Joints

Bones are linked together by joints.

Most joints allow different parts of
the skeleton to move. The human
skeleton has joints called synovial
joints.

The synovial joint

When two surfaces move against each
other, a force called friction tries to
stop them.
To reduce friction: The main features of a synovial joint

• the ends of the bones are covered

with a very smooth, slippery material
called cartilage
• a thick, slippery fluid called synovial
fluid fills the spaces between the two
bones.
The synovial fluid helps to lubricate
the joint, like oil in the moving parts
of an engine or bicycle.

Movement
Different types of synovial joint allow different types of movement. The table describes two
types of joint:
Type of joint Examples Movement allowed

The same as opening and closing

Hinge joint Knee, elbow
a door, with no rotation (turning)

Back and forth in all directions,

Ball and socket Hip, shoulder
and rotation

The bones cannot move on their own - they need muscles for this to happen.
 Muscles
Muscles work by getting shorter.
We say that they contract, and
the process is called contraction.
Muscles are attached to bones by
strong tendons. When a muscle
contracts, it pulls on the bone,
and the bone can move if it is
part of a joint.
Antagonistic muscles
Muscles can only pull and cannot push. This would
be a problem if a joint were controlled by just one
muscle. As soon as the muscle had contracted and
pulled on a bone, that would be it, with no way to
move the bone back again. This problem is solved by
having muscles in pairs, called antagonistic muscles.
For example, your elbow joint has two muscles that
move your forearm up or down. These are the
biceps on the front of the upper arm and the triceps
on the back of the upper arm:
 to raise the forearm, the biceps contracts and
the triceps relaxes
 to lower the forearm again, the triceps
contracts and the biceps relaxes

Muscles exert a force on bones when they contract. This happens for example when you lift
or hold an object, or when you move a part of your body. If you hold an object weighing 10
N, keeping it still and with your forearm horizontal and your upper arm vertical, you would
be exerting
Key points an upwards force of 10 N on the object. You could work out the force exerted
by the biceps muscle to do this using the idea of moments. The way in which muscles and
 The
bones work adaptations
together toofexert
organisms
forces allow them
is called to thrive in different habitats,
biomechanics.
including extreme environments.
 Evolution explains how better adapted organisms have an advantage and are
Adaptations
The biceps contracts and raises the forearm as the
more likely to
The triceps contracts and lowers the
have offspring with this same adaptation. forearm as the biceps relaxes
triceps relaxes

Examples of adaptation Adaptations of plants

Adaptations are features of living organisms that Plants also have a wide range of
help them survive. These can be to do with their adaptations. In rainforests there is a
physical appearance - structural adaptations - or huge diversity of plants, many not yet
they can be behavioural adaptations, which identified by humans.
  Many trees in the rainforest

Adaptations of extremophiles
Extremophiles are organisms that live in extreme
environments. These places have conditions
outside of the normal range that most life can live
in. Deserts are extreme environments because of
the heat during the day, cold at night and lack of
water.

Deserts Polar Regions

The cactus is an example of a plant which is able
to survive in deserts with extremes of
temperature and a lack of fresh water. They have:
 Stems that can store water.
 Widespread or very deep root systems that
can collect water from a large area or from
very deep underground.
 Spines which prevent the plant being
eaten.
 The spines are modified leaves. These
minimise the surface area and so reduce
water loss.
 Very thick, waxy cuticle to reduce water
loss.
 Reduced number of pores called stomata
to reduce water loss.
The Polar Regions are also extreme
environments because of the cold
temperatures and lack of liquid fresh
water. Polar bears are adapted to live
in the Arctic. They hibernate through
the most severe months and have:
 Thick white fur for camouflage.
 Greasy fur to remove water
quickly after swimming.
 A thick layer of fat to keep
warm.
 Sharp teeth and claws for
hunting.
 Large feet to spread their
weight on the snow and ice.

Polar bears
are adapted
for their
environment