PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy

ANATOMICAL POSITION Horizontal

• planes passing the body at right angle to the
median and coronal planes
• dividing the body into superior (upper) and
inferior (lower) parts.
• Transverse plane - lies perpendicular to the
long axis of a given structure
o In the leg, horizontal and transverse
planes are the same because they pass
through the long axis of leg or tibia
o In the foot, the horizontal plane remains
the same as the leg, it divides the foot
• Standard reference position into dorsal and plantar.
• Body is upright o While for transverse plane, it divides the
• Feet together foot into anterior and posterior parts.
• Face looking forward
• Mouth close and facial expression neutral TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP AND COMPARISON
• Eyes open focused on something in the
SUPERFICIAL, INTERMEDIATE, DEEP - terms
distance
used in dissection to describe the position of one
• Arms at side, Palms of hand forward, pad of
structure with respect to other structures
thumb turned 90°
Functional position - palms are facing Superficial
forward
Resting position - palms are facing the • near to surface
body • Epidermis
Intermediate
ANATOMICAL PLANES • between a superficial and deep structure
• Dermis
Deep

• farther from surface

• subcutaneous

Sagittal Plane
• Median sagittal plane - vertical plane
passing through the center of the body
dividing it to equal right and left halves
• Sagittal plane - vertical planes parallel to the
median plane; divides body to right and left
side
Coronal plane (Frontal) Medial
• vertical plane passing through the body at • used to indicate that a structure is nearer
right angles to the median plane median plane; toward midline
• dividing body to anterior (front) and • Example: heart is more medial than the
posterior (back) portions
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
arms Inferior/Caudal
Lateral
• nearer to feet/tail
• terms that indicate that the structure is
farther away the median plane; away from Superior/Cranial/Cephalic
Midline
• Example: arms is more lateral than heart • nearer to head/vertex/cranium

Position relative to the core or root or attached end

Posterior/ dorsal

• denotes back surface

• Toward the back Proximal
• Hands:
Dorsal surface - posterior of hand; back of • nearer the trunk/core or point of origin
the palms • Shoulders are more proximal than the
• Foot: hands
Plantar - sole of foot Distal
Anterior/ ventral
• farther from trunk or point of origin
• denotes nearer to front
• towards the front
• Hands: Describes location relative to the center of a
Palmar - anterior of the hand; palms structure or space
• Foot: Internal
Dorsal - upper (top) surface
• location is inside the structure; inner ear
Denote level in reference to upper or lower ends of External
body
• location is outside the structure; auricle,
Helix

SAMPLE EXERCISE
1. Head in relation to shoulder
• The head is more medial and the shoulder
is more lateral
• the head is more superior and the shoulder
is more inferior

2. Position of thumb in the hand

PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
• the thumb is lateral to the hand Bilateral

3. Liver in relation to diaphragm • structures having right and left members

• liver is inferior to the diaphragm • kidneys, lungs
Ipsilateral
4. Position of hip in relation to the lower
• occurring on the same side of the body
extremity
• Example: ipsilateral weakness of the right
• the hip is proximal than the lower extremity
upper and lower extremities
• the hip is more superior than the lower
Contralateral
extremity
• occurring on the opposite side of the body
5. Position of kidney in relation to • Example: lesion is on one side and the
abdominal cavity effect was
• Kidney is more dorsal or posterior • on the other side
• Stroke: left brain was affected, right limbs
6. Sternum in relation to the heart • become weak
• the sternum is superficial than the heart contralateral weakness of the right upper
• the sternum is anterior to the heart and lower extremities

7. Shoulder to upper extremity TERMS OF MOVEMENT

• Proximal
SAGITTAL PLANE
8. Ribs to lungs
• Superficial • Bend forward, moving towards the plane

9. Spleen and gallbladder to abdominal cavity

• contralateral

10. Muscles to bones

• superficial

11. Blood supply inside the cranial cavity

compared to those outside
• inside

TERMS OF LATERALITY

Flexion

• decreasing the angle between the bone or

parts of the body
• Older definition: Putting 2 ventral surfaces
together - it is confusing because the terms
ventral and dorsal are commonly used in
animals and it's not always the same for
humans
Extension
Unilateral
• increasing the angle between the bones and
• structures on one side only parts of the body
• Heart, bladder • opposition of Flexion
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
Hyperextension SAGITTAL PLANE EXERCISES

• extension beyond the normal limit • Back squat

FOOT

• Bicep Curl

Dorsiflexion

• flexion at the ankle joint/ flexion of ankle • Triceps pushdowns

• going upward • Front lunges
• sometimes called extension • Walking/running
Plantarflexion • Vertical jumping
• Calf raises
• turns foot toward plantar surface/ extension • Climbing stairs
of ankle
• Going downward
• sometimes called flexion CORONAL PLANE
Abduction
THUMB MOVEMENT • away from the median plane in coronal
plane
Adduction

• toward the median plane in the coronal

plane

Abduction

• Form a letter L with the thumb pointing

forward
Adduction
THUMB MOVEMENT
• thumb is in front of index finger Flexion

• Form a number 4
Extension
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
• Form a number 5

HORIZONTAL PLANE
Rotation

FOOT MOVEMENT
Eversion

• moves the sole of foot away from the

median plane (turning sole laterally)
Inversion

• moves the sole of foot toward the median

plane (turning sole medially) • turning or revolving a part of the body
around its longitudinal axis
• Medial rotation (internal) brings the anterior
surface of a limb closer to the median plane
• Lateral rotation (external) bring the anterior
surface away from median plane
• Usually used for shoulder or hip joint; semi
circle movement
Circumduction

CORONAL PLANE EXERCISES

• Lateral arm and leg raises

• Side shuffle and side lunge • a circular movement

• Side bend • a combination of flexion, extension,
abduction and adduction occurring in such a
way that the distal end of the part moves in
a circle
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
Opposition Elevation

• raises or moves a part superiorly

• used in scapula
Depression

• lowers of moves a part inferiorly

• used in scapula

• movement by which the pad of the first digit

(thumb) is brought to another digit
Protraction

• anterior movement of shoulder

• move the shoulder forward
Retraction

• posterior movement of shoulder

• move the shoulder backward

Pronation

• movement of forearm and hand that rotates

the radius medially around its longitudinal
axis
• palm faces posteriorly and dorsum faces
anteriorly
Supination

• movement of forearm and hand that rotates

Protrusion the radius laterally around its longitudinal
• movement anteriorly (forward); used for axis
mandible • dorsum of the hand faces posteriorly and
Retrusion palm faces anteriorly

• is a movement posteriorly (backward); used

for jaw or mandible
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
TRANSVERSE PLANE EXERCISES compared to the posterior
o usually is thinner in women
• Spinal rotation • Connected to the underlying deep fascia or
bone by a superficial fascia which is known
as subcutaneous tissue
• Skin creases are usually seen in the areas
of the joint
o describe a skin over joints that are
folded and are firmly tethered
• Limb Rotation together
o gives ability to the joints to move

SKIN APPENDAGES
Nails
• Shoulder and hip movement

INTEGUMENTARY
SKIN

• Divided into two parts: Superficial

(Epidermis) and deep (dermis) • keratinized plates on dorsal surfaces of tips
of fingers and toes
• Root - attached to finger; proximal end of
the nail
• free edge - distal end is usually loose
• nail fold - surrounded by overlapped skin
Hair and hair follicles

Epidermis

• Stratified epithelium
• Thick over palms of soles and feet
• Flat and when they mature, they are raised
to the surface and slough off
Dermis

• Thicker
• Composed of dense connective tissue
containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
and nerve
• Thickness varies in different parts of body
o usually it is thinner in the anterior
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
• grows out from the follicle and is usually • coiled spiral tubular glands that are found
found deep in the dermis and usually start the best in the skin
at the hair bulb • found all over the body except lips, nailbed,
• bulbs - penetrate deep part of the dermis glans penis, clitoris
o concave at the end
• hair papilla - Vascular connective tissues
which occupy the hair bulbs FASCIA
• Arrector pilli - smooth muscle attached to
the ends of the hair; Connects to the hair
follicle
o when does arrector pilli contracts?
it pulls and raises the hair like when
you have goosebumps
• hair is distributed all throughout the body
but there are certain areas that do not have
hair
o Palms, lips, glans penis, clitoris,
labia minora and majora
Sebaceous glands

• connecting varying amounts of fat

• Functions:
o Separates, supports and
interconnect organs and structures
o Allows movement of one structure
relative to another
o Transit of vessel and nerves
• 2 types:
Superficial (subcutaneous)
Deep
• Secrete sebum Superficial (subcutaneous)
• attached to the hair shaft and is the one • Mixture of loose areolar and adipose tissue
who gives you the oil and preserves the uniting the dermis to the underlying deep
flexibility of the hair fascia
• it also preserves the surface of the Deep fascia
epidermis
Sweat glands • muscular, visceral etc
o muscular fascia - If it covers the muscles
o visceral fascia - if it covers the organs
• Membranous layer investing in deeper
structures
• Function depending on the location
o In thorax and abdomen - Thin film of
areolar tissue covering muscles and
aponeurosis
o In limb form sheath around muscles to
hold them in place
o May divide deep muscles into
compartments
o In joints form restraining bands called
retinacula and hold tendons in position
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
or serve as pulley around tendon

Superficial Deep Smooth Muscle

(Subcutaneous)
Just beneath dermis Deep, organized
connective tissue
Made up of loose Outer layer is
connective tissue attached to deep
containing large surface of superficial
amount of fat fascia; inward
extensions form
intermuscular septa
that compartmentalize
groups of muscle
Thickness varies Surrounds individual
muscle
Allows movement of Separate lining of
the skin over deeper abdominal cavity from
areas of the body and fascia covering
passage of vessels surface of muscle
and nerve, and
source of energy (fat) • long spindle shaped cells
Extraperitoneal fascia/ • closely arranged in bundles or sheets
endothoracic fascia • controlled by autonomic nervous system
Loose areolar Made of membranous • Lines the organs
• when they contract, they can cause a
MUSCULAR wavelike contraction Because they are
arranged in a circular manner, it is like they
MUSCLE are milking the structure that is found on the
• Functions: lumen
o Produces movement Peristalsis - movement in the GI tract
o Gives form to the body • for bladder or uterus, The muscle fibers are
o Provides heat arranged in an irregular fashion, and when
they contract, the contraction is usually slow
• Types and sustained and this will help in the
o Skeletal Muscle expulsion of the content of the organs
o Cardiac Muscle • they also line our blood vessels, they are
o Smooth Muscle also arranged in a circular fashion and they
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
can either increase or decrease the
diameter of the lumen that they line
• Depending on the organs, they are
stimulated by the contractions of local
fibers or from a nerve impulse that comes
from the autonomic nervous system or the
contraction could be stimulated by
hormones
Cardiac Muscle
Striated muscle
• Specialized striated muscles
• They have the characteristic of smooth and
striated
• Have striations but are involuntarily
controlled And are controlled by the
autonomic nervous system
• They are arranged in swirls and spirals
• They are the ones that form our
myocardium Or the muscles of our heart
• They are stimulated by their own conducting
system Which is the conducting system of
the heart
• They are supplied by the autonomic
nervous fibers and they terminate in the
nodes of the conducting system in its
myocardium
Origin
Skeletal Muscle
Insertion
Belly
• Name is based on its location (attached to
the bones of the skeleton)
• Striated – contains alternating light and dark
bands visible under a light microscope
• Muscles are voluntary because it can be
made to contract or relax by conscious
control Single muscle fiber is long,
cylindrical in shape and has many nuclei at
the periphery of cells
• Individual muscle fibers are arranged
parallel to each other
o Most of the skeletal muscles are the
ones responsible to move our joints
That's why they have attachments to the
bone
o They are also called voluntary muscles
o We can contract or relax it
consciously
• Skeletal Muscle (Striated or Voluntary
muscle) attached to the skeleton and fascia
of limbs, body wall and head/neck large,
strong and unbranched with transverse
striations stimulated by voluntary or reflex
by the somatic nervous system
• Each striated muscle has 2 or more
attachments
Parts of Striated muscle
• attachment that moves the least
• Example: biceps means it has two origins:
The coracoid process (short head) and the
superior glenoid fossa ( long head)
• attachment that moves the most
• The insertion is at the radius
• the fleshy part of muscle
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
• The two bellies of the biceps will both insert Pennate muscle
at the radius
Tendon • featherlike in the arrangement of their
fascicle deltoid
• ends of muscles attached to bone • Bipennate (2 sides)
• unipennate (1 side)
• multipennate (like hair; deltoid)
Aponeurosis

• flattened muscles attached by thin strong

sheet of fibrous tissue Which are usually
part of the deep fascia

Fusiform

• spindle shape
• biceps brachii

Raphe

• interdigitation of the tendinous ends of fiber

Quadrate

• has four equal sides

• pronator quadratus
• can be rectangular or square
Types of Muscles based on shape
Flat muscle

• parallel fibers with an aponeurosis

• external oblique

Circular or sphincteral

• surrounds orifice
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
• orbicularis oris
• Sphincteric
• Orbicularis occuli (eyes)
Classification based on movement
Prime movers or agonist
• main muscle that activate a specific
movement of the body; contract actively to
produce the desired movement
• Biceps Brachii - Goal of movement is elbow
flexion
Antagonist
• muscles that oppose the action of prime
mover
• Triceps - usually relaxed when the biceps
are contracted; Its movement is elbow
extension
Synergist
• prevent the intervening joint movement
when a prime mover passes over more
• They act similarly as agonist
• Brachioradialis - Helps flex the elbow
• Brachialis
Fixator
• stabilizes the origin of prime mover so that
the prime mover can act more efficiently
• Sometimes the fixator and synergist are the
same Because they aid in the movement of
the muscle
EXAMPLE
• Prime Mover: Biceps femoris,
semimembranosus semitendinosus
• Synergists: popliteus, gastrocnemius,
gracilis, sartorius
• Antagonists: Quadriceps - vastus lateralis,
vastus mediali, vastus intermedius, rectus
femoris
• Fixator: Careful balance between medial
and lateral stabilizers of the knee must be
maintained to prevent excessive internal or
external rotation of the tibia. More complex
relationships between synergistic pairs
SKELETAL
BONE
• a highly specialized, hard form of
connective tissue that forms most of the
skeleton and is the chief supporting tissue
of the body
• They are living tissues and are composed
of cells, fibers, and matrix
• Bones are hard because of the calcification
of its extracellular matrix
• They're also elastic and that's why they
don't break easily
• The degree of elasticity is because of the
presence of organic fibers
• Functions:
1. protection of vital structures
 Skull for the brain, rib cage
for the thoracic part
2. support for the body mechanical
basis for movement
3. storage for salts (e.g., calcium)
4. continuous supply of new blood
cells
 In the bone marrow
CARTILAGE
• resilient, semirigid form of connective tissue
• Avascular - has no blood vessels,
lymphatics or nerves, nutrition is by diffusion
• Functions:
1. Support soft tissues
2. Provide smooth, gliding surface for bone
articulation & joints
3. Enable development and growth of long
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
bone the joints)
• Types: • Incapable of repair
o Hyaline • Hyaline found as supportive tissues in the
o Elastic nose, ears, trachea, larynx, and smaller
o Fibrocartilage respiratory tubes articular cartilage; reduces
friction and acts as shock absorbing tissue.
• Forms the costal cartilages where ribs
attach to the sternum and is the precursor to
bone in most of the embryonic skeleton
Fibrocartilage

• Matrix contains limited number of cells and

ground substance with substantial amount
of collagen fibers
• Found between TMJ (tempomandibular
joint), sternoclavicular joint and knee
fibrocartilage a good shock absorbing
material in the pubic symphysis and
intervertebral disks.
o They contain materials that are good for
absorbing stress and shock
• If damaged, it repairs itself slowly
• Have poor blood supply in joint disc thus do
not repair themselves when damaged

TYPES OF CARTILAGE
Hyaline

Elastic

• matrix contains collagen with large number

of elastic fibers
• Is very flexible
• Repairs itself with fibrous tissue
• examples: epiglottis and cartilage of the ear
• Most common, matrix has moderate amount (external) lobes, pharyngotympanic
of collagen fiber (eustachian) tubes, epiglottis
• Plays an important part in growth the length
of long bones
o Located in the epiphyseal plates
• Has great resistance to wear & tear and
covers articular cartilage (end of bones in
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
2 FORMS OF BONES
Compact bone or trabecular
• Solid mass
Spongy or Cancellous bone
• Consists of branching trabeculae that are
arranged to resist the stress and strains
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO
SHAPE
Long bone
• Found in limbs
o Humerus, radius/ulna, femur, tibia/fibula
• Length is greater than breadth
• Have tubular shaft (diaphysis) and epiphysis
(end of the bone)
• Shaft contains marrow cavity with bone
marrow
o Where red blood cells are produced
• Outer portion is composed of compact bone
covered by periosteum
Short bone
• Found in hands and feet
o Carpals, tarsals
• Cuboidal in shape
• Composed of cancellous bone covered with
thin layer of compact bone
Flat bone
• Composed of thin inner and outer layers of
compact bone called tables and separated
by cancellous bone called diploe
• Skull, scapula
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
covered with cartilage
• Reduces friction on the tendon; alter
direction of pull of a tendon

TWO TYPES OF SKELETON

Axial Skeleton

• bones of head, neck and trunk

Appendicular Skeleton

• bones of the limbs including those forming

Irregular bone the pectoral and pelvic girdles
• Thin shell of compact bone with interior
made of cancellous bone BONE SURFACE MARKINGS
• No specific/regular shape
• Vertebra, pelvis • structural features adapted for specific
functions
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF BSM
Depressions and openings

• Form joints or allow the passage of soft

tissues (vessels, nerves, etc)
• Usually seen at the end of joints
Processes

• Projections or outgrowth that either help

form joint or serve as attachment points for
connective tissue
MARKINGS AND FEATURES OF BONES
Processes that form joints
Sesamoid bone
Condyle

• large, rounded articular area; found at end

• Bone formed within a tendon where tendon of bones
passes over a joint Facet
• Patella - largest sesamoid bone; buried
within the muscle (quadriceps) • smooth, flat area, usually covered with
• Buried in the tendon; its free surface is cartilage where a bone articulates with
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
another bone smaller.
Processes that form attachment point for • Crest – narrow ridge of bone.
connective tissue • Spine – sharp, slender projection
• Head – rounded, enlarged end of a long
Crest bone, Sits atop a narrow portion of the bone
• ridge of bone called the neck.
Epicondyle • Fossa – shallow depression that usually
articulates with a condyle or head of another
• eminence superior to a condyle bone. Sometimes referred to as cavities.
Line • Foramen (pl. foramina) – hole for passage
of nerves, blood vessels, or the spinal cord.
• linear elevation • Meatus – canal-like passageway.
Spinous process • Facet - Smooth flat articular surface.
Example: Superior Articular facet of
• projecting spine-like part
vertebra. Forms parts of joints.
Trochanter
• Ramus – arm-like bar of bone
• large blunt elevation • Line - narrow ridge or border.
Tubercle Example: linea aspera of femur.

• small raised eminence

Tuberosity JOINTS

• large rounded elevation • articulation or junction between two or more

Depression and openings bones or parts of a skeleton
• May either have movement or none
Fossa

• shallow depression CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS ACCORDING TO

Fissure FUNCTION OR MOVEMENT
• narrow slit between adjacent parts of bone Synarthroses
through which blood vessels or nerve pass
Foramen • no/little movement
• Ex: Sutures, Teeth, Epiphyseal plates, 1st
• passage/opening through which blood rib and costal cart
vessels, nerves or ligament pass Amphiarthroses
Meatus
• slight movement
• tubelike opening; ear canal • Ex: Distal Tibia/fibula, Intervertebral discs,
Pubic symphysis
Diarthroses
SUMMARY
• great movement
• Process – extension of a bone away from • Glenohumeral joint, Knee joint, TMJ
the bone’s surface.
• Condyle – rounded eminence that
articulates with a depression or a fossa on
another bone.
• Epicondyle – raised, rounded area located
above a condyle.
• Trochanter – very large, roughened, raised
area found on the femur. The word
"trochanter" is the Greek word for "a
runner." A runner runs thanks to his or her
femur.
• Tuberosity – similar to a trochanter but
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS ACCORDING TO • prevent friction between two articulate
THOSE SEPARATED BY A CAVITY AND surfaces
WITHOUT CAVITY Reinforcing ligaments

True Joints or Synovial joints • extracapsular/intracapsular

Nerves + vessels
• united by an articular cartilage (hyaline) with
a joint cavity enclosed by a joint capsule • Highly innervated
containing synovial fluid • Highly vascular
False Joints or Solid joints Articular disc (fibrocartilage)

• joints without articulating cavity, with no • improves the fit of 2 bones to increase
capsule and no synovial fluid stability
• shock absorber
Fat pads
COMPONENTS OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL/TRUE JOINT BASED ON

SHAPE
PLANE JOINTS (Irregular)
• opposed surfaces of bones are flat
• permits gliding or sliding movement
• UNIAXIAL
• Examples: acromioclavicular joints,
intercarpal, intertarsal, sternoclavicular,
carpometacarpal (2nd – 5th),
zygoapophyseal or facet joint

Articular cartilage
• Hyaline
• covers ends of both bones articulating
Synovial (joint) cavity
• space holding synovial fluid
Articular capsule HINGE JOINTS (ginglymus)
• Made of 2 layers • one plane joint which permits flexion and
• Fibrous: external, dense CT for strength & extension movements only
stabilize joint • UNIAXIAL
• Synovial membrane: internal, produces • Examples: elbow, knee, ankle and
synovial fluid interphalangeal
Synovial fluid
• Viscous
• in capsule and articular cartilages
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
SADDLE JOINT
• are joints with opposing surfaces shaped
like a saddle
• allows flexion/extension,
abduction/adduction and opposition
• MULTIAXIAL
• Examples: carpometacarpal joint of the
thumb
CONDYLOID JOINT (ovoid)
• also known as ellipsoid (wrist joint)
• the convex oval shape projection of one
bone fits into the oval shaped depression of
another bone
• allows flexion and extension; abduction and
adduction and circumduction
• BIAXIAL
• Example: metacarpophalangeal joint,
atlanto-occipital joint (YES joint)
PIVOT JOINTS (trochoid)
• UNIAXIAL joint
• articulation of a rounded or pointed surface
and partly by a ligament
• allows rotation
• Examples: atlanto-axial joint (cervical 1 and
cervical 2 joint); superior radio-ulnar joint
(pronation and supination)
BALL AND SOCKET (universal, spheroidal,
enarthrodial)
• joint allowing the following movements:
flexion/extension, abduction/adduction,
rotation and circumduction
• MULTIAXIAL
• Examples: hip and shoulder joint
PT1011: Introduction to Anatomy
fibrocartilage
• Primary (synchondrosis) - temporary unions
as joints of epiphyseal plate; allows growth
in the length of the bone; where two
ossification enters in developing bone
remain separated by a layer of cartilage
o Example: between first rib and
manubrium, epiphyseal plate; between
head and shaft of developing long bone
• Secondary (symphyses) - strong slightly
movable joints united by fibrocartilage
o Examples: intervertebral disc,
symphysis pubis

UNIAXIAL BIAXIAL MULTIAXIAL

movement in movement in movement in three
one plane two planes planes
Plane Condyloid Ball and Socket
Hinge Saddle
Pivot

Stability of the joint depends on

1. Articular surface
• Stable joints: hip, ankle
• Unstable joint: knee, acromioclavicular
o Tibia and femur are just like on top of
each other
2. Ligaments
• usually stabilizes the joint
• Fibrous ligaments
• Elastic ligaments

TYPES OF SOLID OR FALSE JOINTS

Fibrous joint (Sutures)

• joined by fibrous tissue
• Suture: sutures of the skull (parietal suture -
connects parietal bone),
• Syndesmoses: Interosseous membrane,
mid radius and ulna, coracoacromial joint
• gomphosis or dentoalveolar syndesmosis:
teeth
Cartilaginous joints
• are united by hyaline cartilage or