Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture)
• Anatomy – science of the structure and function of
the body
• Clinical anatomy – the study of the macroscopic
structure and function of the body as it relates to the
practice of medicine and other health sciences
• Basic anatomy – the study of the minimal amount of
anatomy consistent with the understanding of the
overall structure and function of the body
TERMS RELATED TO POSITION
• Anatomic position
- person is standing erect, with the upper limbs by
the sides, and the face and palms of the hands
facing forward
- importance: it’s there to provide reference point
across all medical professionals
- used to form a universal language between
professions
• why 3 planes? Because our body is a 3 dimensional
entity
• Median sagittal plane – vertical plane passing
through the center of the body, dividing it into equal
right and left halves
• Paramedian – planes situated to one or the other
side of the median plane and parallel to it
• Medial – structure nearer to the medial plane of the
body than another
MRMMA
• Lateral – structure that lies farther away from the
medial plane than another
• Coronal plane – vertical planes at right angles to the
median plane
• Anterior & posterior – used to indicate the front and
back of the body (hand: palmar & dorsal; foot:
plantar & dorsal)
• Horizontal/Transverse plane – planes at right angles
to both the median and the coronal planes
• Proximal & distal – describe the relative distance
from the roots of the limbs
• Superficial & deep – denote the relative distances of
structures from the surface of the body
• Superior & inferior – denote levels relatively high or
low with reference to the upper and lower ends of
the body
• Internal & external – describe the relative distance
of a structure from the center of an organ or cavity
• Ipsilateral – same side of the body
• Contralateral – opposite side of the body
• Supine – lying on the back
• Prone – lying face downward
TERMS RELATED TO MOVEMENT
• Joint – site where 2 or more bones come together
o No movement: sutures of the skull
o Slight movement: superior tibiofibular joint
o Freely movable: shoulder joint
• Flexion – takes place in a sagittal plane; usually an
anterior movement but is occasionally posterior, as
in the case of the knee joint
• Extension – straightening the joint and usually takes
place in a posterior direction
• Lateral flexion – movement of the trunk in the
coronal plane
• Abduction – movement of a limb away from the
midline of the body in the coronal plane
• Adduction – movement of a limb towards the body
in the coronal plane
• Fingers & toes: abduction – spreading; adduction –
drawing together
• Rotation – movement of a part of the body around
its long axis
• Medial rotation – movement resulting top anterior
surface of the part facing medially
• Lateral rotation - movement resulting top anterior
surface of the part facing laterally
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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture) MRMMA

• Pronation of the forearm – medial rotation of the
forearm in such a manner that the palm of the hand
face posteriorly
• Supination of the forearm - lateral rotation of the
forearm in such a manner that the palm of the hand
face anteriorly
• Circumduction – combination in sequence of the
movements of flexion, extension, abduction and
adduction
• Protraction – to move forward; Retraction – to
move backward (jaw – temporomandibular joint)
• Inversion – movement of the foot so that the sole
faces in a medial direction
• Eversion – movement of the foot so that the sole
faces in a lateral direction
BASIC STRUCTURES
SKIN
• Epidermis – superficial; stratified epithelium; thick in
the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet to
withstand wear and tear that occurs in these regions
• Dermis – dense connective tissue containing blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves; thinner on
the ant that post; thinner in women than men
• Superficial fascia or subcutaneous tissue – dermis is
connected to the underlying deep fascia or bines by
this
- smooth muscle that connects the
undersurface of the follicle to the
superficial part of the epidermis
- innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers
- contraction = hair moves to a more
vertical position
- compresses sebaceous gland and causes
it to extrude secretions
- pull of muscle = dimpling of skin surface
= gooseflesh
o Sebaceous glands
- Pour secretion, sebum, onto shaft of hair as
they pass through the necks of the follicles
- Sebum = oily material that help preserve the
flexibility of the emerging hair; oils the
surface epidermis around the mouth of the
follicle
o Sweat glands (aka sudoriferous gland)
- Long, spiral, tubular glands distributed over
the surface of the body, except on the red
margins of the lips, nail beds, and the glans
penis and clitoris
- Extend through the full thickness of dermis;
extremities may lie in the superficial fascia
- Most deeply penetrating structure of the
epidermal appendages

• Appendages of skin
o Nails – keratinized plates on the dorsal surfaces
of the tips of the fingers and toes
 Root of the nail – proximal edge of plate
 Nail folds – folds of skin surrounding and
overlapping the nail except the distal edge
of the plate
 Nail bed – surface of the skin covered by
the nail bed
o Hair follicles – invaginations of epidermis into
dermis; where hair grows out of; lies oblique to
the skin surface
 Hair bulb
- expanded extremities of follicles w/c
penetrate to the deeper part of the
epidermis
- concave end which is occupied by
vascular connective tissue called hair
papilla
 Arrector pili muscle

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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture)
FASCIA
• Superficial fascia (or subcutaneous tissue)
- Mixture of loose areolar tissue and adipose tissue
that unites the dermis of the skin to the underlying
deep fascia
- scalp, back of the neck, the palms of the hands,
and the soles of the feet = contains numerous
bundles of collagen fibers that hold the skin firmly
to the deeper structures
- eyelids, auricle of the ear, penis and scrotum, and
clitoris = devoid of adipose tissue
• Deep fascia
- membranous layer of connective tissue that
invests the muscles and other deep structures
- In the region of joints, the deep fascia may be
considerably thickened to form restraining bands
called retinacula
o Function: to hold underlying tendons in
position or to serve as pulleys around which
the tendons may move
MUSCLE
SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Produce movement of the skeleton
• Voluntary muscles
• Made up of striped muscle fibers
• Has 2 or more attachments: origin – moves least;
insertion – moves the most
• Belly: fleshy part of the muscle
• Tendon: ends of a muscle are attached to bones,
cartilage, or ligaments by cords of fibrous tissue by
this
• Aponeurosis: thin but strong sheet of fibrous tissue
that attach flattened muscles
• Raphe: interdigitation of the tendinous ends of fibers
of flat muscles
• muscle fibers are bound together with delicate
areolar tissue, which is condensed on the surface to
form a fibrous envelope, the epimysium
• fibers are either parallel or oblique to the long axis of
the muscle
• muscle shortens by 1/3 to ½ its resting length during
contraction
• degree of movement: parallel fibers > oblique fibers
• strength: oblique fibers > parallel fibers (oblique has
more fibers compared to parallel)
• pennate muscles: muscles whose fibers run
obliquely to the line of pull
• unipennate muscle: tendon lies along one side of the
muscle and the muscle fibers pass obliquely to it (e.g.
extensor digitorum longus)
MRMMA
• bipennate muscle: tendon lies in the center of the
muscle and the muscle fibers pass to it from two
sides (e.g., rectus femoris)
• multipennate muscle: series of bipennate muscles
lying alongside one another (e.g., acromial fibers of
the deltoid) or the tendon lying within its center and
the muscle fibers passing to it from all sides,
converging as they go (e.g., tibialis anterior)
• Prime mover: A muscle is a prime mover when it is
the chief muscle or member of a chief group of
muscles responsible for a particular movement
• Antagonist: Any muscle that opposes the action of
the prime mover is an antagonist. Before a prime
mover can contract, the antagonist muscle must be
equally relaxed; this is brought about by nervous
reflex inhibition
• Fixator: contracts isometrically (i.e., contraction
increases the tone but does not in itself produce
movement) to stabilize the origin of the prime mover
so that it can act efficiently
• Synergist: contract and stabilize the intermediate
joints to prevent unwanted movements in an
intermediate joint
• Nerve supply: mixed nerve = 60% motor, 40%
sensory, has some sympathetic autonomic fibers
• Nerve enters muscle at the motor point (midpoint on
deep surface near the margin) which allows muscle
to move with minimum interference with the nerve
trunk
SMOOTH MUSCLE
• Consists of long, spindle-shaped cells closely
arranged in bundles or sheets
• Peristalsis: digestive system = A wave of contraction
of the circularly arranged fibers passes along the
tube, milking the contents onward. By their
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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture)
contraction, the longitudinal fibers pull the wall of
the tube proximally over the contents
CARDIAC MUSCLE
• Consists of striated muscle fibers that branch and
unite with each other
• Forms the myocardium of the heart
• Fibers: arranged in whorls and spirals; spontaneous
& rhythmic contraction
• Supplied by autonomic nerve fibers that terminate in
the nodes of the conducting system and in the
myocardium
JOINTS
TYPES OF JOINTS (STRUCTURALLY)
• Fibrous joints
- Articulating surfaces of the bones are joined by
fibrous tissue
- Very little movement is possible
- Usually classified as synarthroses
- Tough kind of tissue
- 2 types: (1) bawal talaga gumalaw; (2)
sindesmosis – connective fibers are longer than
the normal fibrous joints thus has acertain degree
of movememt
- Ex: sutures of the vault of the skull & inf
tibiofibular joints
• Cartilaginous joints
- Bone ends are connected by a cartilage
- Slightly movable
- Primary cartilaginous joint: bones are united by a
plate or a bar of hyaline cartilage; no movement is
possible
- Secondary cartilaginous joint: bones are united by
a plate of fibrocartilage and the articular surfaces
of the bones are covered by a thin layer of hyaline
cartilage; small amount of movement is possible
• Synovial joints
- Articulating surfaces of the bones are covered y a
thin layer of hyaline cartilage separated by a joint
MRMMA
cavity (permits a great degree of freedom of
movement)
- Cavity is lined by a synovial membrane
- Synovial membrane is protected on the outside by a
tough fibrous membrane called capsule of the joint
- Articular surfaces are lubricated by a viscous fluid
called synovial fluid, w/c is produced by the synovial
membrane; also acts as the source of nutrients of the
joints
- Articular discs: discs or wedges of fibrocartilage
interposed between the articular surfaces (e.g. knee
joint)
- Fatty pads: between synovial membrane & fibrous
capsule (e.g. hip and knee joints)
- Distinguishing features (true joint if meron lahat
nito)
(1) there should be an articular cartilage at the 2
ends of the bone
(2) there should be fibrous articular capsule (the joint
should have a covering)
(3) there should be a joint cavity (there should be a
space between the connection of the 2 bones
(4) there should be reinforcing ligaments
- Degree of movement of synovial joint is limited by:
(1) shape of bones participating in the joint
(2) coming together of adjacent anatomic structures
(3) presence of fibrous ligaments uniting the bones
***Tendon – bone to muscle
***Ligaments – bone to bone
Classifications of synovial joints:
• Plane joints:
- Articular surface: flat or almost flat (permits bones
to slide on one another)
- Short slipping or gliding movements are allowed
- Movement are non-axial (does not involve
rotation)
- 1 degree of freedom
- E.g. sternoclavicular & acromioclavicular joints
• Hinge joints:
- Resembles hinge on a door
- Articular surface: cylindrical
- One of the bones fits a trough shape
- Angular movement is allowed in just one plane
- Uni-axial (may rotation)
- 1 degree of freedom
- Movements: extension & flexion only
- E.g. elbow, knee & ankle joints
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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture)
• Pivot joints:
- Central bony pivot is surrounded by a bony-
ligamentous ring
- one rounded end of one joint fits into a sleeve-
like/ring-like shape of bone (pwede ligament);
rotating bone can only turn around in its own axis
- Uni-axial
- 1 degree of freedom (transverse plane)
- Movement: rotation only
- E.g. atlantoaxial & superior radioulnar joints
• Condyloid joints:
- 2 distinct convex surfaces articulate with 2 concave
surfaces
- egg shaped articular surface of one bone fits into an
oval bone cavity of another
- articular surface: oval
- Allows side to side movement & back and forth
Cant rotate on its own axis
- 2 degrees of fredom
- Movements: flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, small amount of rotation
- E.g. metacarpophalangeal or knuckle joints
• Ellipsoid joints:
- Elliptical convex articular surface fits into an
elliptical concave articular surface
- Movements: flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, rotation is impossible
- e.g. wrist joint
• Saddle joints:
- Articular surface: reciprocally concavoconvex;
resembles a saddle on a horse’s back
- Movements: flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, rotation
- E.g. carpometacarpal joint of the thumb
• Ball-and-socket joints:
- Ball-shaped head of one bone fits into a socket like
concavity of another
- multi-axial joint
- Movements: (free) flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation,
circumduction
- E.g. shoulder & hip joints
TYPES OF JOINTS (FUNCTIONALITY)
• Synarthroses
- immovable joints
- e.g. bones of the skull
• Amphiarthroses
- slightly movable joints
MRMMA
- Stable but minimal degree of freedom
- e.g. symphysis pubis
• Diarthroses
- freely movable
- e.g. shoulder, elbow, wrist, knee, ankle joints
Stability of joints
• Shape, size, and arrangement of the articular
surfaces
• Ligaments
• Tone of the muscles around the joint
• Fibrous ligaments prevent excessive movement in a
joint, but if the stress is continued for an excessively
long period, then fibrous ligaments stretch
• Elastic ligaments, conversely, return to their original
length after stretching.
• Hilton’s law: A sensory nerve supplying a joint also
supplies the muscles moving the joint and the skin
overlying the insertions of these muscles
LIGAMENTS
• A cord or band of connective tissue uniting 2
structures
• (1st type) composed of dense bundles of collagen
fibers and are unstretchable under normal
conditions (e.g. iliofemoral ligament of hip joint &
collateral ligaments of elbow joint)
• (2nd type) composed largely of elastic tissues and can
regain its original length after stretching (e.g.
ligamentum flavum of vertebral column &
calcaneonavicular ligament of foot)
BURSAE
• Lubricating device consisting of a closed fibrous sac
lined with a delicate smooth membrane
• Walls are separated by a film of viscous fluid
• Found wherever tendons rub against bones,
ligaments, or other tendons
• Commonly found close to joints where the skin rubs
against underlying structures
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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture)
SYNOVIAL SHEATH
• Tubular bursa that surrounds a tendon
• Occurs where tendons pass under ligaments and
retinacula and through osseofibrous tunnels
• Function: reduce friction between tendon and
surrounding structure
• tendon invaginates the bursa from one side so that
the tendon becomes suspended within the bursa by
a mesotendon (enables blood vessels to enter the
tendon along its course)
• ROM is extensive: mesotendon disappears or
remains as narrow threads (vincula)
BLOOD VESSELS
• 3 types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, & capillaries
• Arteries: transport blood from the heart an
distribute it to the various tissues of the body by
means of their branches. Do not have valves
• Arterioles: smallest arteries, <0.1 mm
• Anastomosis: joining of branches of arteries
• Anatomic end arteries: vessels whose terminal
branches do not anastomose with branches of
arteries supplying adjacent areas
• Functional end arteries: vessels whose terminal
branches do anastomose with branches of those
adjacent, but the caliber of the anastomosis is
insufficient to keep the tissue alive should one of the
arteries become blocked
• Veins: vessels that transport blood back to the heart;
many of them posses valves
• Venules: smallest veins
• Tributaries: smaller veins; unite to form larger veins,
w/c commonly join with one another to form venous
plexuses
• Venae comitantes: medium-size deep arteries are
often accompanied by 2 veins, one on each side
MRMMA
• Veins leaving gastrointestinal tract: does not go
directly to the heart but converge on the portal vein
(liver – breaks into smaller veins – joins sinusoids
(capillary-like vessels))
• Portal system: system of vessels interpose between
2 capillary beds
• Capillaries: miscroscopic vessels in the form of a
network connecting the arterio;es to the venules
• Sinusoids: thin walls, irregular cross diameter, wider
than capillaries. Found in the bone marrow, spleen,
liver, & some endocrine glands
• Arteriovenous anastomoses: direct connections
between the arteries and the veins (e.g. in the tips of
the fingers and toes)
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• Consists of lymphatic tissues and lymphatic vessels
• Drainage, no circulation
• found in all tissues and organs of the body except
CNS, eyeball, internal ear, epidermis, cartilage, &
bone
• Lymphatic tissues
- a type of connective tissue that contains large
numbers of lymphocytes
- thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic nodules
- essential for the immunologic defenses of the
body against bacteria and viruses
• Lymphatic vessels
- tubes that assist the cardiovascular system in the
removal of tissue fluid from the tissue spaces of
the body; the vessels then return the fluid to the
blood
- found in all tissues and organs of the body except
CNS, eyeball, internal ear, the epidermis of the
skin, the cartilage, and the bone
- beaded appearance due to presence of numerous
valves along their course
• Lymph: tissue fluid once it entered a lymphatic
vessel
• Lymph capillaries: a network of fine vessels that
drain lymph from the tissues. Drained by small lymph
vessels w/c unite to form large lymph vessels
• Afferent vessels: lymph vessels that carry a lymph
TO a lymph node
• Efferent vessels: lymph vessels that carry a lymph
AWAY from a lymph node
• lymph reaches the bloodstream at the root of the
neck by large lymph vessels called the right
lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct
NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Nervous system = CNS & PNS
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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture)
• Central NS
- brain & spinal cord
- composed of large nos. of nerve cells & their
processes, supported by specialized tissue
neuroglia
- Neuron: nerve cell & its processes (dendrites and
axons)
- Dendrites: SHORT processes of the cell body
- Axons: LONGEST processes of the cell body
- Gray matter: consists of nerve cells embedded in
neuroglia
- White matter: consists of nerve fibers (axons)
embedded in neuroglia
• Peripheral NS
- 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal
nerves & their associated ganglia
- cranial & spinal nerves are made up of bundles of
nerve fibers (axons) supported by delicate areolar
tissue
• Somatic NS: controls voluntary activities
• Autonomic NS
- controls involuntary activities
- hypothalamus controls it and integrates the
activities of the autonomic and neuroendocrine
systems, thus preserving homeostasis
activities of the sympathetic part of the autonomic
system
- prepare the body for an emergency
- accelerates the heart rate, causes constriction of the
peripheral blood vessels, and raises the blood
pressure
- sympathetic part of the autonomic system brings
about a redistribution of the blood (areas of the skin
and intestine  brain, heart, and skeletal muscle)
- inhibits peristalsis of the intestinal tract and closes
the sphincters
activities of the sympathetic part of the autonomic
system
- aim at conserving and restoring energy
- slow the heart rate, increase peristalsis of the
intestine and glandular activity, and open the
sphincters
• Cranial nerves: foramina in the skull; Spinal nerves:
intervertebral foramina
• All the cranial nerves are distributed in the head
and neck except the Xth (vagus), which also supplies
structures in the thorax and abdomen
• Spinal nerves: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5
sacral, and 1 coccygeal
MRMMA
• During development: SC slows slower than the
vertebral column
• In adult: SC = lower border of 1st lumbar vertebra
• Spinal nerve roots: Upper cervical = short and
almost horizontal; lumbar and sacral = vertical
bundle of nerves that resemble a horse’s tail (cauda
equina)
• Spinal nerve is connected to the spinal cord via ant
root and post root
• Anterior root:
- consists bundles of nerve fibers that carries nerve
impulses AWAY from the CNS
- efferent fibers
- Motor fibers: efferent fibers that go to the skeletal
muscle & cause them to contract
- origin lie in the anterior gray horn of the SC
• Posterior root
- consists bundles of nerve fibers that carries nerve
impulses TO the CNS
- afferent fibers
- concerned with conveying information about
sensations of touch, pain, temperature, and
vibrations
- sensory fibers
- situated in a swelling on the posterior root called
the posterior root ganglion
• Intervertebral foramen: roots unite to form spinal
nerves
• Spinal nerves: mixture of sensory and motor fibers
• Spinal nerves  foramen  anterior and posterior
ramus (supplies skin and muscles of back (post) and
anterolateral body wall, muscles, and skin of the
limbs (ant))
• Meningeal branch: supplies the vertebrae and the
meninges of the SC
• Rami communicantes: thoracic spinal nerve branch;
associated w/ the sympathetic part of the ANS
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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture)
• Cervical & brachial plexuses – root of upper limbs
• Lumbar & sacral plexuses – root of lower limbs
Sympathetic system
• Lateral horn/column of gray matter – 1st thoracic to
2nd lumbar segment
• Cell bodies of sympathetic connector neurons are
located in the lateral horn/column of the gray matter
o Myelinated axons: ant nerve roots  white
rami communicantes  paravertebral ganglia
of the sympathetic trunk
• Connector cell fiber is called preganglionic as they
pass to a peripheral ganglion
• Destinations preganglionic pass once they reach the
ganglia in the sympathetic trunk:
o They may terminate in the ganglion they have
entered by synapsing with an excitor cell in the
ganglion. Postganglionic nerve fibers 
thoracic spinal nerve (as gray rami
comunicantes)  smooth mm, muscle of walls
of blood vessels, sweat glands, arrector pili
muscle
 Synapse: site where two neurons come
into close proximity but not into
 Acetylcholine: neurotransmitter that
bridge the gap between 2 neurons
o Fibers entering sympathetic trunk high up in
the thorax may travel up in the sympathetic
trunk to the ganglia in the cervical region,
where they synapse with excitor cells.
Postganglionic fibers join cervical spinal nerves.
Preganglionic that enter the lower part from
the lower thoracic & upper lumbar travel to
ganglia in the lower lumbar and sacral regions.
Postganglionic fibers join the lumbar, sacral
and coccygeal spinal nerves.
o preganglionic fibers may pass through the
ganglia on the thoracic part of the sympathetic
trunk without synapsing
 greater splanchnic nerve: 5th-9th thoracic
ganglia  pierces diaphragm synapse
w/ excitor cells of celiac plexus
 lesser splanchnic nerve: 10th & 11th
thoracic ganglia  diaphragm  excitor
cells of lower celiac plexus
 lowest splanchnic nerve: 12th thoracic
ganglion  diaphragm  excitor cells of
renal plexus
MRMMA
* splanchnic nerves are made up of preganglionic
fibers
• sympathetic trunks are 2 ganglionated nerve trunks
that extend the whole length of the vertebral
column. The 2 trunks, at the end, join together to
form the ganglion impar
o neck – 3 ganglia
o thorax – 11 or 12 ganglia
o lumbar region – 4 or 5 ganglia
o pelvis – 4 or 5 ganglia
Parasympathetic system
• connector cells are located in the brain and sacral
segments of the SC
• forms nuclei of origin of CN III, VII, IX, X
• sacral connector cells found in gray matter of 2nd,
3rd & 4th sacral segments
• axons form the pelvic splanchnic nerves
• cranial preganglionic fibers relay in the ciliary,
pterygopalatine, submandibular, otic ganglia
• preganglionic fibers in the pelvic splanchnic nerves
relay in ganglia in the hypogastric plexuses or in the
walls of the viscera
• parasympathetic postganglionic fibers are
nonmyelinated and are relatively shorter than
sympathetic postganglionic fibers
• nerve endings in the autonomic afferent
component may not be activated by such
sensations as heat or touch but instead by stretch
or lack of oxygen
:
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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture) MRMMA
• consist of a smooth layer of mesothelium supported
by a thin layer of connective tissue
• parietal layer: wall of cavity
- developed from somatopleure (inner cell layer of
mesoderm)
- Richly supplied by spinal nerves
- sensitive to common sensations such as touch,
pain
• visceral layer: viscera
- developed from splanchnopleure (inner cell layer
of mesoderm)
- Supplied by autonomic nerves
- Insensitive to touch and temperature
- Very sensitive to stretch
• narrow, slitlike interval that separates these layers
forms the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal
cavities and contains a small amount of serous
liquid, the serous exudate (lubricates the surfaces
of the membranes and allows the 2 layers to slide
readily on each other)

BONE

• living tissue capable of changing its structure as the

result of the stresses to which it is subjected
MUCOUS MEMBRANES
• has cells, fibers and matrix
• linings of organs or passages that communicate
• hard because of the calcification of its extracellular
with the surface of the body
matrix
• consists of a layer of epithelium supported by a
• possesses a degree of elasticity because of the
layer of connective tissue, the lamina propria
presence of organic fibers
• smooth muscle (muscularis mucosa) is sometimes
• Functions:
present in the connective tissue
o has protective function
• may or may not secrete mucus
o serves as a lever as seen in the long bones of
the limbs
SEROUS MEMBRANES
o storage area for calcium salts
• lines the cavities of the trunk and are reflected onto
o houses and protects within its cavities the
the mobile viscera lying within these cavities
delicate blood-forming bone marrow

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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture)
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
BONE CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO TYPE OF
BONE TISSUE
• compact bone
- solid mass
- dense, looks smooth, & homogenous
- outer layer of the bone
- mainly responsible for body support and
protection
• spongy (cancellous) bone
- small needle like pieces of bones w/ lots of open
spaces
- inner layer of the bone
- mainly responsible for blood cell production
- consists of a branching network of trabeculae
(arranged in such a manner as to resist the
stresses and strains to which the bone is
exposed)
BONE CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO LOCATION
• axial bones
- 80
- located at the midline of the body
- mainly responsible in supporting and protecting
different vital organs
- serves as point of attachment to the appendicular
bones (stabilization)
• appendicular bones
- located at the lateral side of the body
- mainly responsible for mobility and functionality
(lower extremities: ambulation)
BONE CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO REGION
• Long bones
MRMMA
- found in the limbs (e.g. humerus, femur,
metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges)
- length > breadth
- has a tubular shaft (diaphysis) and usually an
epiphysis at each end
- during growing stage, epiphyseal cartilage
separated diaphysis from epiphysis
- metaphysis: part of the diaphysis that lies
adjacent to the epiphyseal cartilage
- shaft has a central marrow cavity containing bone
marrow
- epiphysis is covered by an articular cartilage
- bone cavity (medullary cavity): storage area for
adipose tissues (fat); “yellow marrow” kapag
matanda na
- outer part of shaft is composed of compact bone
covered by a connective tissue sheath, the
periosteum
- endosteum: inner lining of the bone
- epiphyseal line: thin line of bony tissue spanning
the epiphysis (remnants of epiphyseal plate)
- ends of long bones are composed of cancellous
bone surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone
- articular surfaces of the end of the bones are
covered by hyaline cartilage
• Short bones
- found in the hand and foot (e.g. scaphoid, lunate,
talus, calcaneum)
- carpals, tarsals
- Roughly cuboidal in shape
- Composed of cancellous bones surrounded by a
thin layer of compact bone
- covered w/ periosteum
- Articular surfaces are covered by hyaline cartilage
• Flat bones
- found in the vault of the skull (e.g. frontal &
parietal bones)
- thin, flattened and usually curved
- composed of thin inner and outer layers of
compact bone (tables)
- tables are separated by a layer of cancellous bone
(diploe)
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Anatomy: Introduction (Snell + Lecture) MRMMA
- scapula (also irregular), sternum

• Irregular bones
- include those not assigned to the previous groups
- e.g. bones of the skull, the vertebrae, pelvic bones
- composed of thin shell of compact bone w/ an
anterior made up of cancellous bone

• Sesamoid bones
- small nodules of bone that are found in certain
tendons where they rub over bony surfaces
- greater part of bone is buried in the tendon
- free surface is covered w/ cartilage
- largest sesamoid bone: patella
- examples: bones found in the tendons of the
flexor pollicis brevis & flexor hallucis brevis
- patella bone/kneecap & pisiform bone
- Function: to reduce friction in the tendon. It can
alter the direction of pull of a tendon

BONE MARROW
• Occupies the marrow cavity in long and short bones
and the interstices of the cancellous bone in flat
and irregular bones
• At birth, it is red and hematopoietic
• Blood-forming activity gradually lessens w/ age: red
marrow  yellow marrow
• @ 7 y/o, yellow margin begins to appear in the
distal bones of the limbs
• Replacement of marrow gradually moves proximally
• Periosteum has an abundant vascular supply and
the cells on its deeper surface are osteogenic. It also
has a rich nerve supply and is thus very sensitive
• Sharpey’s fibers: bundle of collagen fibers that
extend from the periosteum into the underlying
bone

DEVELOPMENT OF BONE
• Membranous
- Bone is developed directly from a connective
tissue membrane
- E.g. bones of the vault of the skull
o Embryo – to protect brain

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o Birth – allows mobility of bones so skull can - repairs itself with fibrous tissue
undergo molding during its descent through - found in auricle, external auditory meatus,
the female genital passages auditory tube, epiglottis

• Endochondral • Hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage tend to calcify or

- A cartilaginous model is first laid down and is even ossify in later life
later replaced by bone
- E.g. bones of limbs (endochondral ossification –
slow process that is not completed until the 18th–
20th year or even later)
- Epiphyseal plate: plate of cartilage at each end,
lying between the epiphysis and diaphysis in a
growing bone; responsible for longitudinal
growth
- Metaphysis: part of the diaphysis that abuts onto
the epiphyseal plate

CARTILAGE
• form of connective tissue in which the cells and
fibers are embedded in a gel-like matrix, the latter
being responsible for its firmness and resilience
• perichondrium: fibrous membrane that covers
cartilage (except on the exposed surfaces in joints)

• hyaline cartilage
- has a high proportion of amorphous matrix that
has the same refractive index as the fibers
embedded in it
- plays an important part in the growth in length of
long bones (epiphyseal plates are composed of
hyaline cartilage)
- has great resistance to wear
- covers the articular surfaces of nearly all synovial
joints
- incapable of repair when fractured; defect is
filled with fibrous tissue

• fibrocartilage
- has many collagen fibers embedded in a small
amount of matrix
- found in the discs within joints (e.g.
temporomandibular joint, sternoclavicular joint &
knee joint) and on the articular surfaces of the
clavicle and mandible
- repairs itself slowly in a manner similar to fibrous
tissue
- joint discs have poor blood supply & do not
repair themselves when damaged

• elastic cartilage
- possesses large numbers of elastic fibers
embedded in matrix
- flexible

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1. MAIN HEADING - 7a003d
1.1. SUB HEADING - bb005d
1.1.1 MINI SUBHEADING - fee2f0

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