Concepts in Research 4

Researches in Mathematics
September 20, 2020
Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 1 / 36

Research in Pure Mathematics
It is clear that many non-mathematicians have some sense of the

importance of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, but they may view
Pure Mathematics as something with little use.
So let us address the following points.
What is Mathematics?
Why do people do research in Mathematics?
What are the benefits to society of research in Pure Mathematics?
What does a research in Pure Mathematics mean?

What is Mathematics?
People define Mathematics in different ways. Some of these definitions are:
Mathematics is the study of patterns, numbers, quantities, shapes, and

space using logical processes, rules, and symbols.
Mathematicians seek out patterns, formulate new conjectures, and establish

truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and
definitions.
Mathematicians investigate patterns, formulate new conjectures, and

determine truth by drawing conclusions from axioms and definitions.
Basically, the study of mathematics is divided into two major categories: Pure
mathematics or Applied mathematics.

What is Mathematics?...
Pure Mathematics: Pure Mathematics seeks to develop mathematical knowledge

for its own sake rather than for any immediate practical use. Pure
mathematical research involves significant mathematical
exploration and the creation of original mathematics.
Applied Mathematics: Applied Mathematics seeks to expand mathematical

techniques for use in science and other fields or to use techniques
in other fields to make contributions to the field of mathematics.
In most cases, boundaries between pure mathematics and applied mathematics do

not always exist.

Why do people do research in Mathematics?
One reason that mathematicians do research is because they appreciate the

beauty of the particular types of abstract patterns involved in their own research,
and enjoy discovering non-obvious aspects of these complex patterns.
Human beings are naturally quite good at recognizing all sorts of patterns, and
through all our senses we seem to have an in-built fascination with pattern.
We like to cover the inside of our houses with nicely patterned wallpaper or
paint-work, and the outside with nicely patterned brickwork or other finishes;
we like the complex patterns of music (whether that music is the latest
popular music or something classical);
scientists in all fields get a thrill when a formerly unpredictable phenomenon

is seen to be governed by some pattern.

Why do people do research in Mathematics?...
The fascination that mathematicians have for their research is thus arguably
a mere extension of the fascination that all people have with pattern.
When humans examine a complex pattern, they occasionally notice patterns

that they had not noticed before, a phenomenon that they generally find
delightful.
When our brains process and make sense out of the complicated array of
words and symbols on a page of Mathematics, we begin to understand the
patterns and appreciate their beauty.

Why do people do research in Mathematics?...
Although appreciation of the beauty of Mathematics, and delight at

discovering new patterns within complex abstract patterns is one of
the primary motivations for all mathematicians, there are a variety of
other reasons that people do research in Mathematics.
Some people may get as much enjoyment out of solving a crossword
puzzle or getting a high score in a video game as a mathematician
does in discovering something new in Mathematics, but people
typically do not make careers out of those other activities.
The fact is that Mathematics research is extremely useful!

Benefits of research in Pure Mathematics to the society
When we are teaching a child to count, we normally count a variety of

different things with them: toys, Lego bricks, cartoon animals, and so on.
The child eventually understands the abstract principle behind these

concrete instances of number, and can then go on to count all the important
things that need to be counted later in life.
By understanding the abstract principles, they are well prepared not just for
putting numbers to use in their everyday activities, but also when they need
to count something new.
we know at least subconsciously that number is an abstract concept, and

that the counting of toys and cartoon animals is merely a means to the key
goal of understanding number in the abstract.

Benefits of research in Pure Mathematics to the society...
When we understand the abstract concept well, we can then put it to

use in all sorts of areas.
Understanding a piece of abstract mathematical theory is like
understanding numbers in the abstract.
We usually gain the understanding by looking at special cases. And,
although an abstract mathematical theory, just like the abstract
concept of number, is divorced from the real world, it very often has
the potential to be useful in a variety of different areas: its
abstraction is a strength because it maximizes its potential usefulness.

One example of the power of abstraction is provided by Laplace

Equation, one of the most studied and best understood (non-trivial)
partial differential equations in mathematics.
A variety of phenomena in astronomy, electromagnetism, and fluid
flow are governed by this equation, as is the steady state heat
distribution in an object.
By understanding the abstract mathematical equation, we
simultaneously gain an understanding of all these phenomena.

CT scanners are one of the greatest advances in modern medical

technology.
These scanners form a three-dimensional image from a collection of
two-dimensional images taken from different angles.
The same principle is employed in reflection seismology to create
three-dimensional images of the earths subsurface, and in certain
types of electron microscopy.
In all cases, the underlying mathematics involves the inverse Radon
transform, or related transforms.

When Johann Radon and others investigated such transforms (from

1917 onwards), they were designed for applications within Pure
Mathematics (specifically, harmonic analysis and related areas), but
their importance in medicine comes later.
There are many other examples of mathematical research that for a
long time seemed to have little relevance to the real world, but which
eventually became of great importance.

Another example is provided by Number Theory, long considered the

most inapplicable of all areas of mathematics.
It was widely felt that the only reason to do research in Number
Theory was to discover its beauty.
This all changed with modern encryption theory, which is an essential
part of e-commerce and relies heavily on the properties of prime
numbers and other aspects of Number Theory.

We should agree that the division between Pure and Applied

Mathematics is a rather false one.
Any reasonable attempt to list the important areas of modern Pure
Mathematics research would include many topics of great importance
in applications.
Conversely, an applied mathematician working, for instance, on
efficient implementations of a numerical solution technique is often
led naturally to study related abstract mathematical problems (for
instance, the properties of certain special types of matrices).

Finally, outside of its direct applicability to the world around us,

mathematical research helps us to improve and refresh the quality of
what we teach, and
certainly the world needs a large number of graduates with a wide
variety of mathematical skills to fill the wide variety of positions that
require some Mathematics or the ability to analyze problems logically.

Different Kinds of Pure Mathematical Research
There are overlaps in research in mathematics. but for our purposes, we will
subdivide the fields of study by their primary purposes as follows.
Proof: This research seeks to justify a conjecture using logical reasoning.

This category also includes finding alternative justifications for
previously-proven theorems.
Extension: This research seeks to expand current mathematical concepts.
Application: This research takes an existing idea or theorem and applies it to a

new area.
Characterization: This research seeks to characterize or classify a mathematical

object or concept.

Different Kinds of Pure Mathematical Research
Historical: This research seeks to systematically collect and objectively

evaluate data related to past occurrences of a theorem or
area of mathematics.
Existence: This research seeks to prove existence of an object, which is
a form of characterization.

Mathematical Systems, Proofs; The different Methods of
Proof in Pure Mathematics
A Mathematical System consists of:

Axioms: propositions that are assumed true.
Definitions: used to create new concepts from old ones.
Undefined terms: corresponding to the primitive concepts of the
system (for instance in set theory the term set is undefined).
A theorem is a proposition that can be proved to be true.
An argument that establishes the truth of a proposition is called a
proof.

Mathematical Systems, Proofs; The different Methods of
Proof in Pure Mathematics
In mathematics, we study patterns and propose a theorem and give a

proof based on Axioms, Definitions, Undefined terms and previously
proved theorems.
Our objective in pure mathematical research is proving a given
proposed pattern.
There are different kinds of proofs depending on the proposed
theorem.

1. Direct Proof
A direct proof is one of the most familiar forms of proof.

We use it to prove statements of the form if p then q or p implies q
which we can write as p ⇒ q :
The method of the proof is to takes an original statement p, which
we assume to be true, and use it to show directly that another
statement q is true.
So a direct proof has the following steps:
1. Assume the statement p is true.
2. Use what we know about p and other facts as necessary to deduce that
another statement q is true, that is show thatp ⇒ q : is true.

Direct Proof ... Examples
1 Prove that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is also an odd integer.

2 Let a, b and c be integers, prove that if a divides b and a divides c, then a
also divides b + c.
3 Prove that if m and n are odd integers then mn is also an odd integer.
4 Let m and n be integers. Prove that if m and n are perfect squares, then mn
is also a perfect square.
5 If n is an even integer, then 7n + 4 is an even integer.
6 If m is an even integer and n is an odd integer then m + n is an odd integer.
7 If m is an even integer and n is an odd integer then mn is an even integer.
8 If a, b and c are integers and a divides b and b divides c then a divides c.

2. Proof by contradiction
Proof by contradiction is one of the basic proof techniques in

mathematics.
A proof by contradiction works as follows, suppose we are trying to
prove some statement P. Then, one way we can prove P is by
assuming that P is false and deriving a contradiction.
That is, assume the hypothesis and the negation of the conclusion is
true. Then, use deduction to arrive at a statement that is false. If the
deductive reasoning is not awed, then the contradiction resulted from
the false assumption that conclusion was false Therefore, the
conclusion is proved true.

Proof by contradiction ... Example
Example
√
1 Show that 2 is irrational
2 There are infinitely many prime numbers.
Proof.
Suppose that p1 = 2 < p2 = 3 < . . . < pr are all of the primes. Let
P = p1 p2 . . . pr + 1 and let p be a prime dividing P; then p can not be any
of p1 , p2 , . . . , pr , otherwise p would divide the difference
P − p1 p2 . . . pr = 1, which is impossible. So this prime p is still another
prime, and p1 , p2 , . . . , pr would not be all of the primes

3. If and only if Proof
If A and B are statements, then the statement A if and only if B means

that A and B are true in exactly the same cases.
That is, if A is true, then B is true and if B is true, then A is true.
Example
Let n be an integer. Then n is even if and only if n2 is even.
So the above means that, whenever n is integer, then if n is even, so is n2 ,

and that if n2 is even, then so is n.
So in order to prove an if and only if statement one needs to show that if
n is even so is n2 , and that if n2 is even then n is even.

4.Uniqueness Proofs
Theorem assert the existence of a unique element.

Unique element: There is exactly one element with a particular
property.
What we need to show?
There is an element x with this property. (Existence)
No other element y has this property. If y has this property too, then
x = y . (Uniqueness)

Example of a Uniqueness Proof
Theorem
There is only one solution to the equation of the form ax + b = 0, where a
and b are real numbers and a 6= 0.
Proof.
Assume x1 and x2 are both solutions to the equation ax + b = 0. Then we
want to show that x1 = x2 .
ax1 + b = 0 and ax2 + b = 0 ( Given )

ax1 + b = ax2 + b (Substitution)
ax1 = ax2 (Subtraction Property of Equalities)
x1 = x2 (Division Property of Equalities)

5. Proof By Cases
Proof by cases must cover all possible cases under consideration.

Theorem
Prove that if n is an integer, then n2 ≥ n.
Proof by cases.
Break the theorem into some cases
1. n = 0
2. n ≥ 1
3. n ≤ −1

Proof By Cases... Example
Theorem
Every integer that is a perfect cube is either a multiple of 9, or 1 more, or 1 less
than a multiple of 9.
Proof.
Each cube number is the cube of some integer n. Every integer can be described
as either a multiple of 3 or is one less or two less than a multiple of 3 since the
maximum remainder in division by 3 is 2. So by dividing the set of integers can
be divided into three non-overlapping cases which are exhaustive.
Case 1: If n = 3p, then n3 = 27p 3 , which is a multiple of 9.
Case 2: If n = 3p − 1, then n3 = 27p 3 − 27p 3 + 9p − 1, which is 1 less

than a multiple of 9.
Case 3: If n = 3p − 2, then
n3 = 27p 3 − 54p 3 + 36p − 8 = 27p 3 − 54p 3 + 36p − 9 + 1, which
is 1 more than a multiple
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Mathematics September 20, 2020 28 / 36
6. Proof by Contrapositive
Proof by contrapositive takes advantage of the logical equivalence between

”P implies Q” and ”Not Q implies Not P”.
For example, the assertion ”If it is my car, then it is blue” is equivalent to
”If that car is not blue, then it is not mine”. So, to prove ”If P, Then Q”
by the method of contrapositive means to prove ”If Not Q, Then Not P”.
Definition
1 An integer x is called even (respectively odd) if there is another
integer k for which x = 2k (respectively 2k+1).
2 Two integers are said to have the same parity if they are both odd or
both even.

Proof by Contrapositive... Example
Theorem
If x and y are two integers for which x+y is even, then x and y have the
same parity.
Proof. The contrapositive version of this theorem is ”If x and y are two
integers with opposite parity, then their sum must be odd.” So we assume
x and y have opposite parity. Since one of these integers is even and the
other odd, there is no loss of generality to suppose x is even and y is odd.
Thus, there are integers k and m for which x = 2k and y = 2m+1. Now
then, we compute the sum x+y = 2k + 2m + 1 = 2(k+m) + 1, which is
an odd integer by definition.

Proof by Contrapositive...
How Is This Different From Proof by Contradiction?

The difference between the Contrapositive method and the Contradiction
method is subtle. Let’s examine how the two methods work when trying to
prove ”If P, Then Q”.
Method of Contradiction: Assume P and Not Q and prove some sort
of contradiction.
Method of Contrapositive: Assume Not Q and prove Not P.
The method of Contrapositive has the advantage that your goal is clear:
Prove Not P. In the method of Contradiction, your goal is to prove a
contradiction, but it is not always clear what the contradiction is going to
be at the start.

Theorem
If n is a positive integer such that nmod(4) is 2 or 3, then n is not a
perfect square.
Proof.
We will prove the contrapositive version: ”If n is a perfect square then
nmod(4) must be 0 or 1.” Suppose n = k 2 . There are four cases to
consider.
1. If kmod(4) = 0, then k = 4q, for some integer q. Then,
n = k 2 = 16q 2 = 4(4q 2 ), i.e. nmod(4) = 0.
2. If kmod(4) = 1, then k = 4q + 1, for some integer q. Then,
n = k 2 = 16q 2 + 8q + 1 = 4(4q2 + 2q) + 1, i.e. nmod(4) = 1.

Proof.
n = k 2 = 16q 2 + 16q + 4 = 4(4q 2 + 4q + 1), i.e. nmod(4) = 0.
n = k 2 = 16q 2 + 24q + 9 = 4(4q 2 + 6q + 2) + 1, i.e. nmod(4) = 1.

Proof by Contrapositive ... Examples
Prove each of the following by the contrapositive method.

1 If x and y are two integers whose product is even, then at least one of
the two must be even.
2 If x and y are two integers whose product is odd, then both must be
odd.
3 If n is a positive integer such that n mod(3) = 2, then n is not a
perfect square.
4 If a and b a real numbers such that the product a b is an irrational
number, then either a or b must be an irrational number.

7. Existence Proofs
A proof of a proposition of the form ∃xP(x) is called an existence proof.

For existence proof we use:
Constructive proof: That is finding an element a that P(a) is true.
Nonconstructive proof: Prove ∃xP(x) is true in some other way. That
is, using the method of Prove by contradiction:
¬∃xP(x) ≡ ∀x¬P(x) implies a contradiction.
Example (Constructive proof)

There is a positive integer that can be written as the sum of squares of
two positive integers.
Proof.
Find an example: 5 = 22 + 12 .
Existence Proofs... Example
Theorem
There exist irrational numbers x and y such that x y is rational.
Proof.
√
Consider 2, which is irrational.
√ √2
Case 1: If 2 is rational, then the theorem is proved
√ √2 √ √2 √2 √
Case 2: If 2 is irrational, then ( 2 ) = ( 2)2 = 2 which is
rational. Thus, theorem is proved.

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Researches in Mathematics

September 20, 2020

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 1 / 36

It is clear that many non-mathematicians have some sense of the

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 2 / 36

People define Mathematics in different ways. Some of these definitions are:

Mathematics is the study of patterns, numbers, quantities, shapes, and

Mathematicians seek out patterns, formulate new conjectures, and establish

Mathematicians investigate patterns, formulate new conjectures, and

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 3 / 36

Pure Mathematics: Pure Mathematics seeks to develop mathematical knowledge

Applied Mathematics: Applied Mathematics seeks to expand mathematical

In most cases, boundaries between pure mathematics and applied mathematics do

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 4 / 36

One reason that mathematicians do research is because they appreciate the

scientists in all fields get a thrill when a formerly unpredictable phenomenon

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 5 / 36

When humans examine a complex pattern, they occasionally notice patterns

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 6 / 36

Although appreciation of the beauty of Mathematics, and delight at

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 7 / 36

When we are teaching a child to count, we normally count a variety of

The child eventually understands the abstract principle behind these

we know at least subconsciously that number is an abstract concept, and

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 8 / 36

When we understand the abstract concept well, we can then put it to

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 9 / 36

One example of the power of abstraction is provided by Laplace

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 10 / 36

CT scanners are one of the greatest advances in modern medical

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 11 / 36

When Johann Radon and others investigated such transforms (from

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 12 / 36

Another example is provided by Number Theory, long considered the

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 13 / 36

We should agree that the division between Pure and Applied

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 14 / 36

Finally, outside of its direct applicability to the world around us,

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 15 / 36

Proof: This research seeks to justify a conjecture using logical reasoning.

Extension: This research seeks to expand current mathematical concepts.

Application: This research takes an existing idea or theorem and applies it to a

Characterization: This research seeks to characterize or classify a mathematical

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 16 / 36

Historical: This research seeks to systematically collect and objectively

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 17 / 36

A Mathematical System consists of:

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 18 / 36

In mathematics, we study patterns and propose a theorem and give a

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 19 / 36

A direct proof is one of the most familiar forms of proof.

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 20 / 36

1 Prove that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is also an odd integer.

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 21 / 36

Proof by contradiction is one of the basic proof techniques in

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 22 / 36

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 23 / 36

If A and B are statements, then the statement A if and only if B means

So the above means that, whenever n is integer, then if n is even, so is n2 ,

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 24 / 36

Theorem assert the existence of a unique element.

Researches in Mathematics September 20, 2020 25 / 36

ax1 + b = 0 and ax2 + b = 0 ( Given )