL1etu r111~
material -; :rnd qualiry control but alsp on the mod e of operariun of the
di stributl•rs . The most imponant of a distributor is to marntain the cliamcll·r (\(
it. The diameter usually varies between l to 2mm, which must be manut~h.'!tm:d
precisely. \Vith laminar flov.:, the flow varies with d 2 and in turbulent fl m\· \\ 11h
d 19n. TherdPre, a 2 C7r variation in d caqscs -+% variati on in laminar fl ow :!lld
m0re than 6<'7< variation in turbulent flot. Thus. m~rnufacturing cocfficicnr ut
flow i.;; a grear L'nnccm of turbulent flow. Re~sonable ran~es of CV arc JL':,cn /l,:d
in Table 2.3.
 3-1 Drip and Sprinkler lmq at1<)rt H;<J r

T:,hle 2.J lntt: rprctati nn of m ,m11l :1c·1unng c<>e fft vit·111 1,f varia1i o n ;in r !

d Pl
CPcffi cicnt nf Va ri a ti(l!l \ C\' I In terpn.:ta ti on
10;1
tl _():_=; \lr less Go,>d rt I
ll .05 -0 . 10 AvcragL:
0 . 10 -0 . 15 Marg inal C'
n _15 or more LI nacce ptabl t!
- -- - -- - ------ ---- - - -- U1
C ;1

Tht' manufacturers sho uld provide the va lu e of coefficient of variation ' (

I·.
I-fo\\'c ve r. it can be determined fro m the discharge data of a set of at lea'-.! '5 ()
t'llli tters a t a referencE' p1T-;sure head . Thi~ i"> c alculated as

!( , ' ' - , ) .
C \ . = \· q I- + q 2 + ...... + (_0~ - (f ~ ~ }}__
fl
' ( 2 2y J
q

a
- ,.·. mi
cI

\\ 'here. C V=coefficient Pl· rnanufactmin

. ...g va riation for the set CJI ..:: n11t tc r1,, 111

,,·h1ch q 1 • <h ... .. .... .... q,, are th e individual (fr:..charge rates. 1/h .
n = number of emitters in I he sample

ri = ave rage di sc harge rate of the sample ( C/1 + </ -, + .... .... ... + Cf , J/11 . 1/11
CT = standnrcl de viation of th e discharne
,, rate of th e emitters, 1/s.
The CV value has very u~e ful phys ical ~ig nificance, because th e d1:-.c har:.: c·1,, of
th e emitters are normall y distributed. The phy:-. ical significance of ,1 C\/ dc ri q:d
from th e classic bell-shaped nomwl di stribution c urve i<;; :
• Ess entiall y all the observed rates fall within ( I t'> coe ffi c ie nt (Jf
v~11iation)(:1 ve rage discharge )=( I ±JCV J.
• Approximately 9y,i;, of the di sc harge rates fall \v i thin ( I ±2( ·v 1.

• The average of lov,· one fourth' of the di sc harge rate j.,, app_ro ximat.cl y
eq ual to (1 - 1.2$CV)
• r\ pproximatcly 68(;'0 of the di scharge rat.es fall wi thin ( I ±CV J.
Frc,m th e ::ibove. for the emitter of CV,=4 % i. e ., 0.04 and =4 1/h: th~ ma ·~1m nrn
'
discharge. qmax= ( l+Jx0.04)-+ =4.48 l/h . Similarly, the mintllll.l\11 d i--.cl1,1rgc ,
q "n=:L52 1/h. Further. 9SC.!~- of th e di s~: harge rates fall w ithin 1he ra11 ~ ,- di "t 6},:
11
 (rlf'l
~I~
:?5
Hydraulics of Flow Regime
- - - - -- - - - - - --- - ---- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -

and 4 .3:? 1/h . The ,1Ver~1ge discharge of low one fourth of the discharge is ~.r
approximately 3 . 80 1/h . Differences in discharges due to variation in
manufacturing is sometime more important than pressure variation . Therefore, ~~
it is very important to kn()W the value of CV in selecting the distributors.
~~
CV of multiple distributors
Distributors are used in number in trees or vines. The value of CV in such "lf'
~
cases gets adjusted . Therefore, the variation of discharges is less than the
\' ariation to an individual distributor. The CV of multiple uses of distributors
is detennined as follow~ :
t...:ll ·~
C'\ 't.. 1:1 1=
CV
Fe (2.31) (; 11~
~lr·
•A

\Vhere. CV (O t a 1
= the disrnbutors' system coefficient of variation
e= the number of distributor per plant
~lr-
CV = CV

C V & head-discharge re lationship

when there is one outiet of the
I
,
li t 1

A good number of ~!rippers of Indian make of nominal discharges 2. 3 and 5 l/

ciisrrihurnr.

car
h were tested for discharge (q), average discharge, standard deviation (a.1d
~'tr
~~ r
coefficient of variation (CV) and is presented in Table 2.4 to 2.6. The average
CV of the discharges fo1 _different pressure was 0.036, 0.026 and 0.024 for 2, 3
and 4 1/h drippers respect ively. The head-discharge relationship developed for
different drippers are presented in Fig. 2 .2 to 2.4 and in Eq .2 ..-~2 to 2.34. " 1r·
~ J
= I ..:U I 5!-/l1.1o9 ~
For 21/h nominal disc harge, q

For 31/h nominal di...,d1arge, q = l.9377ff> 1026

( 2.32)
( 2.33)
c;Jf
ll-
For 51/h nominal discharge,

')
q = 3 .2589f-fU 4 o9

q= 1.3315HD,3092
(2.34)

;ir
~-,r
,:: 4 R 2 = 0.9853
:.:i
g]
- :i ij '
- ..., ... i
_ l ..l '
.

~
-5
Ill
i:1
2
., .

~- ·fir.
0 · ----· .. --,--· - - - T -- - - · --,- •- --· · •r - · - - -- , ~ Ii
i) 2 4 6 8 10

L.__ _ ~-..,·'.i
·11
··--

~-,
Head,m

Fig. 2.2 Head di:,ch ar~e relationship for the drippers of 2 1/h nominal di scharge
'~}
-~\ ~
~:,li ., ,. ilii.,:c,
;
 ~

~
' ..,.
.) t)
'
D r 1p .~rd Sp rin kle r Irrigation
-·-· - - - · - ----

~ - --- - -- - -----

I.. ..,,
..:.
e:»
""ii
..::
., '
4

-
'
~
lr
~

~
G " l 993 H 0"'1
t:?'= 0 9'39

I
~ 6 1
';i ~. ~
:,, 4 J
.@ j J
..------------ ( '.l 2s ,J·'")
f'.J' = (I ') g q

--;- -;-;--~__j
·
i . ~ 7 i
a , 1 0 1 j

0 - ·-
u ...- - -, -----
0 f, 8
0 I
He.ad .m
He,111.111
L____ __ - - - - - - _ _ _ _ _ __ _ ..J
--- - ---- -- - --
Fig. l _J Hea d d ischarge re lationship for Fig. 2.4 Hea d di sc hargL· rcla ti u n..,hip fur the
lhe dn ppers of _i, 1/h no mi na l discharge Jnppe rs o f 5 1/h n(11111n al d1 ~c hargc

Ta ble 2A D1 ~charge<; _ CV ~md SD of the dnpper . , un der ditferc n1 r,1e,-., ure hL'ad at no minal
ll!Sc harge o f 2l/h
- - -- - -- --- -
SI. N e,. D isc harge~ a t 2rn Discharges at Di scharge s at ,.~rn
Di s(:harge ~ a t 7 .Sm
pressure head . 1/ h 2 .Sm pressure heaJ, 1/h pre ss ure head , 1/h prc,-., ure he ad , l/h
- -- - --
I. I 552 1.728 l 88 8 2.25(--,
2 1 552 1.648 1.936 2.28..t ~
:i . I .5 'i 2 1.696 1.9 36 ~ .:~()-4
-L 1. .55 2 1.696 I 9 .1i6 2 .~23 2
5. l 552 1.696 1.9 :- 6 2.35 2
6. 16 l .744 1.9?,6 2 ?,5 2
7 16 1.74-l I .9 ~-i 6 2 .:'8() S
8 1.6 l .744 1.955 2 2. -4
4 1.6 1.744 1.9552 2.4
IO. 1. 728 1.744 1.9552 2.-4
11. 1.728 1.744 1.9552 -.--+'
")

I2. 1.72 8 1.792 1.9744 2.-1

13 I 72 8 1.792 I 974-1 2.--+
14 . I 72 8 1.79'.2 1.9~4 2.--l
15 . I .'i68 1.792 1.9 ~--l 2.--1
16 . 1. 5!\8 •. 1. 792 1.9::{4 2.-1
I7 I .5f> 8 1.792 1.9~4 1.4192
I 8. 1.568 1.792 1.984 2.42K8
19 . I .568 1.792 1.934 2.4288
20. 1.56 8 1.792 1.934 2.4288
21. 1.568 1.792 1.984 2.4288
22 . 1.488 1.8208 1.984 2.43 84
D 1.488 1.8208 1.984 2.4384
24 . l .536 1.8208 1.984 2.4384
25. 1.S :1i6 1.8208 l .984 2.448
26 . 1.53 6 1.8208 1.984 2.4-i8
27 . l.536 1.8208 1.984 2.448
28 . JS36 1.8208 1.984 2.4-iR
29. 1.72 l.84 l .984 2.448
30 . I 72 1.84 l.984 2.44~
31. 1.72 1.84 1.984 2 .448
Contd .
 _____
"_,

Hydraulics of Flow Regirn e 41

- - - ---- - - ·•--
. - ·• - - - -- - - ------ --- - --- -- . ---- - --- --- --- -· ------ -

( Conhl Tabk 2 () 1
·- -- --- -- ---------- --·
SI Di s..:hargc:- al 2m D1~d1arges al 2.5m Di scharges at 3.5m Discharges at 7.5111
No. p1\·ssurt' head . 1/h press ure head, l/h j_. press ure head, 1/h pressure~ lll' ad, 1/l1
-- - - ---
5h -L 17h -I ..i928 4 .99~ 6.57(J
5- ,f J 7h -+ 502-+ 4 .992 6 .576
.'iS --l 17h --l 512 4.9CJ2 6 .576
59 . 4. 176 4 .512 4 .99 2 6 .576
/)() -+ . I 7(, .( :'i 12 --l .992 6 .6048
0 I. .,L 176 --l 5 12 4 9lJ2 6 .60-+S
6:; -+ 176 --1 .5 12 5.01 12 6.6048
63 -+ I 7b -+ 5 12 5 .0 J 12 6 .624
{1'f ,i .224 --l .5 12 5.04 6 .624
()5 -L2 24 cl .5 12 5 U4 6 .624
/)(1 --1 .22..J --l- 512 5 .04 6 .624
h- +22--1 -l .'i 12 'i 04 6.624
!l,~ + 22...) -l 5 J 2 _'i () . l () .1/2-1
.J .53 12 'i. (J...j <J. 6 2-1
()l) l 2 2..J
7 () .; 2 ~-+ -+ 531 2 5 ' (J--l- ti .62-1-
71 -1 2 2-+ --1 5> 12 ') ( 1-i n 67-:.
I _ -+ ~ 72 -+ _ ' ;3i: : ; ( i-f b.bT2
.., ,
' 1
..j. '-, ·')
.- I - -+ 5(1 5 (1-1 6 .67~
.., .j

7-.
-+ 'l
..j. ~ 2
-I 56
..J..56
5 OK K
') () 8:-<
b 672
6 .67:.
() -I r' -I .Sh 5 OHK 6. 7008
4 .32 -+ .Sh 5 OKK 6. 7UO K
7K -1 . 3 2 ·+ 5(1 _'i j _,() b.72
] L/ ..J . L~ -+ .56 c; ! ) () 6.7:.
Kfl -4 . 12 ·+.60 8 _') 18--l 6 739'2
;,; I -+ .J.? -1 . 70'-l 'i ] 84 6.76'8i
j.
nc• _1 ..j. 8 4.8 -'i -1 ~'
1.! n 7n 8
C/ =-f 13 c/ =--l.--l63 1/ =-+ l)] 1 =(J.-+S
SD= n. I 25h _<.; I ) = 0.0845 SD = 0 rl K367 SD = 0. 197
('\1=0.01 C \' = 00 1S9 CV= I) 11 168 CV= fl fl {
--·- - ---- -- - ---
:\1 c' ld _!!t: C \ ':::: () ()()2

2.6 Irrigation Uniformity and Efficiency

\. The discharges from the dis tributors depend on :
( i) Designed distrib utors characteristics
(ii) Standard of manufacture
(iii) Friction losse~ in the pipe network
ri v) Elevation flucrua tiun of the field
(v l Numbe r of clogging or partiall y cl~igged di strihutor within rhc- sy:-it1.~111

(vi) Yariarion in the wa rer temperature .,vithin the' system .

 42 . ' Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation
- - ·- ---

So f::i:. there i" no analvt1cal means to deal with all the above items in drip
syst~m design. However. in a good inigation system it is desired to ensure
suffcicnt water to least-watered plant. Therefore, the relationship between the
mini mum discharges of the distributors to the average discharge is an important
factor. The degree of emitter flo w variation in a lateral can be expressed in
different wa\'.S , i:,uch as.

( 2 __,) )- )
r. _ ::.cf
/
1. L u -
1
J - --=-
q

I
{J mu, (2 ..3h l I
ii. E,, = _
q
.Keller and Bliesner( 199())
I
I

q ,..,_, , - t/ ,,w, r :2 .Y' l

u1 . Cf ..,· = . \Vu and Gi1Jin ( 1974)
I C/ m.·

\'.'h~r;;. E = unifom1it\· coefficient of the emitter fl o\\'::-

-
j_q = mean nf :.ibsolute de \'fltion from the mean emitter tlo\\·

q = mean of ernjuer fl ow

q m-r = a\·ernge of the lowec;;t one fourth of the emitters

I

q._,,, = emitter fl ()\I; :ari ~1t i0n

1

qm:o = minimum en11tter tl chv

cj rr.., • = maxim um emittl'f tl n\\'

T he quan titari ve expre,;sion of Eq .2.37 is ve0 simple beL·ause it require.'- onl}

the maximum and m.inimum fl ow. Since the pressure fl o\\ variation vis-,\-\ is
the em itter fl ow variati on are smooth curves (Fig. 2.2-2 ..+ l, the relationship
bct'.vcen the emitter flo-_v \·ariation;, and the uniformity coeffici ent (Eg. 2.36·1
c:1 n },~ ,)btained a;-; :-;ho\\ n in Fig. 2.5. A uniformity coefficienr about 98 CX· equals
~1n emi trer fl ow , ariat1on of 10% and a uni fomuty variati o n coefficit:!nt of t)_-c;; l,"r
~qua! , J.n emitter fl o,\ variation of 20%.
T h-::- quantitatiw expression of Eq .2..3 7 is \'ery simple because it requ i re~ on ly
I
I
f
1 he maximum and mrnir:rnm Dow. Since the pressure flow \'a1iati on \ is-:1 •·\ i~ ,
 c, Hydra ulics o f Flow Regim e 43
~-.
~
l
II

.... I

.,
-·n

rc."
1'

f] [

II
the e rmner tl o \>v variatw 1, a.re smooth curves (Fig . 2.2-2.4), the relationship
betwe en the e mitter flo w variation
'
(Eq .2 3{1 ) can be obtained as shown in Fig. 2.5 . A uniformity coefficient about
9H <:", eq ual s an emitter now variation of 10% and a uniformity variation
,' \le ffic1ent of 95 <'¼-- equal ~ an emitter flow variation o f 20%.
q var '
-rnd the uniformity coefficient
'
'
~
~
~

80
y ·= 3 7596e 0 ·2 ~14 x ~
R 2
= 0.9843
-~ 70
3: e,_ 6Q
~ ~
t ti 40
·e= ~0
30
50
/ .',
UJ -~ 20
> 10
0 +-...'.'=- · -·
S9 •j o S
·1

98
r -· -
97
~----------,---,-----,
95 92 ::, ':!2 :33 5 81 69
'<
Uniformity coefficient (

Fig. 2.5 Re lati o ns hip t,et~ een emitter flow , anatwn anJ urn formity coefficient
".It -
The pre:-.s ure a;1d emitter flow variation are related by the ~-value.( q = KdH x)
as show n in Eq.2 .20 .

C/ ,.11 = I ·- (I - H \'d l
)' (2 .38)

H ,na"- -- H 1•1111
and • H \ .tr ('2.39).
H m,,,

Keller and Karmeli {197 1) defined the designed Eu (emission uniformity) as

"the manufacturer' s di ~charge ratio, adjusted for the number of distributors
per plant and cxpre;;.sed as a percentage, multiplied by the ratio of the absolute
minimum, detennined from the nominal rate versus head curve to the average
distributor discharge rate and expressed as the following equation:

1.27CV
c:-
c u
== I 00 .<i..'!!!.r.! _ .M ( (d 'rt ·ith Mr f ( e) =l - ----1 --
~e (2.40)
q- ,_
 I
V•

44 D11p and Sprinkler Irrigation

I
I

Where., qmin =the minimum discharge rate of the distributors detennined \.: ' ith I
th e minimum pressure, within the applicable range , causing the nommal
relationship q & h.

q = the average discharge rate of all the pressure \I

I
M r = the manufacturer's discharge ratio
f(e) = the adjustment factor for number of distributor" per plant.
The manufacturer's discharge ratio is the average of th~ low 1,'4 to the average
dif,charge rate of a test sample of distributors operated at a reference pressure
head and estimated from the CV The average of th~ low 1/4 is taken as the
pr::tctical minimum.
The Eq .2.40 may be re\\ rin en as

,;'.' E ., = 100( I_ 1.27 C V I'/,'"''

' J; ) ~1 ( 2.--1 l \

Exan1ple 2.6 The standarJ dL·,·iation of discharge~ a11d a\ erage discharge rate'
are 5% and 5.05 lit/hr respi:.Gtively of a set of distrihutn1·, . V✓ hat is the maximu1n
and minimum flow through the di : ributors? What i~ the emission uniformit y
if 6-oulet distribut.on, are u~cd '?

a_ 0 .05 === l) _l) dO

Solution: Manufacturer ' -; L-o~fficient of variation. C\ ~7 - 5.05
CJ lll.1\. ,11 11ll1: = {1 + 3q0- l.CJ
- f ·-- {1 +
_ _,C\·
") ' }CJ

=5.201/s

Questions and Problems

I '28nlc1
2. l Prove that in ht = -- , ➔- drip laminar fl cm·
JTG g

2.2 How the roughness of pipes influence on fnct H) l l factor. f:l

") ·)
...... _) w ·hat is a distributor? \Vhat are the charact~n<sl! -.:•, the di ..,tributor, shnukl
have?
2.4 \.Vhat is n1anufac turers· coefficient 0f ,·ariat1u11 _) H , )\\' 1:-; 11 in1po rttnt t u
unifomuty of discharge?
...
 i
Hydraulics of Flow Regime j. 45
I - ---~ - -·--· - - ----------- -----

~-5 How do you calculate the CV? What is the important ph ysical signiricmcc
I
of CV?
~-6 What are the factors on which the discharge of distributors depends '!
I State the fonnulae, which are commonly used to ex press the 11ni fornut y
coefficient of the distributors.
I
}. . 7 How Keller and Kanneli defined the emission un ifonniry ·1
~-~ Detem1ine the characteristics flow. which takes place in a lateral pi pe :11
a rate of 5001/h. The diameter of lateral and the h.1nematil.'.'-. viscn:-- 1ty (if
water are 12mm :md 5.5x I0·7m 2/s respective!) . \Vhat i:-. the value l)f
friction coeffici ent. f, if the lateral is a relali \ L' l) ruugl1 pipe·>
\ns. ~h793.76 (l"urhulent) f = 0.028
~ t) DL'lcrmine rhc l.'ne rgy loss inn dri p j1a ni:ill _\ l:111 11nar tlti\\ w illl Reynold:-.
number 3500. The: length of the piJk' ~ ")111 . ll1 :1 1nc1n t) f p1 ~w I.")!lllll :md
vt."l(K'il\ nf w;i ter 50cm/s.

\n.s. 0.380111
-2 . I() Develop rhc q 1disc harge)-H (headl rcl a1in11-.; hip fo rm rhe tull ti\\'lll~ dctl.:t :

q(lit/hrl I. I~ J .52 l .85 2. Jj . 2.-+0 2.6 2.;-.,J 3 l( l -~.22

-, 18
H ( 111 l - ..J 6 8 I () 12 I -+ 16

.2 . 11 The fo llow inr

'
di ')charges
-..
(l/s) we re rec1irded in rhe Ji:--1nbut,ir" al Il ic
nominal head nf IOm:
-U)I. -L OJ,-+ . l lJ. -+. 15. -L OS, J.9 7, i .9~, _i _9fi. -L 08, 3 Yt L -1 1-l. ..i l( J.
3.92, 3.l)-+_ -+.07. -+ .~O, <-+ . l 3, -+.09, 3.9 l , _) l)l)_-+ 0 7. 3..C:lJ, .+. J 7 . ..1 l 1. -L ! ~-
1.lJ_i_ -+ . l ' and _i _l)_::i _

Delt'rminc:' the' cndfi cient of rnamiLiL' lu n n~ \'Jnar1 1i11 t l )J ih i, --l't 1,!

t' rn i tll'r., F111d the <1•lll,1 ' • CJ l! Ull and £ . 1,

' I~ \\.'h..11 i., tlw rnaximum and 1111111mu111 flL)\\ thrnugh d1,1nh ut,)l " ._, lll' L
:- i t:md:ird dt"'v i:11ion l)f disch~u-ge and a\·c~rn!!c di:--char~c :m.' Y i c1nd ...:..o~ i/
- - ~
h respecti\·t'ly. \\'hat is rhe coeffi1.'._ient c,( \'tui ~1tinn (C \ . 1 1)f d1 '.- ,·ll ;1r.:'. ...'·,
through -.. rhc di stributors·.>. i

Ans. </1111 0 = ~.851/11. C/in-1, = 2l/h, C\'= 0 012J

) l ~ I'he di.,L'h<1 r~t·

'
of distributors :ire? char:1den 1ed b\- ,1 ·::-
'
1) r- ·..ifi rh,:
rn111 1rnurn :md :l\'t'f8?-e pressm-e hL~h! 111 .1 latl:r:tl .ttc t, :u ...l l i.!ti 1
1, .. ...." ; "·, ti·, ~· t··, r
 ,15 Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation
- ---- ----

Ans. C\ . -= 0.027
~-l "I The si::mdard deviation of disc~arge and average discharge rate of a set
t1f distributors are 4.5 % and 6.51/h respectively. What is the minimum
uni forr nitv of emission if 4-outJct distributors are used?
Ans. cp _5 7c;--

.:. 15 \Vrit c Trne or False of the follciwing:

l. In larnin::ir flow friction coefficient is independent to relati ve roughnesc.
of pip~.
"I
Reynolds number is more than 5000 in fully turbulent fl ow
~

' Rc:i·rwlds number is unimpurta nl when turbulenl n o\\ ol·L· ur.-., l) JJ rnu~li
Stirf:hX .

4. Drir system is standardized al water temperature of 25"C.

5. D1,charge coefficie11t depends 911 the characteri .:; ri c-.; of orifice or 11 \lll.k
(1 . The ,,:Lriation m distributor diameter causes mnre variat1011 to disch:11 l! l '
in !:lmina.r flow than turbulent flm.v. l- ~
-,
•\ Lin uL.1cturer's coeflic1 t.11t of variation of distributor di~chc1rgl' -; h, 1uld
he \\ 1thin 0. I for good di stributor.
'
r·
I

S. !\ llH Cthe number of distributors in a plant more the manufacture r·,

corffi cient of variation of distributor discharges. ;
q A.1 1 prciximately 68% of the di.~~harge rates of the distributors.; fall within
10. fn .1 full y compensating distributor the discharge to 0.5 power of p rt' \ '- Ll rc'
head .
Ans. I .True~- False 3. True -1- . False': 5. True 6. False 7. False~ Fal"e LJ T 1Ut'
I 0. False .

2. l () Select the approp1iate answer from the follO\ving . Reynolds numlxr in

circular pipe may be expresse~l as

vd 2 v:'. d
R~= ~-d
(J'l R,· = -~·-cl (h ) R = -----·· (c) Rr td )
£,' l .
\' l' 1'

') .
,,,.,_ The 1L1ss of energy in pipe is
(a) directl y proportional tn diameter (b) directly prop~1rti1inal tti ... quare

of diameter (c-Y inversely proportional to the diameter (d) JT1 c t_T.;eh

proportional to the square of diameter
 ~
Hydraulics of Flow Regime

< Lfnstahle flow '.> tart ·, when Reynolds number exceeds

(a ) 1000 (b) 1500 (e-) 2000 (d) 4000
47

'~
-,
~

~
~
48

~
..i . Nonnal temperatur,~ of water in dri, · is assumed Ans

(a) 5°C (b) I 0°C (c ) I 5°C (d1 20°C --f1-

5 The discharge-- head relationship of a distributor is/ q = KdH _'
I \\:
.(In fully ~ Re

~
turbulent tlow the va lue nf exponent x is - 1 FA
\ /./\ Kc1
(a10.5

~
(b) 0. 75 (cl 0 .85 (d) l.0
S 1..
6 Water fl.o w at a rat,~ of 0 151/s through a lateral pipe of 10mm diamet~r.

~
I
Jf k.inernarics vi ~l; ( is it y of water is 5 .6x2 l0·7 m 2/s , the Reynolds number s
'"

~
(a )3.3928 (b)l69M (c) 25446 ( cl) 67856
7 The dimension o l' kin e matic vi scos ;ty i-;
1
L 'T (b1 L'i ' LT \U ) L 2T

~
\ a/ Ic 1

X Jn a flow regim e tl 1e Ren old:-; number is 1750. Flow regime is said to be

1 a) laminar (h , un .-,t.thl,_. (c J partially turbulent (d) turbulent
~
~
tJ . In a laminar fln w the Reynolds number (R) is I 750. The coefficie nt of
friction (f) is ab \ ,u r
(a) 0.03 (b) 0.1\4 1c) 0.05 (d) 0.06

I 0. The coefficient \if friction (fl in a tnrbulent flow is 0.02. The Reynolds
number is about __.
, ~1) 18791 lb) '-7581 (c) -l-h977 (d) 62636

1l At fully turbuk111 fll1W a distributor discharges 41/h at 10m pre,sure .

The discharge Cllt'fficicnt ( K dl of the distributor is about .J.L::. ~,
l~
(a) 0 .86 (b) 1. I ( 1 · (c) 1.26 (d) 1.46

A set of distribu tor:~ of average discharges 41/h and manufacturer· s

coefficient of variation 1s 0.03. The average discharge of low one- fourth
of the dischmge rates is about r
~
\,'lA t-"')'f.. ~~-"
- r;, .q,\
:t
~~
(a'} 3 .851/h (b ' ] .951/h (c) 4 . 121/h (d) 4 .361/h -
l -~ The manufacture r ·s coefficient of variation of a set of distributors is ~."lr~3..
+%: 6 numbers u1 which are used in a plant. The effedive coefficient of 't· ll •
,·anation of the d tstribmors is about
'TI'
~-··. ,,..,. ,"., .3...
~
' .. . ' --~
.
:)
__
 48 Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation

,a) 0.04 (b) 0.03 (c) 0.02 (,rl) 0.01

Ans. 1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c), 4. (d), 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (d) 11 . (cl 12.
(a) 13. (d)

References
FA) ( 1980). Vermeiren, I. and Jobling, G.A. Irrigation and Dr,unagl: Paper 3b , FA() i<.(1 111c
Kannel 1. D . and Keller. J. 1 1975). Trickle Irrigation Design. Ra i11 Bi rd '.;p,inl-..kr Ma1 w 1.1 1. 111r1n!!
Corp., Glendora, California. pp.133
Schwart;,man, M. and B. Zur ( 1985). Emitter spacing and geomet0 l1I wetted :--rnl v~1 l t1 11w I lrn
Drainage Engr., ASCE. 112 (3):242-253.
S1 va11appan, R.K. et al. (1987 ). Drip Irrigation. National Committee fo r u.~L' u! PL1,t 1L· 111
Agriculture. Kecrtbi Publishing House, Coimba tore. Tami l Nadu.
:.J L.JO

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