Joints

Bones are linked together by joints.

Most joints allow different parts of
the skeleton to move. The human
skeleton has joints called synovial
joints.

The synovial joint

If two bones just moved against each
other, they would eventually wear
away. This can happen in people who
have a condition called arthritis. To
The main features of a synovial joint
stop this happening, the ends of the
bones in a joint are covered with a
tough, smooth substance called
cartilage. This is kept slippery by a
liquid called synovial fluid. Tough
ligaments join the two bones in the
joint and stop the joint falling apart.

Movement
Different types of synovial joint allow different types of movement. The table describes two
types of joint:
Type of joint Examples Movement allowed

The same as opening and closing

Hinge joint Knee, elbow
a door, with no rotation (turning)

Back and forth in all directions,

Ball and socket Hip, shoulder
and rotation

The bones cannot move on their own - they need muscles for this to happen.
Muscles
Muscles work by getting shorter.
We say that they contract, and
the process is called contraction.
Muscles are attached to bones by
strong tendons. When a muscle
contracts, it pulls on the bone,
and the bone can move if it is
part of a joint.
Antagonistic muscles
Muscles can only pull and cannot push. This would
be a problem if a joint were controlled by just one
muscle. As soon as the muscle had contracted and
pulled on a bone, that would be it, with no way to
move the bone back again. This problem is solved by
having muscles in pairs, called antagonistic muscles.
For example, your elbow joint has two muscles that
move your forearm up or down. These are the
biceps on the front of the upper arm and the triceps
on the back of the upper arm:
 to raise the forearm, the biceps contracts and
the triceps relaxes
 to lower the forearm again, the triceps
contracts and the biceps relaxes

Key points
TheThe
biceps contracts and raises the forearm as the The tricepshabitats,
adaptations of organisms allow them to thrive in different contracts and lowers the
triceps relaxes forearm as the biceps relaxes
including extreme environments.
 Evolution explains how better adapted organisms have an advantage and are
more likely to have offspring with this same adaptation.
Muscles exert a force on bones when they contract. This happens for example when you lift
or hold an object, or when you move a part of your body. If you hold an object weighing 10
Adaptations
N, keeping it still and with your forearm horizontal and your upper arm vertical, you would
be exerting an upwards force of 10 N on the object. You could work out the force exerted
by the biceps muscle to do this using the idea of moments. The way in which muscles and
bones work together to exert forces is called biomechanics.
Adaptations of plants
Plants also have a wide range of
adaptations. In rainforests there is a
huge diversity of plants, many not yet
identified by humans.
 Many trees in the rainforest
have tall, thin trunks to allow
them to quickly grow towards
the light.
 Lots of plants have smooth
trunks and stems, and drip tips
to their leaves to allow water to
run off without damaging the
plant.
 Some trees have large buttress
roots which anchor them into
the ground meaning they can
grow very tall.
 Other plants called epiphytes
grow on the higher branches of
trees and get their water and
nutrients from the air, not their
roots. They grow here to
absorb more light for
photosynthesis.
Adaptations of extremophiles
Extremophiles are organisms that live in extreme
environments. These places have conditions outside
of the normal range that most life can live in. Deserts
are extreme environments because of the heat
during the day, cold at night and lack of water.

Deserts
The cactus is an example of a plant which is able to
survive in deserts with extremes of temperature and
a lack of fresh water. They have:
 Stems that can store water.
 Widespread or very deep root systems that
can collect water from a large area or from
very deep underground.
 Spines which prevent the plant being eaten.
 The spines are modified leaves. These
minimise the surface area and so reduce water
loss.
 Very thick, waxy cuticle to reduce water loss.
 Reduced number of pores called stomata to
reduce water loss.
Polar Regions
The Polar Regions are also extreme
environments because of the cold
temperatures and lack of liquid
fresh water. Polar bears are
adapted to live in the Arctic. They
hibernate through the most severe
months and have:
 Thick white fur for
camouflage.
 Greasy fur to remove water
quickly after swimming.
 A thick layer of fat to keep
warm.
 Sharp teeth and claws for
hunting.
 Large feet to spread their
weight on the snow and ice.

Polar bears
are adapted
for their
environment