I.

Introduction  Distal – away or far from the point

Descriptive Anatomic Terms
Terms Related to Position
Anatomic Position – universal
position assumptions.
Median Sagittal Plane
 a vertical plane passing through the
center of the body, dividing it into
equal right and left halves.
of attachment or origin.
 Superficial – closer to the
surface/skin.
 Deep – away or far from the
surface/skin.
 Superior (cranial) – upper body
 Inferior (caudal) - lower body
 Internal – inside/ distance from the
center or cavity of organ
 External – outside
 Ipsilateral – same side of the body.
 Contralateral – opposite side of the
body.
 Supine – position of the body is
lying on the back.
 Prone – position lying face
downward.
body Terms related to Movement

 Midline – middle of the body.

 Medial – nearer to the plane of the
body.
 Lateral – lies farther away from the
median line.
 Anterior (ventral)– front of the body
 Posterior (dorsal)– back of the body
o Hands
 Palmar – anterior
 Dorsal – posterior
o Foot
 Plantar – lower
surface Joint – site where two or more bones come
 Dorsal – upper surfaces together.
 Proximal – toward or near the origin
Flexion – takes place in a sagittal plane.
Extension – straightening the joint. Dermis – deep part
Lateral Flexion - movement of the trunk in  Thinner on the joints where skin
the coronal plane. creases, anterior
 Thicker on the soles of feet and
Abduction – movement of a limb away
hands
from the midline of the body in coronal
plane. Appendages
Adduction – movement of a limb toward  Nails, hair follicles, sebaceouos
the body in coronal plane. glands, sweat glands
Medial Rotation - movement that results
in the anterior surface of the
part facing medially.
Lateral Rotation - movement that results
in the anterior surface of the part facing
laterally.
Pronation of the forearm – medial rotation
of the forearm in such a manner that the
palm of the hand faces posteriorly.
Supination of the forearm - lateral rotation
of the forearm from the pronated position so
that the palm of the hand comes to face
anteriorly. Nails
Circumduction - combination in sequence  Keratinized plates on the dorsal
of the movements of flexion, extension, surfaces of the tips of finger and
abduction, and adduction. toes.
Protraction – move forward. Root of the nail – proximal edge of plate
Retraction – move backward (movement of Nails folds – surrounds and overlapped skin
the jaw at temporomandibular joints). in nails
Inversion – movement of the foot the sole Nail bed – surface of skin covered by nail.
faces in a medial direction.
Eversion – opposite movement of the foot,
the sole faces in lateral direction.
Basic Structure
Skin
Epidermis – superficial part
 that unites the dermis of the skin to
underlying deep fascia.
Deep fascia - membranous layer of
connective tissue that invests the muscles
and other deep structures.
Retinacula – deep fascia in the region of
joints that form restraining bands.
 Holds underlying tendons in
position.
 Serves as pulleys
Muscle

Hair Skeletal Muscle (voluntary muscle)

 Grows out of follicles (invagination  Movements of skeleton

of epidermis into dermis)  Made up of stripped muscle fibers
 Attachments
Hair bulbs – expanded extremities of
o Origin –
follicles that penetrate to the deeper part of
dermis.
Hair papilla – vascular connective tissue
that occupies the concavity of hair bulb
Arrector pili - connects the undersurface of
the follicle to the superficial part of the
dermis
Sebum - oily material that helps preserve
the flexibility of the emerging hair.
attachment that moves the
Sweat glands - long, spiral, tubular glands
least.
distributed over the surface of the body,
o Insertion – moves the most.
except on the red margins of the lips, the
nail beds, and the glans penis and clitoris  origin and insertion
are interchangeable.
 the most deeply penetrating o Belly – fleshy part of muscle.
structures of all the epidermal o Tendons – end of `muscle
appendages. attach to bones, cartilage, or
Fasciae ligament by cords of fibrous
tissue.
Superficial fascia (subcutaneous tissue) – o Aponeurosis – thin but strong
mixture of loose areolar and adipose tissue sheet of fibrous tissue.
 o Raphe – interdigitation of the
tendinous ends of fibers of
flat muscles.
Internal Structure of Skeletal Muscle
Epimysium – fibrous envelope the bound
the muscle fiber together.
Pennate muscles - Muscles whose fibers
run obliquely to the line of pull.
Unipennate muscles - tendon lies along one
side of the muscle and the muscle fibers pass
obliquely to it.
Bipennate muscle - tendon lies in the center
of the muscle and the muscle fibers pass to it
from two sides.
Multipennate muscle - arranged as a series
of bipennate muscles lying alongside one
another or may have the tendon lying within
its center and the muscle fibers passing to it
from all sides.
equally relaxed; this is brought about
by nervous reflex inhibition.
 Biceps femoris on Quadriceps
femoris when knee joint is extended.
Fixator – contracts isometrically to stabilize
the origin of prime mover.
 Muscles attaching the shoulder girdle
to the trunk contract to allow deltoid
to act on shoulder joint.
Synergist – contract and stabilize the
intermediate joints to prevent unwanted
movements.
 flexor and extensor muscles of the
carpus contract to fix the wrist joint.
Nerve Supply of Skeletal Muscle
Mixed nerve – 60% motor, 40% sensory,
some sympathetic autonomic fibers
Motor point – place of entrance of nerve on
muscle.
Naming Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal Muscle Action

Prime mover – chief muscle or member of
chief group muscle responsible for a
particular movement.
 Quadriceps femoris of extending
knee joint.
Antagonist – opposes the action of prime
movers.
Smooth Muscle
 Before a prime mover can contract,
the antagonist muscle must be  consist of long, spindle-shaped cells
closely arranged in bundles or sheets.
  causes the ingested food to be
thoroughly mixed with the digestive
juices by peristalsis in digestive
system.
Cardiac Muscle
 consist of striated muscle fiber that
branch and unite with each other.
 Forms the conducting system
myocardium of heart.
 Fibers arranged in whorls and spiral
and property of spontaneous and
rhythmic contraction.
Joints
 Site where two or more bones come
together, whether or not movement
occurs between them.
Classification according to tissue lie
between the bones
 Primary Cartilaginous Joint
o Bones are united by a plate or
bar of hyaline cartilage
o Union between the epiphysis
and diaphysis of a growing
bone & bet. 1st rib and
manubrium sterni.
 Secondary Cartilaginous Joint
o Bones are united by a plate of
fibrocartilage and the
articular surfaces of the bones
are covered by thin layer of
hyaline cartilage.
 Joints between vertebral bodies &
symphysis pubis.

Synovial Joints
 Articular surfaces of the bones are
covered by a thin layer of hyaline
cartilage separated by a joint cavity.
 permits a great degree of freedom of
Fibrous Joints
movement.
 Articulating surfaces of bones are  Synovial membrane
joined by fibrous tissue. o Lined the
 Little movement is possible cavity of
joint.
 Capsule
o Tough
fibrous
membrane
that
protects the
outside of synovial
Cartilaginous Joints
membrane.
  Synovial fluid
o Viscous fluid that lubricates
the articular surfaces
 Articular discs Pivot Joints
o Fibrocartilage are interposed
 a central bony pivot is surrounded by
between the articular
a bony–ligamentous ring, rotation is
surfaces. E.g. knee joint
the only movement possible.
 Fatty pads
 atlantoaxial and superior radioulnar
o Lies between the synovial
joints
membrane and fibrous
capsule or bone. E.g. hip and
knee joint

Classification of Synovial Joints

according to arrangement of articular
surfaces and types of movement
Plane Joints
 apposed articular surfaces are flat or
almost flat, and this permits the
bones to slide on one another.
 sternoclavicular and
acromioclavicular joints
Hinge Joints
 resemble the hinge on a door, so that
flexion and extension movements are
possible.
 elbow, knee, and ankle joints
Condyloid Joints
 have two distinct convex surfaces
that articulate with two concave
surfaces.
 movements of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction are
possible together with a small
amount of rotation.
 metacarpophalangeal joints or
knuckle joints
Ellipsoid
Joints
 elliptical convex articular surface fits
into an elliptical concave articular
surface.
 movements of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction can take
place, but rotation is impossible.
  Wrist joint
Saddle Joints
 articular surfaces are reciprocally
concavoconvex and resemble a
saddle on a horse’s back
 permit flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, and rotation
 carpometacarpal joint of thumb
Ball and Socket Joints
 a ball-shaped head of one bone fits
into a socket like concavity of
another.
 permits free movements, including
flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, medial rotation, lateral
rotation, and circumduction.
 Shoulder and hip joints
Stability of Joints
Stability of joints depends on three main
factors:
1. the shape, size, and arrangement of
the articular surfaces
2. the ligaments
a. fibrous ligaments – prevent
excessive movement
b. elastic ligaments – support
joints and bones back to their
original position after
movement.
3. the tone of the muscles around the
joint.
Nerve Supply of Joints
A sensory nerve supplying a joint also
supplies the muscles moving the joint and
the skin overlying the insertions of these
muscles, a fact that has been codified as
Hilton’s law.
Ligaments
 cord or band of connective tissue
uniting two structures. Commonly
associated with joints.
 Two types:
o composed of dense bundles
of collagen fibers and are
unstretchable under normal
conditions.
o composed largely of elastic
tissues and can therefore
regain its original length after
stretching.
Bursae
 lubricating device consisting of a
closed fibrous sac lined with a
delicate smooth membrane.
 Found wherever tendons rub against
bones, ligaments, or other tendons,
close to joints where the skin rubs
against underlying bony structure.
Synovial Sheath
  a tubular bursa that surrounds a
tendon.
 Mesotendon - tendon invaginates the
bursa from one side so that the
tendon becomes suspended within
the bursa by this.
o enables blood vessels to enter
the tendon along its course
 occur where tendons pass under
ligaments and retinacula and through
osseofibrous tunnel.
 reduce friction between the tendon
and its surrounding structures.
Blood Vessels
2. Veins
1. Arteries
transport blood from the heart and
distribute it to the various tissues of
the body by branches.
a. Arterioles – smallest arteries
(<0.1 mm)
b. Anastomosis - joining of
branches of arteries.
c. Anatomic end arteries -
vessels whose terminal
branches do not anastomose
with branches of arteries
supplying adjacent areas.
d. Functional end arteries -
vessels whose terminal
branches do anastomose with
those of adjacent arteries, but
the caliber of the anastomosis
is insufficient to keep the
tissue alive should one of the
arteries become blocked.
vessels that transport blood back to
the heart
a. Venules – smallest veins
b. Tributaries – smaller veins
that unites to form larger
veins.
c. Venous plexuses – joined
larger veins
 d. Venae comitantes - medium-
size deep arteries are often
accompanied by two veins,
one on each side.
e. Portal system – system of
vessel interposed between
two capillary beds.
3. Capillaries
microscopic vessels in the form of a
network connecting the arterioles to
the venules.
a. Sinusoids - resemble
capillaries in that they are
thin walled blood vessels, but
they have an irregular cross
diameter and are wider than
capillaries.
Bone
 a living tissue capable of changing
its structure as the result of the
stresses to which it is subjected.
 consists of cells, fibers, and matrix
 hard because of the calcification of
its extracellular matrix and possesses
a degree of elasticity because of the
presence of organic fibers
 protective function, as lever
 Compact Bone
o Solid mass
 Cancellous Bone
o Branching network of
trabeculae
Classification of Bones
According to their General Shape
Long Bones
 Found in the limbs (humerus, femur,
metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges)
 Length is greater than their breadth
 have a tubular shaft, the diaphysis,
and usually an epiphysis at each end
 Epiphyseal cartilage – separate the
diaphysis from epiphysis.
 Metaphysis – part of diaphysis that
lies adjacent to epiphysis cartilage.
 Bone marrow in shaft marrow cavity
 Outer part of shaft has compact bone
covered by connective tissue sheath
– Periosteum
 End of long bones are composed of
cancellous bone surrounded by thin
layer of compact bone, articular
surfaces (covered by hyaline
cartilage)
Short Bones
 Found in the hand and foot
(scaphoid, lunate, talus, calcaneum)
 Cuboidal in shape
 Composed of cancellous bone
surrounded with thin layer of
compact bone.
 Covered with periosteum, articular
surfaces by hyaline cartilage.
Flat Bones
 Found in vault of skulls
 Composed of thin inner and outer
layer of compact bones, tables,
separated by layer of cancellous
bone, diploë.
 Irregular Bones
  Includes bone that are not assigned Development of Bone
to the previous groups (bones of
 Membranous
skull, vertebrae, pelvic bones)
o bone is developed directly
 Composed of thin shell of compact
bone with an interior made up of from a connective tissue
cancellous bone. membrane.
 Endochondral
Sesamoid Bones o a cartilaginous model is first
laid down and is later
 small nodules of bone
replaced by bone
 found in certain tendons where they
 Diaphysis – center of bone formation
rub over bony surfaces.
found in the shaft of the bone.
 greater part is buried in the tendon,
 Epiphysis - centers at the ends of the
and the free surface is covered with
bone.
cartilage.
 Epiphyseal plate - plate of cartilage
 Patella – largest, located in the
at each end, lying between the
tendon of the quadriceps femoris.
epiphysis and diaphysis in a growing
 Reduces friction on the tendon; it can
bone.
also alter the direction of pull of a
 Metaphysis - part of the diaphysis
tendon.
that abuts onto the epiphyseal plate.
Surface Markings of Bones
Cartilage
 Surfaces of bone show markings or
 form of connective tissue in which
irregularities
the cells and fibers are embedded in
 Where bands of fascia, ligaments,
a gel-like matrix.
tendons, or aponeuroses are attached
 Perichondrium – covers the cartilage
to bone, the surface is raised or
 Three types
roughened
o Hyaline cartilage
 Appear at puberty became more
obvious during adult life.  high proportion of
amorphous matrix
Bone Marrow  important part in the
growth in length of
 occupies the marrow cavity in long
long bones
and short bones and the interstices of
 incapable of repair
the cancellous bone in flat and
when fractured
irregular bones.
o Fibrocartilage
 red and hematopoietic at birth, lessen
with age, replaced with yellow  many collagen fibers
marrow (at 7 yrs age at distal bone of embedded in a small
limbs) amount of matrix
 red marrow = skull, vertebral  if damaged, repairs
column, thoracic cage, girdle bones, itself slowly
head of humerus and femur. o Elastic cartilage
 large numbers of
elastic fibers
embedded in matrix
 flexible
 auricle of ear,
epiglottis, auditory
tube
 if damaged, repairs
itself with fibrous
tissue.