CHAPTER 2

Learning Outcomes 1

Upon completing the course, students will be

able to:

1. Describe elements, compounds and mixtures

2. Determine atomic number, mass number in

atomic symbol

3. Name ionic and covalent compounds

 Matter

DEFINITION:
Anything that take up space and has mass

Component of matter:

1. Element
2. Molecule
3. Compound
4. Mixture
5. Ion
 A simplest pure substance consists
entirely of one type of atom only

 Atoms are composed of various

subatomic particles, of which electrons,
protons and neutrons

ELEMENT
 Cannot be broken down into any simpler
substances by physical or chemical
means

 A structure consists two or more atoms

that are chemically bound together and
thus behaves as an independent unit

MOLECULE
 A substance composed of two or
more different elements that are
chemically bound together

COMPOUND

 A group of two or more substances

(elements and/or compounds) that
are physically intermingled

MIXTURE
 ION
chloride ion

 Electrically charge species formed

when neutral atom gains or lose
electrons

sodium ion
 Atomic, Mass Number & Isotopes

Mass Number A

Atomic Number Z
X Element Symbol

• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

• Mass number (A) = nucleon numbers
= total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus
= atomic number (Z) + no of neutrons
Examples:

A 12 14
Z 6 C 7 N
protons (Z) =6 protons (Z) =7
electrons =6 electrons =7
neutrons (A-Z) =6 neutrons (A-Z) =7

80 31
35 Br 15 P
protons (Z) = 35 protons (Z) = 15
electrons = 35 electrons = 15
neutrons (A-Z) = 45 neutrons (A-Z) = 16
ISOTOPES
 Atoms of the same element with the same proton number but
different neutrons numbers (different masses)
 Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties, as
they have same number of electrons. But the physical
properties of isotopes are different
 Examples

12 13
6 C 6 C
protons (Z) =6 protons (Z) =6
electrons =6 electrons =6
neutrons (A-Z) =6 neutrons (A-Z) =7
 Naming Compounds

1) Ionic compounds

a. Binary ionic compound Type A / Type I

b. Binary ionic compound Type B / Type II

2) Polyatomic ionic compounds

3) Covalent compounds

4) Acids & bases

1) Ionic Compounds
• Composed of metals and non-metals

Metals Non-metals

• Donate electrons • Accept electrons

• Form positive ions • Form negative ions
(cations) (anions)

• The name of the cation is the same as the name of the

metal. Many metal names end in –ium
• The name of anion takes the root of the nonmetal
name and adds the suffix –ide
a) Binary Ionic Compounds Type A
• These compounds have cations of elements from main
groups
• Group 1A, 2A and Al from group 3A in Periodic Table
• The compounds has ‘zero’ net charge – the positive
charges of cations must balance the negative charge of
anions
• Rules:
• Cations: name of the element
• Anion: named by taking the root of the element name and
adding –ide
 Cations Anions
Charge Formula Name Charge Formula Name
H+ hydrogen H- hydride
Li+ lithium F- fluoride
+1 Na+ sodium -1 Cl- chloride
K+ potassium Br- bromide
Cs+ cesium I- iodid
silver e
Ag+
Mg2+ magnesium
O2- oxide
Ca2+ calcium
S2- sulfide
+2 Sr2+ strontium -2
Ba2+ barium
Zn2+ zinc
Cd2+ cadmium
+3 Al3+ aluminum -3 N3- nitride
b) Binary Ionic Compounds Type B

• These compound have metals which form more than one

positive ion (cations) / multiple charges
• Rules:
• must show the oxidation number (charge) in
parenthesis
• Examples:

Ion Name Compound Compound Name

Fe2+ Iron(II) FeO Iron(II) oxide

Fe3+ Iron(III) FeCl3 Iron(III) chloride

• Common name:
 The suffix –ous for ion with lower charge
 The suffix –ic for the ion with the higher charge

Element Ion Formula Systematic Name Common Name

Copper Cu+1 copper(I) cuprous
Cu+2 copper(II) cupric
Iron Fe+2 iron(II) ferrous
Fe+3 iron(III) ferric
Lead Pb+2 lead(II)
Pb+4 lead(IV)
Tin Sn+2 tin(II) stannous
Sn+4 tin(IV) stannic
2) Polyatomic Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds which consist of two or more atoms
with one overall charge
• Examples:

Ions Name Ions Name

NH4+ Ammonium CO32- Carbonate

Hydrogen
NO2- Nitrite HCO3-
carbonate

SO42- Sulfate PO43- Phosphate

OH- Hydroxide C2H3O2- Acetate
CN- Cyanide MnO4- Permanganate
Examples of polyatomic ionic compounds

Compound Name

K2SO4 Potassium sulfate

BaSO4 Barium sulfate

K2Cr2O7 Potassium dichromate

KMnO4 Potassium permanganate

Oxoanions

• Element (usually non-metal) which bonded to one or more

oxygen atoms.
• 2 oxoanions in the family:
 More O atoms – ate, eg: Sulfate SO42-
 Fewer O atom – ite, eg: Sulfite SO32-
• 4 oxoanions in the family (halogen bonded to O atoms)
 Most O atoms - per*ate, eg: perchlorate ClO4-
 1 fewer O atom – ate, eg: chlorate ClO3-
 2 fewer O atoms – ite, eg: chlorite ClO2-
 3 fewer O atoms – hypo*ite, eg: hypochlorite ClO-
 Number Prefix
Hydrated Ionic Compounds
1 Mono-
2 Di-
• Hydrates have a specific number of
3 Tri-
water molecules
4 Tetra-
5 Penta-
• No of water molecules is shown 6 Hexa-

after a ‘dot’ and is named by a 7 Hepta-

8 Octa-
Greek numerical prefix before the
9 Nona-
word hydrate
10 Deca-
3) Covalent Compounds
• Compounds containing only non-metal elements

• These compounds are always neutral and consist of

only two elements

• Systematic ways of naming:-

 Element with lower group number is named first
 If both elements in the same group, the one with
higher period number is named first
 The second element is named with suffix –ide
Examples of covalent compounds

Compound Name

CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride

P2O5 Phosphorus pentoxide

ICl3 Iodine trichloride

NOTES !!!!

• Prefixes are only for covalent compound not for ionic

compound
• The only time we drop a prefix is if the mono is to appear
at the beginning of the name
4) Acids and Bases

Acids
• Compounds which release hydrogen ions (H+) when
dissolved
• Act as proton donor (hydrogen atom which has lost
its electron)
• Any compound with leading H's in formula are acidic
hydrogens
Guidelines for naming acids
• name the anion within the acid
• change the anion ending to one of the following:

anion in acid, replace

examples
ending with:
• hydrochloric acid, HCl
*ide hydro*ic acid
• hydrobromic acid, HBr

• nitrous acid, HNO2

-ite -ous acid • chlorous acid, HClO2
• hypobromous acid, HBrO

• sulfuric acid, H2SO4

-ate -ic acid • nitric acid, HNO3
• chloric acid, HClO3
Bases

• Compounds which release hydroxide ions (OH-)

when dissolved

• A base is composed of a metal and an OH- ion,

except for ammonia (NH3)

Guidelines for naming bases
• name the metal and add with hydroxide
• Oxidation state with value more than one should write
in parenthesis after metal name
• Examples:

Base Name

KOH Potassium hydroxide

Fe(OH)2 Iron(II) hydroxide

Al(OH)3 Aluminum(III) hydroxide

AgOH Silver hydroxide

 EXERCISE 1
1. Name the following compounds. (5 marks)
i. Na2Cr2O7
ii. CuCl2 . 2H2O
iii. ClF3
iv. KHSO4
v. H3PO4

2. Write correct formulas for each of the following pairs of

compounds:
(6 marks)
i. Potassium chlorate and potassium perchlorate
ii. Ammonia and ammonium ion
iii. Iodine and iodide ion
 EXERCISE 2

Give the systematic name or chemical formulae for each of

the following compounds
a) P2H4
b) lead(IV) oxide
c) HIO2
d) aluminium nitrate hexahydrate
 Learning Outcomes 2

Upon completing the course, students will be able to:

1. Understand the meaning and usefulness of the mole

2. Convert between amount of substance (mole), mass (grams)

and number of chemical entities

3. Use mass percent to find the mass of element in a

compound

4. Determine empirical and molecular formula of a compound

5. Determine molecular formula from combustion analysis

MOLECULAR MASS

 Molecular mass (also called molecular weight) of a

compound is the sum of the atomic masses

 E.g. The molecular mass of H2O is equal to:

= (2 x atomic mass of H) + (1 x atomic mass of O)

= (2 x 1.008 amu) + 16.00 amu

= 18.02 amu
FORMULA MASS

 For ionic compounds

 The number of atoms of each element inside the

parentheses is multiplied by subscript outside the
parentheses

 Find formula mass of Ba(NO3)2:

 = (1 x amu of Ba ) + 2 x [(1 x amu of N) + (3 x amu of O)]

 = 213.32 amu
 PERCENT COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS

• A practical use is to determine the amount of an element in

any size sample of compound

Mass % of element A =

atoms of A in formula x atomic mass of A (amu)

x 100
molecular (or formula) mass of compound (amu)

OR

moles of A in formula x molar mass of A (g/mol)

x 100
mass (g) of 1 mol of compound
Example:

Glucose (C6H12O6) generates chemical potential energy.

a) What is the mass percent of each element in glucose?
b) How many grams of carbon are in 16.55 g of glucose?

Solution:
a) Per mole glucose there are:

6 mol C(12.01 gmol-1) = 72.06 g

12 mol H(1.008 gmol-1) = 12.098 g H
6 mol O(16.00 gmol-1) = 96.00 g O

Molar Mass = 180.16 g/mol

 72.06 g C
mass percent of C = = 0.3999 x 100 %
180.16 g glucose
= 39.99 mass % C
12.096 g C
mass percent of H = = 0.06714 x 100 %
180.16 g glucose
= 6.714 mass % H
96.00 g C
mass percent of O = = 0.5329 x 100 %
180.16 g glucose
= 53.29 mass % O

b) Mass of C in 16.55 g glucose

= mass percent of C x mass of glucose
= 39.99% x 16.55 g
= 6.62 g
 The Mole Concept

• SI unit for amount of substance.

• Mole (mol) is amount of a substance that contains the

same number of entities (atoms, molecules, ions) as there
are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12

• The mass (in grams) of 1 mole of a substance is called

molar mass (unit g/mol).
 Avogadro’s Number

1 mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023 particles.

• 1 mole of atomic substances contain 6.02 x 1023 atoms

• 1 mole of molecular substances contain 6.02 x 1023

molecules

• 1 mole of ionic substances contains 6.02 x 1023 formula

units
 Converting Moles of Elements

 To convert between mol and

mass, use molar mass

 To convert between mol and no

of entities, use Avogadro’s no.

 To find the no. of molecules in a

given mass, or vice versa, convert
to moles first
Converting Moles of Compounds
Example:
Find the mass of 0.5 mole of copper

Solution:

Ar of Cu = 63.55
So, the molar mass of Cu = 63.55 g mol-1
Mass of 0.5 mole of Cu
= number of moles x molar mass
= 0.5 mole x 63.55 gmol-1
= 31.78 g
 EXERCISE 3

Tetraphosphorus decaoxide reacts with water to form

phosphoric acid.

a) What is the mass of 4.65 x 1022 molecules of

tetraphosphorus decaoxide?

b) How many P atoms are present in this sample?

a) Mole of P4O10

= 4.65 x1022 molecule P4O10 x 1 mol P4O10

6.022 x 1023 molecules
= 0.0772 mole P4O10

Mass of P4O10

= 0.0772 mole P4O10 x 283.88 g P4O10

1 mol P4O10
= 21.9 g P4O10 #

b) No of P atoms

= 4.65 x 1022 molecule P4O10 X 4 atoms P

1 molecule P4O10
= 1.86 x 1023 P atoms #
 Chemical Formulas

• Chemical symbols used to represent atom of the elements

that are present

• Element symbols and numerical subscripts show the type and

number of each atom present in the smallest unit of the
substance

• Examples:
• H2 – composed of 2 hydrogen atoms

• NaCl – composed of 1 sodium atom & 1 chlorine atom

• Al2O3 – composed of 2 aluminum atoms & 3 oxygen

atoms
Type of Chemical Formulas

1. Molecular formula:
• a formula which describes the exact composition of a molecule

2. Empirical formula:
• a formula which gives the smallest numbers that describe the
ratios of atoms in a substance

3. Structural formula:
• a formula which describes the positions of atoms in a molecule
Examples:

Compound Name Molecular Empirical Structural

Formula Formula Formula
Hydrogen H-O-O-H
H2O2 HO
peroxide
H

H H

Benzene C6H6 CH
H H

HO OH

Lactic acid C3H6O3 CH2O O

O
H H
Water H2O H2O
Example:
Write chemical symbol for aluminum oxide

Aluminum ion Oxide ion

Ion charge +3 -2

Balancing charge (+3 x 2) = +6 (-2 x 3) = -6

Number of ions
2 3
needed

The formula is : Al2O3

 EXERCISE 4
Write the chemical formula for the substances given below.

1. Ammonium hydroxide 2. Copper(II) sulfate

3. Iron(II) chloride 4. Iron(III) chloride

5. Calcium carbonate 6. Zinc oxide

7. Zinc oxide 8. Lead(II) sulfate

9. Lead(IV) chloride 10. Hydrochloric acid

11. Carbon tetrachloride 12. Potassium hydroxide

13. Ammonia 14. Carbon dioxide

Relationship between empirical & molecular formula

Molecular formula
n=
Empirical formula

where n = 1,2,3,….

Molecular formula = n (empirical formula)

• The empirical formula and the molecular formula of a
compound could be the same; e.g. NH3, CO2

• Two molecules might have different molecular formulae but

same empirical formula.

Empirical Molecular
Molecules
formula formula
Benzene CH C6H6

Etyne CH C2H2
Example: Calculating the empirical formula from
mass of constituents

18.3g sample of hydrated compound contained 4.0g of calcium,

7.1g of chlorine and 7.2g of water only. Calculate its empirical
formula. Smallest amount

Constituent Ca Cl H2 O
Mass/g 4.0 7.1 7.2

Amount/mol 4.0/40.0= 0.10 7.1/35.5 = 0.20 7.2/18 = 0.40

Simplest ratio 0.10/0.10 = 1 0.20/0.10 = 2 0.40/0.10 = 4

of relative
amount 1 2 4

 Empirical formula = CaCl2.4H2O

 Example: Calculating the empirical formula from
percentage composition by mass

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) cures scurvy and may help prevent the
common cold. It is composed of 40.92% carbon, 4.58% hydrogen
and 54.50% oxygen by mass. The molar mass of ascorbic acid is
176g/mol. Determine its empirical formula and molecular mass.

Element C H O
Mass/g 40.92 4.58 54.50
40.92/12 4.58/1 54.56/16
Amount/mol
=3.41 =4.58 = 3.41
3.41/3.41 4.58/3.41 3.41/3.41
Simplest ratio of =1 =1.34 =1
relative amount
3 4 3
Empirical formula = C3H4O3

molar mass
n
empirical formula mass
176
n
88
n 2
Molecular formula
= (C3H4O3)n
= (C3H4O3)2
= C6H8O6
Example: Determining the Formula of an Unknown

Compound

During excessive physical activity, lactic acid (M = 90.08

g/mol) forms in muscle tissue and is responsible for muscle
soreness. Elemental analysis shows that this compound
contains 40.0 mass % C, 6.71 mass % H, and 53.3 mass % O.
Determine the empirical formula of lactic acid and the
molecular formula
SOLUTION:

Element C H O

Mass/g 40.0 6.71 53.3

40.0/12 6.71/1 53.3/16

Amount/mol
=3.33 =6.71 = 3.33

3.33/3,33 6.71/3.33 3.33/3.33

Simplest ratio of =1 =2 =1
relative amount
1 2 1
Empirical formula = CH2O

molar mass
n
empirical formula mass
90
n
30
n 3
Molecular formula
= (CH2O)n
= (CH2O)3
= C3H6O3
 EXERCISE 5

A 1.279 g sample of an organic compound containing C, H, N

and O was burned completely, as a result of which 1.60 g CO2
and 0.77 g H2O were obtained. A separately weighed 1.625 g
sample contained 0.216 g nitrogen. What is the empirical
formula of the compound? (6 marks)
 EXERCISE 6

Lysine is an amino acid which has the following elemental

composition: C, H, O, N. In one experiment, 2.175 g of lysine
undergo combustion to produce 3.94 g of CO2 and 1.89 g
H2O. In a separate experiment, 1.873 g of lysine was burned
to produce 0.436 g of NH2. The molar mass of lysine is 150
g/mol. Determine the empirical and molecular formula of
lysine. (10 marks)
 Learning Outcomes 3

Upon completing the course, students will be able to:

1. Balance equation for quantitative study of chemical

reactions

2. Convert a chemical statement into a balanced equation

3. Calculate amounts of reactants and products in the

reactions

4. Solve limiting reactant problems

5. Calculate percent yield

 Balancing Chemical Equation

A chemical equation is a statement in

formulas that expresses the identities and
quantities of the substances involved in a
chemical or physical change.
Consider the reaction of sodium metal and
chlorine gas:

Reactants Product

2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2 NaCl (s)

Coefficients Subscripts Coefficients

+ : Reacts with
→ : Yields or produces
(s), (g) : Phase labels which indicates
physical states
For a chemical equation to be balanced, it must have the same
number of each type of atoms on both sides of the arrow

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

1C 1C
4H = 4H
4O 4O
Steps for Balancing Chemical Equations

Write the unbalanced equation

Determine what coefficients are

necessary

Start with the most complex

substance

End with the least complex substance

Specifying states of matter

Example:

Ethane is a gas which burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide gas

and steam. The steam is simply water in gaseous form and
condenses to form water droplets. Write a balance chemical
equation for this reaction

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H 2O

C2H6 + 7/2 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

2 C2H6 + 7 O2 4 CO2 + 6 H2O

2 C2H6 (g) + 7 O2 (g) 4 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l)

 EXERCISE 7
Balance the following equations.

1. Fe + H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + H2

2. C2H6 + O2 H2O + CO2

3. KOH + H3PO4 K3PO4 + H2O

4. SnO2 + H2 Sn + H2O

5. NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
Calculating Amounts of Reactant & Product

 In a balanced equation, the no. of moles of one substance

is stoichiometrically equivalent to the no. of moles of any
substance.

 The coefficients - tell us mole ratio of reactants that

correctly react to form products.
Solving Stoichiometry Problems

Write balanced equation

Convert mass to moles

Use mole ratios

Convert moles to mass

Relationship of mass-mole-number in a chemical
reaction
Example:

1. How many moles of oxygen are required to roast 10.0 mol of

copper(I) sulfide?

Cu2S(s) + O2(g) → Cu2O(s) + SO2(g)

3 mol O2
10.0 mol Cu2S x = 15.0 mol O2
2 mol Cu2S

2. How many grams of sulfur dioxide are formed when 10.0

mol of copper(I) sulfide is roasted?

10.0 mol Cu2S x 2 mol SO2 x 64.07 g SO2 = 641 g SO2

2 mol Cu2S mol SO2
 Example

2C6H14O4 + 15O2 12CO2 + 14H2O

1. What mass of CO2 is formed in the reaction of 4.16g

triethylene glycol, C6H14O4, with an excess of O2?

2. What mass of O2 is consumed in the complete

combustion of 6.86 g of triethylene gylcol, C6H14O4.
SOLUTION:

1. Molar mass C6H14O4 = 150 gmol-1

Mol of C6H14O4 = 4.16 g / 150 gmol-1 = 0.0277 mol

12 mol CO2
Mol of CO2 produce = 0.0277 mol C6H14O4 x
2 mol C6H14O4

= 0.1662 mol CO2

Mass of CO2 produce = 0.1662 mol x 44 gmol-1 = 7.32 g

2. Molar mass C6H14O4 = 150 gmol-1
Mol of C6H14O4 = 6.86 g / 150 gmol-1 = 0.0457 mol

15 mol O2
Mol of O2 consumed = 0.0457 mol C6H14O4 x
2 mol C6H14O4

= 0.3428 mol O2

Mass of O2 consumed = 0.3428 mol x 32 gmol-1 = 10.97 g

 Limiting Reactants

The Limiting Reactant

determines the maximum of amount
of product that can be made

Is the reactant that is

completely used up in the reaction

The reactant used up first in a reaction

 Excess Balanced
Reactant

Limiting Product
reactant
Example:

Hydrazine(N2H4) and dinitrogen tetraoxide(N2O4) ignite on

contact to form nitrogen gas and water vapor. How many grams
of nitrogen gas form when 1.00x102 g of N2H4 and 2.00x102 g of
N2O4 are mixed?

Solution:

1) Write a balanced chemical equation

2 N2H4(l) + N2O4(l) 3 N2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

2) Find moles of N2 from N2H4

1.00x102 g N2H4 x mol N2H4

= 3.12 mol N2H4
32.05 g N2H4

3 mol N2
3.12 mol N2H4 x = 4.68 mol N2 LESS
2 mol N2H4

3) Find moles of N2 from N2O4

mol N2O4
2.00 x 102 g N2O4 x = 2.17 mol N2O4
92.02 g N2O4

3 mol N2
2.17 mol N2O4 x = 6.51 mol N2
mol N2O4
 N2H4 is the limiting reactant because it
produces less product, N2, than does N2O4.

4) Find mass of N2

4.68 mol N2 x 28.02 g N2 = 131 g N2

mol N2
 Percent Yield

The effect of side reactions on yield

• The percent yield is the measure of productivity of a
reaction

Percent yield (%) = Actual yield x 100

Theoretical yield

• Actual yield - actual mass obtained in a real experiment

• Theoretical (Calculated) Yield – amount under “perfect”

lab conditions
Example:

Marble (CaCO3) reacts with HCl solution to form CaCl2 solution,

water and CO2. What is the percent yield of CO2 if 3.65g of the gas
is collected when 10.0g of marble reacts?

Solution:

1) Write a balanced equation

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

2) Theoretical yield

= 10.0 g x 1 mol CaCO3 x 1 mol CO2 x 44.01 g

100.09 g 1 mol CaCO3 1 mol CO2

= 4.40 g CO2

3) Percentage yield

% yield = 3.65 g x 100 = 83.0 %

4.40 g
@ nsmt 2015