MUFULIRA COLLEGEOF

EDUCATI
ON
BACHELOROFEDUCATI
ON
DI
STANCEEDUCATI
ONPROGRAMME

I
CS112-COMMUNI
CATI
ONANDSTUDYSKI
LLS
MODULE

Wr i
ters
Dr.MusondaC.F.
KabasoF.M.
Sr.MwesaL.
MayengeJ.M.
Mwi laM.
 Muf
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ion

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ight
Allrightsreser
ved.Nopar tofthi
smodulemayber epr
oduced,storedinretr
ievalsyst
em or
t
r ansmi t
tedinanyform orbyanymeansel ect
roni
cormechani calincl
udingphotocopyi
ng,
recordingorother
wisewithoutpermi
ssi
onfr
om Mufuli
raCol
legeofEducat i
on

©2018

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 Muf
uli
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legeofEducat
ion

I
CS112
Communi
cat
ionandst
udyski
ll
s
Bachel
or’
sDegr
eePr
ogr
amme

Muf
uli
raCol
legeofEducat
ion

I
CS112

i
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 Muf
uli
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ion

Muf
uli
raCol
legeofEducat
ion November2018

Cont
ent
s Page
Aboutt
heModul
e………………………………………………………………………………….
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i)

AssessmentScheme……………………………………………………………………………….
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i)

Modul
eCont
ent…………………………………………………………………………………………….
.….
.(i
)

Fur
therReadi
ng……………………………………………………………………………………………….
..(
ii
)

Ai
m oft
heCour
se……………………………………………………………………………………………… (
ii
i)

Uni
t1:I
ntr
oduct
iont
oCommuni
cat
ionandSt
udySki
ll
s……………………………………………….
..
… 1

Uni
t2:Academi
cWr
it
ing…………………………………………………………………………………….
.… 8

Uni
t3:Ref
erenci
ngandCi
tat
ion………………………………………………………………………………. 17

Uni
t4:St
udySki
ll
s………………………………………………………………………………………….
…..
.. 27

Uni
t5:Or
alCommuni
cat
ion………………………………………………………………………….
…….
..
.. 36

Uni
t6:LanguageSki
ll
s……………………………………………………………………………………….
…. 45

Uni
t7:Per
sonalandPr
ofessi
onalCommuni
cat
ion…………………………….
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58

Ref
erences………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76

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ion

Gener
alI
ntr
oduct
iont
o
Communi
cat
ionandSt
udySki
ll
s
I
CS112

Wor
dofwel
come
WelcometotheBachelorofEducationCour seinCommuni cat
ionandSt udySkil
ls(ICS112).
Wehopeyouwi llenj
oyt hi
s course and develop yourknowledge ofCommuni cati
onand
StudySki
ll
s .Congrat
ulati
onsonyourdeci siontocommityour sel
f,overt
henextmont hs,t
o
seri
ousstudyand to putti
ng i
nto pract
iceyournewl ydevel opi
ng knowledge,skil
lsand
att
it
udes.

Wehopet hatt
hiscour
sewil
lhelpyoutodevel
optheprof
essional
ism t
hatt
heteachi
ng
fr
ater
nit
ydemandsandalsot
hatthi
scour
sewil
lmoti
vat
eyouf orfur
therst
udyi
nthef
iel
dof
Educati
on.

Aim oftheCour se
Tot r
ain,developandequipat eacherwi thcommuni cationskill
sandadequat eknowl edge
essenti
alforacademi cwor
ksandthet eachingprofessionasawhol e.
Thecour sealsoendeavourstoimpr ovestudent s’communi cat
ionskil
lstoal evelt
hatcan
enablethem tocopewi thworki
nt heirspecial
istsubjects;andsecondly,topreparethem to
communi cateef f
ect
ivel
ybothoral
lyandi nwr iti
ngf orthebusi nesspurposesandl astl
y,to
equiptheteacherswithcommunicati
onandacademi cwritingski
lls.
Learni
ngOut comes.

Bytheendoft hecoursestudentsshoul dbeabl eto:

i
. Communi cat
ewi thconf i
dencei nsoci al
,professionalandot hersi
tuati
ons;uset he
Engli
shl anguageaccuratelyandappr opri
atelyfordiff
erentpur
poses.
ii
. Di st
inguish between diff
erentpiecesofwor k,factand opinion;wri
tewi th cl
ari
ty,
accuracy,rel
evanceandbeabl etocommuni cateeffecti
vel
y.
i
ii
. Par t
icipateacti
velyi
ndi scussions,debateandot herf or
msofcommuni cat
ion,asthey

v
 Muf
uli
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legeofEducat
ion

appreci
atewor kdonebyot
hers.
i
v. Developacademi cwri
ti
ngski
ll
sinor
dert
opr
esentr
easonedandmat
urear
gument
sin
vari
oussituat
ions.

Thiscoursewil
lenableyout oimpr oveonyourwri
ti
ngandst udyski
ll
saswel lashel
pyou
underst
andtheimportanceofeffectivecommuni
cat
ion.Itwi
llal
sohelpdevel
opyoudevelop
i
nformati
onon effi
cientacademician whowil
lseevalueandappreci
ateworkdonebyother
peopl
e.

Weexpectyoutoappl
yt heknowl
edgeandskil
lsthatwillacqui
rei
nthi
scour
sei
nal
lthe
academi
cworkt
hatwil
lencount
eri
nyourvar
iousfi
eldsofstudy.

Cour
seobj
ect
ives.

Byt
heendoft
hecour
se,
student
sshoul
dbeabl
eto;

a.Demonst ratei
mpr ovedlanguageski ll
soflist
eni ng, speaking,readi
ngandwr i
ti
ng.
b.Demonst rateimprovedacademi cski l
lsingener alandadequat estudyskil
lsinacademi c
circl
es.
c.Conductspeci f
icacademi candpr ofessi
onalt asksef f
ecti
vely.
d.Assi ststudentsdevelopcommuni cati
on,crit
icalr eadingandt hinki
ngskil
ls.
e.Devel opt heskil
lsofcoherent,t
opi cdevelopmentandsust enanceinbothoralandwr i
tten
discourse.
f. Tocommuni cateeffecti
vel
yinthet eachi
ngandl earningpr ocesses.
g.Expl orethe’worldviewthroughexposur et oavar ietyoftextsinacademicwor ks,
dif
ferent
formsofcommuni cationintheteachingpr of
essi onandt hewor ldatl
arge.

Her
eisanout
li
neoft
hemodul
esi
nthi
scour
seandt
heuni
tsi
neachmodul
e.

TheModul
eCont
ent
1.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oCommuni
cat
ionandSt
udySki
ll
s.

2.Academi
cWr
it
ing.

3.Ref
erenci
ngandCi
tat
ion.

4.St
udySki
ll
s.

5.Or
alCommuni
cat
ion.
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 Muf
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ion

6.LanguageSki
ll
s.

7.Per
sonalandPr
ofessi
onalCommuni
cat
ion.

Whoi
stheTar
getAudi
ence?

Thecour seisintendedpri
mar i
lyforal
lfi
rstyeardegr
eestudent
swhowi shtosucceedin
theirstudiesand wi shtodevelopthei
rknowledgeandski
ll
sinthefiel
deducati
onandt he
teachingpr of
essioni npart
icul
ar.Thiswillbeveryimpor
tantbecauset heact
ivi
ti
esand
assignment swillrequi
reyout oapplyyourknowledgeandskil
lyouwi l
lacqui
refrom t
his
course.

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ion

Assi
gnment
s: How manyassi gnmentsarether
ef orthi
scourse?How
theassignmentsaretobesubmi t
ted?Towhom shoul d
theassi
gnment sbesubmitt
ed?Whati stheschedulefor
submitt
ing assi
gnments? End ofeach unit? Specif
ic
dates?Whatistheorderoftheassignments?Mustt hey
becompl et
edintheor
derinwhichtheyareset
?

Assessment
s: Howmanyassessment swilltherebei nthi
scour se?Are
theyself-
assessment sorteacher-mar kedassessments?
Whenwi l
ltheassessmentstakepl ace?Howl ongwi l
lthe
assessment sbe?How l ongwi lllearnersbeal l
owedt o
compl et
et vi
ii
he assessment(
s)?How l ong willittake a
teachertomarkt heassessment(s)?
 Muf
uli
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legeofEducat
ion

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 Muf
uli
raCol
legeofEducat
ion

x
Uni
t1
I
ntr
oduct
iont
oCommuni
cat
ionandSt
udySki
ll
s
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Welcomet othefi
rstuniti
nthismodul eforCommuni cat
ionsandSt udySkill
s.Inthi
s
unit
,youwi l
lbeintr
oducedt othecommuni cationandstudyskill
sasacour se.You
wil
lbe expect edto explai
nt hemeani ngoft he ter
ms suchas;‘ communi cati
on’,
‘
skil
ls’
,‘communi cati
onskills’and‘studyski l
ls’
. Thereaft
er,youwi l
llookatt he
communi cat
ionprocess,eff
ect i
vecommuni cat i
oninrel
ationtothefactorsthatcan
ei
theraff
ectorimpedeef f
ectivecommuni cation

KeyQuest
ion

I
nthi
stopi
cwewi
lldi
scusst
hef
oll
owi
ngkeyquest
ions:

 WhatisCommuni cat
ion?
 Whatisthedif
ferencebetween‘communi cat
ionski
ll
s’and‘st
udyskil
ls’
?
 Descr
ibetheprocessofcommuni cat
ion.
 I
denti
fyandexplai nthetypesandvar i
ousformsofcommuni cat
ionand
t
heiri
mpor t
ance.
 Whataresomeoft hebarr
ier
stoef f
ecti
vecommunication?

Topi
cCont
entLi
st
 Def
ini
ti
onofCommuni
cat
ionandst
udyski
ll
s

 TheCommuni
cat
ionPr
ocess

 El
ement
sofaCommuni
cat
ionpr
ocess.

 Typesorf
ormscommuni
cat
ion

 Bar
ri
erst
oef
fect
ivecommuni
cat
ion

I
ntr
oduct
ion
WhatisCommunicat
ion?
Si
ll
ars(1988:
1)defi
nescommuni
cat
ionas“
thegi
ving,r
ecei
vingorexchangeof

1
 i
nformati
on,opi ni
ons ori deas by wr i
ti
ng,speech,orvi sualmeans-orany
combinat
ionoft het hree.”Itisapr ocessbywhi chamessageori nformationis
tr
ansmitt
edf r
om asour ce(speaker)tothedestination(li
stener)
.Communi cat
ion
i
nvolves a sender( encoder/speaker )and a r eceiver(decoder/l i
stener).For
eff
ecti
vecommuni cat i
ont otakeplacethereshouldbe;compl et
epr ocess,Speaker,
Message,Medium (modeorchannelofcommuni cat i
one.g.Speaki ng, writ
ing,body
l
anguage)andaLi stener.

Ot
herdef
ini
ti
onsar
e;

 Communicat
ioni
saprocessofshar
ingi
nfor
mat
ionwi
thot
her
sbyspeaki
ng,
wri
ti
ng,
readi
ngandl
ist
ening.

 Itisthe exchange ofmeani

ng bet
ween i
ndi
vidual
sthr
ough a common
syst
em ofsharedsymbol
s.

 Iti
stheprocessofexchanginginf
ormat
ion,i
deas,t
hought
s,f
eel
ingsand
emoti
onst
hroughspeech,
signal
s,wri
ti
ngorbehavi
our
.

‘
Communi cation ski
ll
s’refert o skil
lsthatai d effect
ive communi cati
on.These
i
ncludelist ening,
speaking,readingandwr iti
ng.Int hemoder n age,effect
iveuse
ofI CT ski l
lsi salso partofcommuni cati
onski l
ls.Not et
hata‘ ski
ll
’issomet hi
ng
thatwel ear n(todowel l
)throughpr act
ice.Therefore,‘
communi cati
onskill
s’requir
e
practi
cei nor derfort
hem tobeusedef fecti
vely.

Youwi
ll
alsoneedt
oknowt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ermi
nol
ogi
es.

Oral:todowi t
hthemout h.
Ter
minol
ogi
es Verbal:rel
atedtotheuseofwor ds.
: Encode:t oputinaform orsystem ofsendi
ngamessage.
Decode:t oreceivet
hemessage.
Audi
t or
y:rel
atedtoheari
ng.
Graphic:concernedwit
hdr awing,pict
ures,
pri
ntandwr
it
ing.

TheCommuni
cat
ionPr
ocess.
Incommunicationprocess,asenderencodesamessageandt henusingamedium
sends i
ttot he recei
verwho decodes t he message and aft
erprocessi
ng the
i
nformati
on,sendsbackt heappr
opriat
efeedbackusingt
herightmedium.

2
 f
eedback

El
ement
sofaCommuni
cat
ionPr
ocess
Forcommunicat
iont
otakepl
ace,
anumberoff
act
orsorel
ement
smustbepr
esent
:
Thesei
ncl
ude;
a)TheSender

The sender i
sthe source or or i
ginat
or of the i
ntended message int he
communicat
ionpr
ocess. Becausethesenderistheori
ginator
,s/
heistheencoder
oft
hemessage.Thesendermustt akeintoaccountt
hefoll
owingwhensendingthe
message:

 Thesendermustensur et
hatl anguageusedissi
mpl eandcl
ear.Theuseof
techni
calt
ermsorjargonlanguageshouldbeavoided.Asateacheryouwil
l
needtoensuret
hatyouusel anguagethatfi
tst
heleveloft
hel
earners.

 Communi cat
ion would beincompletewithoutfeedback;t
heref
ore,the
sendershouldini
ti
atevari
ousfeedbacksystemstoensurewhetherhisorher
communi cat
ionwasr ecei
ved,
understoodoractedupon.

 In an ef
fect
ive communi
cat
ion t
he bestand r
ightchannelshoul
d be
chosenbythesender.

3
b)Themessage

Themessageisthei
nfor
mationt
hati
stransmitt
edf
rom t
hesendert
other
ecei
ver
thr
oughagivenmedi
um.Itcanal
soberegardedast
hecode.

c)TheChannelorMedi
um ofTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Themedium ormedium isthemeanst hroughwhichthemessagei stransmit

ted
between t
hesenderandthereceiver
.Thet womaincommonmedi ausedt osend
themessagear
everbal(
li
nguist
ic)andnon-ver
bal(
non-
li
ngui
sti
c)systems.

d)Ther
ecei
ver

Therecei
verisapersonoraudiencewhom themessagei sdirectedat
.Thi
sist he
l
astoftheprocessesofcommunicati
on.The role ofthe r
eceiveristoint
erpret
the sender
’s message.Thisprocessofinterpr
etingthemessagei sknownas
decodi
ng.Ther ecei
verneedsbe awareofthesender ’
sint
entiontocommunicate
atthet
imeofcommuni cati
on.

e)Feedback

Communi cat
ionisonl
ycompl etedwhenthesenderr
eceivesthefeedbackf
rom t he
recei
ver. Feedback i
st he verbalornon-ver
balreaction t
o a communi cated
message.I tisthe onlyindicat
ion t
hata message has been communi cated.
Thismeans t hateffecti
vecommuni cat
ion r
equi
resbot ht hesenderand t he
recei
vertobeengagedacti
velyinthepr
ocessofcommuni cat
ion.

TypesofCommuni
cat
ion
a)
.Basi
ngonst
yleandpur
pose,
communi
cat
ioncanei
therbef
ormalori
nfor
mal
.

(
i)For
malCommuni
cat
ion.

Inf ormalcommuni cati

on,certai
nr ules,conventi
ons and pr i
nciples are
foll
owedwhi l
ecommuni cat
ingmessage.For malcommuni cati
onoccur si n
formalandof f
icialstyl
e.Usuall
y,professionalsett
ings,corporat
emeet i
ngs,
conf erencesunder go af or
malpat tern.I nformalcommuni cat
ion,useof
slangandf oull anguageisavoidedandcor r
ectpr onunci
ati
oni sr equir
ed.
Author itylines ar e needed to be f oll
owed inf or
malcommuni cati
on.
Exampl es off ormalcommuni cat
ion may i ncl
ude;gi vi
ng a speech,a
present ati
ons,wr i
ti
ng business letters,mi nut
es,meet ings,cl assroom
l
ect ures,etc.
4
 (
ii
)Inf
ormalCommuni
cat
ion

Informalcommuni cationisdoneusi ngchannel sthatarei ncontrastwit

h
formalcommuni cationchannels.Thisisbasedoncasualt al
ks,usuall
yface-
to-
f ace discussions.I thappens among f ri
ends and famil
y.I ninfor
mal
communi cati
onuseofsl angwor ds,foull
anguageisnotr est
ri
cted.Usuall
y,
i
nfor malcommuni cati
on is done or all
y and using gestures.Infor
mal
communi cati
on,unl ikeformal,doesnotf oll
ow aut
horit
yl i
nes.Examplesof
i
nfor malcommuni cationmayi ncl
ude;phoneconver sati
ons,chatti
ngwi t
h
fri
ends,casualt alksetc.

b).Basi
ng on the channels ormeans in whi
ch t
he message i
str
ansmi
tt
ed,
communicat
ioncaneitherbe;ver
balornon-
ver
bal
.

(
i)Ver
balCommuni
cat
ion(
Lingui
sti
cSyst
em)

Verbalcommuni cati
on r eferstot he form ofcommuni cat
ion in which
messageistransmi t
tedver bal
ly;communi cati
onisdonebywor dofmout h
andwordsinprint(api eceofwrit
ing).Obj
ectiveofever
ycommuni cati
onisto
havepeopl
eunder st
andwhatwear etr
yingt oconvey.Ver
bal(Lingui
sti
c)
Communicati
oni sfurtherdivi
dedinto:

a)Or
alCommuni
cat
ion(
Oral
-audi
tor
ymedi
um)
.

In oralcommuni cati
on,spoken wor ds are used.Itincludes face-t
o-f
ace
conversati
ons,speech,t
elephonicconversat
ion,vi
deo,radio,t
elevi
sion,voi
ce
overinter
net.I
nor alcommuni cati
on,communi cati
onisi nfl
uencedbypi tch,
volume,speedandcl ar
it
yofspeaki ng.Oralcommuni cationusuallyfall
sin
thecategoryofinf
ormalornon-formalkindofcommuni cation.

b)Wr
it
tenCommuni
cat
ion(
Graphi
c-vi
sualchannel
).

In wri
tt
en communi cati
on,wr i
tt
en wor ds,si gns orsymbol s are used to
communi cat
e.Awr i
ttenmessagemaybepr intedorhandwr i
tten.Inwrit
ten
communi cat
ionmessagecanbet ransmi ttedvi aemai l
,lett
er,report,memo
etc.Message,inwr itt
encommuni cation,isi nfluencedbyt hevocabul ary&
grammarused,wr i
ti
ngst yl
e,precisionandcl ar i
tyoft hel anguageused.
Wr i
tt
enCommuni cati
onismostcommonf orm ofcommuni cationbeingused
i
n busi ness and usual lyf al
li n t he cat egory of f ormal ( busi
ness)
communi cat
ion.So, i
tisconsi
deredcor eamongbusi nessskil
ls.

(
ii
)Non-
ver
balCommuni
cat
ion

Non-ver
balcommuni cat
ionisthesendi
ngorrecei
vingofwordl
essmessages,
suchasgesture,bodylanguage,post
ureorf
acialexpr
essi
ons,iscal
lednon-

5
 ver
balcommuni cat
ion.Non-ver
balcommuni cat
ion i
s al
laboutt he body
l
anguage.Of
ten,non-ver
balsi
gnal
srefl
ectthesi
tuat
ionmoreaccuratel
ythan
ver
balmessages.I tisabitmorecomplicat
edbecauseitinvol
vessending
messageswit
houtusingwordstoconveymeaning.

c)
.MassCommuni
cat
ion

Masscommuni cati
onisdir
ectedatalargeaudienceandt hemessagei ssupposed
tobet i
mel y.Thet ool
sformasscommuni cati
oni ncl
udet her adi
o,newspaper s,
magazines,tel
evisi
onetc.formasscommuni cati
ont otakeplace,thereisneedfor
an audience,a communi catorand the message to be communi cated t
ot he
audi
ence.

d)
.Int
ercul
tur
alCommuni
cat
ion

Cultur
eisaf or
m ofpatt
ernoflivi
ngwhichdefi
neshowpeopl elearn,t
hink,feel,
what
they bel
ieve and how they str
ive f
orwhatt hey consi
derpr oper.Intercultur
al
communi cati
ontakesplacewhent wopeoplefrom di
ffer
entculturesmeet .Ittakes
placeindiff
erentsit
uat
ionsamongdi f
fer
entpeopl
eofdi ff
erentorsimi l
arcul tur
al
backgrounds.

Bar
ri
erst
oEf
fect
iveCommuni
cat
ion
Therearemanybar r
ier
st oef
fecti
vecommuni cat
ionandt hesemayoccuratany
stageinthecommuni cat
ionpr
ocess. 
Barri
ersmayl eadtoyourmessagebecomi ng
dist
ort
ed. Ef f
ective communicati
on involves over coming these bar
ri
ers and
conveyi
ng a cl earand conci se message. Some oft he barri
ersto eff
ecti
ve
communi cat
ioninclude;

a)LanguageBar
ri
ers
Language and l
ingui
sti
c abi
li
tymayactas a bar
ri
ert o communi
cat
ion.
However,evenwhencommuni cat
ingi
nthesamelanguage,thet
ermi
nol
ogy
usedinamessagemayactasabar r
ieri
fiti
snotfull
yunderst
oodbyt he
recei
ver
(s)
.

b)Psychol
ogi
calBar
ri
ers
The psychologicalst at
e oft he communi cat
ors wil
linfluence how the
messageissent ,recei
vedandper ceived.I
fsomeoneisstressedtheymaybe
pre- occupiedbyper sonalconcernsandnotasr ecepti
vet othemessage.
More generall
y people withl ow self-
est
eem may be less asserti
ve and
ther
efor
emaynotf eel
comf or
tablecommuni cat
ing.

6
 c)Physi
ologi
calBar
ri
ers.
Physiol
ogi
calbarr
ier
smayr esul
tfr
om ther ecei
ver
’sphysi
calstat
e.For
example,arecei
verwithreducedhear
ingmaynotgr asptoenti
ret
yofa
spokenconver
sat
ionespeci
all
yift
her
eissigni
fi
cantbackgr
oundnoi
se.

d)Physi
calBar
ri
ers.
Geographicdi
stancebetweent hesenderandrecei
ver
(s)
.Communicati
oni
s
general
lyeasi
erovershorterdi
stancesasmor
ecommuni cat
ionchannel
sar
e
avai
labl
eandlesstechnologyisrequir
ed.

e)Syst
emat
icBar
ri
ers
Systematic barri
ers to communi cat
ion may exi st i
n structures and
organizat
ions wheret here ar
ei neff
icient or inappr
opri
atei nformati
on
systems and communi cati
on channels,or wher ethereisal ack of
understandingofther
olesandresponsibi
lit
iesforcommunicati
on.

f
) Cogni
ti
veBar
ri
ers:
Theserelat
etothinki
ngorment
alpr ocesses.Forexample;havingl
it
tl
eorno
knowledgeofasubj ectmay affect communi cati
on. Equall
yinf
ormati
on
over
load,wher et oo much i
nformat i
on is given can be a barri
er t
o
communi cat
ion.

g)Technol
ogi
calBar
ri
ers
Thesehavetodowit
htheuseoft
echnol
ogy.Forexampl
enet
wor
kfai
lur
eor
malfunct
ioni
ngf
axmachi
ne.

h)At
ti
tudi
nalBar
ri
ers
Att
it
udi
nalbarrier
sarebehavi orsorpercept
ionst
hatpr eventpeopl
ef r
om
communicati
ngef f
ect
ively.At
ti
tudi
nalbarr
ier
stocommuni cati
onmayr esul
t
fr
om per
sonali
tyconfl
icts,poormanagement,andresi
stancetochangeora
l
ackofmotivati
on.

Over
comi
ngbar
ri
erst
ocommuni
cat
ion

Allofthesebar r
ierst
oef f
ect i
vecommuni cati
oncanei therdist
ractt
hosei nvol
vedor
otherwisehi nderyourcommuni cati
ons.Makesur et heyarenoti nt hewayof
making yourpoi ntcryst
al -
clear.The ski
ll
s ofact i
ve list
ening,cl
arif
icati
on and
refl
ecti
onmayhel pbutt heski ll
edcommuni catoralsoneedst obeawar eofthe
barri
erstoef fectivecommuni cati
onandhowt oavoidorover comet hem.Oneway
ofdoingt hisis,istoidentifythetypeofabar r
ierandt henfindthesuit
ablesoluti
on
forit
,ifeffectivecommuni cationhavetobeachieved.

7
 Act
ivi
ty

1.Whati sef fecti

vecommuni cat
ion?
2.Whatbr ingsaboutef fect
ivecommuni cati
on?
3.Identif
yf actorsthatcani mpedeoncommuni cati
on.
4.Suggestwaysofover comingthesebarri
ers.
5.Whatar et heel ementsofanef fecti
vecommuni cati
onprocess.
6.Relatethebar r
iersofcommuni cati
ontoaclassroom si
tuat
ion.Howcant
hey
ber esolvedi fi
denti
fiedamongl ear
ners?

Summar
y
Int his uni
t you werei ntroduced t
ot he defi
nit
ion of communicati
on,the
communi cat
ion process wi th i t
s el
ements, t
ypes and di f
fer
ent forms of
communi cat
ionanddifferenttypesofbarr
ier
swer ei
denti
fi
edandhowt heycanbe
handledinordert
oensur eeffecti
vecommunicat
ion.

8
Uni
t2
Academi
cWr
it
ing
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Welcomet oUnitTwo.Int hi
sUnit,weshal lintr
oduceyout oaver yi mpor t
anttopic.
What everwor kyouwi l
lbedoingi nthislevelofeducat i
on,wi l
lentirelydependon
how wel lyoushal luti
li
setheknowl edgeyouwi l
lacquir
ef rom thisUni t.Thisi s
‘
Academi c Writ
ing’
.Academi c wr i
ti
ng involves the writ
ing and pr oducti
on of
research report
s,studymat eri
als,assessmentmat ter
sand anyot heritemsby
educatorst osuppor ttheteachingandl earningprocesses.Ital soi nvolvesthe
productionofstudents’ownnotes,writ
ingofassi gnments,answeringorr esponding
toquest i
onsandot herwaysofper f
ormingacademi cact
ivi
ties.

KeyQuest
ion

I
nthi
stopi
cwewi
lldi
scusst
hef
oll
owi
ngkeyquest
ions:

 Whatisacademi
cwr
it
ingandhow doesi
tdi
ff
erf
rom anyot
herf
orm of
wr
it
ing?
 Whatar
ethef
eat
uresofanacademi
cwr
it
ing?
 Whati
stheappr
opr
iat
efor
matf
oranacademi
cessay?
 Whatar
ethest
agesi
nvol
vedi
nwr
it
inganacademi
cessay?

Topi
cCont
entLi
st
 Def
ini
ti
onofAcademi
cWr
it
ing.

 Char
act
eri
sti
cs/f
eat
uresofanAcademi
cEssay.

 Par
agr
aphi
ng

9
  Typesofanacademi
cessay

 St
agesi
nthewr
it
ingPr
ocess

 For
matofanacademi
cessay

 SomeKeyConcept
susedi
nanacademi
cwr
it
ing

Ter
minol
ogi
es

Formal:Seri
ous/of
fi
cial
/done accordi
ng t
o pr escr
ibed r
ules orpr
act
ice/done
accor
dingtoconvent
ion/methodical(
inanorganizedmanner)

Sl
ang:I
nfor
malnon-
standard words orexpr essi
ons usuall
yused by par
ti
cul
ar
gr
oup ofpeopl
e(ar
my,st udent
s,cal
l-boys)e.g.chi
ckforyoungwoman;dudefor
man

I
diom:Af i
xedsequenceofwordswi
thameani
ngdi
ff
erentf
rom t
hemeani
ngoft
he
i
ndivi
dualwords(ki
ckthebucket
)

Col
loqui
ali
sm:Aninf
ormalwordorexpr
essi
onsui
tabl
eforspeechandnotf
ormal
wri
ti
ng,e.
g.wel
l,
youknow,ok,
sor
tof

Cont
ract
ion:Ashor
tfor
m,f
orexampl
ecan’
tfor‘
cannot
’.

Whati
sanAcademi
cWr
it
ing?
Letusbegi nbyexpl ai
ningtheterm academi cwri
ti
ng.Thewor d‘academic’means
rel
atingt oeducat i
onoreducat i
onalactivit
ies.Academi cwrit
ingcanbedef i
nedas
thef ormalwayofpr esent
ingacademi cwor kssuchasessays,r esearchreports,
thesesandj ournals.Thinkaboutt hewor df ormalwhi chwehavewr it
teninbold.
Whydoyout hinkwehavewr i
tt
ent hewor dt hi
swayandwhatar eit
simplicati
ons?
Iti
sbecauseacademi cwr i
ti
ngisaser iousunder t
aking.Itrequiresseri
ousnessand
notcasual nessoryourpar t
. Fur t
her,academi c wr i
ti
ng is done accor ding to
certain conventions,whati sgener al
lyagr eedupon.Thati swhywi l
lbelookingat
featuresandf ormatofanacademi cessay.Not et hatt herei s nothing natur
al
aboutacademi c wr i
ti
ng;iti s aski l
lt hatmustbe devel opedbyst udentsin
tert
iaryeducationt hr
oughobser vat
ion,studyandpr acti
ce.

Anacademi cessaymaybedescr ibedasapi eceofwr it

ingincontinuous/prose
wri
ti
ngf ocusi
ngonapar ti
culari
ssueortopi
c( Rudd,2009).Thewrit
ingskil
lheavil
y
dependsonhow wel lyour eadandunderstandwhatyouhaver ead.Goodessay
wri
ti
ngst ar
tsfr
om underst
andingthequesti
onandt hetopi
conwhi chyouar eabout
tostar
tresear
chingon.I
tisimportantt
ocarefull
yreadthequesti
onandunder stand
10
i
tbeforeyouwri
teanyt
hing.Theuseofcommonspel
li
ngs,sent
encepat
ter
nsand
par
agraphswoul
dmakeyourwor keasyt
ofol
low.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofanAcademi
cWr
it
ing
Asastudentyouwillberequir
edt oknowhowt
opr
esentyourwor
kinapar
ti
cul
ar
manner
.Thisincl
udesthefol
lowing:

a)For
mal
it
y

Thisbasi
cal
lymeanst
hattheuseofi
nformall
anguagesuchascont
ract
ions,
slang,
i
diomsand prover
bsand anyotherinfor
mallanguageshoul
d beavoided.For
example,
wedonotexpectt
oseethef
ollowi
nginyoureasy:

 Don’
t,
can’
t,
won’
t,
etc.whi
char
econt
ract
ions
 Wel
l,
youknow,
whi
char
ecol
loqui
ali
sms
 Guy,
kid,
whi
char
einf
ormalwor
ds

b)Obj
ect
ivi
ty

This meansthatanacademicessay shoul

d notr eflectpersonalf eel
ings but
rat
hertheemphasi sshoul
dbeongivi
ngtheinfor
mationi nafactualway.Secondly
anacademicessayshoul dbei
mpersonal.I
tshouldavoi dwordst hatref
ertot he
wri
terort
hereader.Thusiti
smoreint
het hi
rdper
sont hanfir
stperson.

c)Ref
erences

Academicwrit
ingshoul
dhavesupport
ingevi
dencefrom r
eli
abl
esources,i
nform of
i
n-t
extref
erencesandaref
erencel
ist
.Weshalldi
scussmor eonthi
sinthenextunit
.

d)Layout
/for
mat

Thi
sr ef
erstot
hegeneralappear
anceofthewri
tt
enworkieanacademicessay.For
i
nstance,youwil
lberequi
redtoleaver
easonabl
emarginsofabout3cm onthelef
t
andtopsi deofthepaperandabout2cm ont her
ightandbottom si
de,forthe
marker’
suse.

e)Par
agr
aphs

Yourworkshoul
dbei nparagr
aphfor
m wit
hacl earint
roduct
ion,devel
opment
andaconcl
usi
on.Thenumberofpar
agr
aphswil
ldependonthenumberofideasin

11
theessay.TheconceptofCohesi
oni
swhatholdsatextt
oget
her
.Cohesionmaybe
carr
iedoutbyref
erri
ngbacktosomet
hingal
readywr
itt
endownorspoken.

Donotwr i
teyouri
deasinnoteform nei
thershoul
dyouusebullet
sordashes.Even
subheadi
ngsshoul dbeavoidedinyourassignments,unl
essthisisarequi
rement
bythetutor.However
,sub-
headingsareusedinacademicworkssuchasthesisand
j
ournals.

Par
agr
aphi
ng
I
nacademicwri
ti
ngt heessayswil
lber
equi
redtobewri
tt
eninpar
agraphs;hencei
t
i
simport
antf
orstudentstolear
nhowtoor
ganizet
hepar
agraphsi
ntheessays.

Whati
sapar
agr
aph?

Apar agraphi nsi

mplet ermsisagroupsentencesdiscussingani dea.Itcanalsobe
sai
dt obeacol l
ecti
on,orseriesofsent
enceswithoneuni t
yofpur pose.Mostbooks
on paragr aphstalkaboutt heparagr
aph having a ‘control
li
ng idea’ora ‘topi
c
sentence’;however,apar agr
aphshouldconcentrat
eononei dea.Agoodpar agraph,
aswi thagoodsent enceandagoodessay,hasast ructur
e.Thest ruct
ureofa
paragraphi softwopar ts.

(
i) Thet
opi
csent
ence.
Thet opi
csentence i
sthatsentence intheparagraph inwhicht
hei dea
ofthatparagr
aph isexpressed,Oft
enthet opi
csent encecomesf
irstbut
i
spossi bl
eforittocomeatanypoi nti
nt heparagraph,evenast
hef i
nal
sentence.

(
ii
) Thesuppor
tsent
ences.
Withr egar
dt othedet
ailtosupportthetopicsent
ence,onemustbevery
carefulthatthedetail
sputi ntoapar agrapharerelevantt
ot het
opi
c
sentenceandonl yto that topicsentence.Noot hercont
rar
ydetai
ls
shouldbei ncl
udedintheparagraph.

TypesofAcademi
cEssays
Inthef
irstpl
ace,weal
ludedt
othefactt
hati
tisimpor
tantt
ounder
standaquesti
on
askedbeforeonebegi
nstoanswerit
.Aquesti
ononanacademicessay,maybeon
anyofthefoll
owi
ngtypes;

a)
.Descr
ipt
iveEssay

Thi
sis an essay whi
ch ski
llf
ull
y descr
ibes somet
hing.I
tgi
ves a pi
ctur
e of
12
somet
hinglooksli
keorf
eel
sli
ke.Thi
stypeofcomposi
ti
oni
sbestwr
it
tenusi
ng
adj
ect
ivesandadver
b.

b)
.Nar
rat
iveEssay.

Tonarratei
stotellastory.Anarrati
veessaytheref
ore,isonewhichdescri
besan
acti
onorseriesofactionsorpr esentsanorderlyaccountofevents.Thi
sist he
easi
esttypeofanacademi ceasy,becauseiti
sf act
ual,asevent
sarepresentedin
themannerinwhichtheyoccurr
ed.

c)
.Ar
gument
ati
veEssay

Ast hetit
leimpl
ies,thisi sanessayt hati
scent eredonanar gument .Asopposedt o
theNar rati
veand Descr i
pti
veessayswhi ch ar eaboutpeopl e,objects,act i
ons,
eventsandsoon,anar gument ati
veacademi cessayi sabouti deas.Itinvolvest he
presentati
onofapr obl em ar oundwhi chanar gumenti slogicallydeveloped.The
authortri
estopersuadet her eadertohis(author’s)l
ineofthoughtoropi nion.Hence,
i
tisal socall
edaper suasiveessay.I tmostlydealswi t
hcont roversi
almat t
ers.The
writ
erput supfacts,r easonsandexampl estowhathewr it
esandr el
atesi ncidents
thatrendersupporttot hear gumenthei sput ti
ngupsot hatonecoul dfollowt heline
ofthoughtandagr eewi thwhathesuggest s.

d)
.Di
scur
siveEssay
Di
scursi
vecompositi
ondeal swit
ht woormor eideasatonce.Thesei deasmaybe
di
scussedasthetit
leimpli
esortheymaybesuppor t
edorindeedmer elyexplai
ned
.I
fiti
smerelytoexplai
n,i
tisal
socal l
edanexposit
orycompositi
on.Theaut horofa
di
scursi
veessaymaynotgi vet
heiropini
on.

St
agesi
nAcademi
cEssayWr
it
ing
1)Under
standi
ngt
het
opi
c/quest
ion

Acar ef
ulanalysi
soft het opi
corquest i
onwillhel
pyouavoidmi sconception
wher eyouwil
lnotspendl onghour swr i
ti
ngessaysandscor elowgr ades.In
analyzi
ngtheessay,youar eexpect edtoisolat
ethenecessarydetail
swhi ch
youneedt ohel pyour espondt ot hequestion.Someti
mesyouwi llneedt o
fur
therdivi
dethepointsi ntosubti
tlesthatwil
lenabl
eyoutoexpandt hedet ai
l
corr
ectlywit
houtstrayingt odif
ferentideas.Readthequestionseveralti
mes
i
nor dertounderstandi tbeforeyouembar konyourresearch,al
soaskyour
l
ecturersorothercol
leaguesf orcl
ar it
y.

2)Thel
engt
handduedat
e

13
 Thel engthofyouressaywi llinmostcasesdet erminetheperi
odoft imethat
youwi llspendongat heri
ngi nformation.Longessaysr equi
remor eresearch
andt heuseofmor ebooksandot hermat eri
alsinordertocollectrel
evant
i
nf ormationascompar edt oshor tessays.Donotexceedt henumberof
pagesyouar eadvisedoraskedt owr i
te.Theduedat ewil
lalsodictatethe
periodoft i
met ospendonyourr esearch.I ftheduedat eisclose,youwi l
l
needt oembar kont heresear chimmedi atelyforyoutocoll
ectenoughdat a.
Informationcanbegat heredsl owl
yf orassi gnmentwhoseduedat eisnottoo
closetot hedateofissue.Allassignment sshouldbehandedi nont heactual
duedat eswithoutf
ail.

3)Pr
epar
ati
onofst
udy/
resear
chmat
eri
als

Ensurethatyougatherallthemat eri
alsorbookst hatarer el
evantt othet opi
c
youar estudyingorquestionyouwantt oanswer.Copyt hedet ai
lsfrom the
booksinwhi chyouareretrievi
ngyouri nformat
ion.ie-theTi t
lesoft hebooks,
theAuthors,theYearsofpubl i
cat
ion,Pagenumber s,TownsorCi t
ieswher e
thebookswer epubl
ishedandt hepubl i
shi
ngcompani es.Inyourr esearch,
youwi l
lhavet ousether eadingskil
lsofski mmingandscanni ngwhi chyou
wil
llearnaboutindetai
llaterinthecour seofyourstudy.

4)Wr
it
ingt
hedr
aft

Youressay shoul d have an i

ntr
oducti
on,mai n body ( development)and
conclusi
on which you aresupposed to connectwel ltot het opi
cunder
discussi
on. I
nyouri ntr
oduct
ion,youneedt oshow under standingoft he
questionbytryingtophr asei
tinyourownwor dsandshow how youwi l
l
endeavortoanswert hequesti
on.Thef i
rstpointthatyouwantt odiscussin
ordertoanswert hequesti
onshouldnotappearint heintr
oductionpartbutin
thesecondpar agraphtoshow thatyouhavenow embar kedonanswer ing
thequesti
on.Theappr oachtoyourint
roducti
onmaysomet imesbedi f
fer
ent
dependingonthequest i
onyouaretryi
ngt oanswer .

Arrangeyourpoi ntsinal ogicalor derandensur et hatquotationsar ewell

i
ntegratedi ntheessay.Youi ntegratethequot at
ionsbyensur ingthatyou
commentont hedi r
ectquotationst oexplainhow t heyarer elatedtoyour
topic ofdi scussi
on.Par aphrased i deas should be wel li nterpr
eted i
n
connectiontot hetopicunderdi scussion.Youwi l
lthenneedt owr i
teadraft
usingappr opri
ategrammarandcor rectspell
ingsconnectingyourpoi nt
sor
i
deasi nalogicalandacademi cmanner .

5)Fi
nalst
ageofwr
it
ingt
heessay

14
 Thef i
nalst ageofcopyingt hedraf
twillrequi
reyoutoeditt heessayusing
appropri
atemat erial
ssuch ast hedicti
onaryand otherref er
encebooks.
Ensurethatyour eadthr
oughyourwor kbeforeyousubmitittoyourlect
urer
.
Centre yourwor k and recor
d allthe necessar
y detai
ls and refer
ences
caref
ull
yl eavingenoughr oom f
orcomment sandotheraddi
tionalpoi
nts.

For
matofanAcademi
cEssay.
a)Ti
tl
epage

Thisist hef
rontpageoftheessay.Iti
ncludesdetail
ssuchast hestudent
’sname,
i
dentitynumber,tut
or’
sname,duedat eanddet ai
lsofthequest
ion.Avoidanover-
decoratedti
tl
epage;r emember t he point about an academic essay being
seri
ous and not casual?Thereforekeepyourt it
lepageaspl ai
nandsimpleas
possible.

b)I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thisisthefi
rstparagr
aphoftheessaywher
eyougiveasummarypict
ureofwhat
theessayisabout.I
nthei
ntr
oducti
on,youmaydosomeoral
loft
hefoll
owi
ng:

 St
atewhatt
heessayi
sabout
 Gi
veasummar
yoft
hel
ayoutoft
heessay
 Def
inekeyt
erms
The i
ntr
oduct
ory paragraph should not be t
oo l ong,but l
ong enough to
i
ntr
oduce the subjectunderdi scussi
on. Hereis an example ofa sample
i
ntr
oduct
oryparagr
aph.Not ethatthi
si sjustan example and t
here ar
e many
waysyoumaywr i
tei nt
roductor
yparagr
aphs.

Sampl
eQuest
ion:

Doesthecur
rentZambi
aneducati
onsystem adequat
elyprepar
eit
sci
ti
zenf
orl
if
e?
Whatcanbedonetomaketheeducat
ionsyst
em mor erel
evant?

Sampl
eInt
roduct
ion:

Educationhasbeendef i
nedindiff
erentwaysbyvar i
ousscholars.Onepopular
defi
nit
ionisthateducati
onisprepar
ati
onforli
fe(Mason,2007)
.Intheli
ghtofthis,
thi
s essay wi ll assess whether the cur
rent Zambian educati
on system
adequatel
ypreparesit
sciti
zensforl
if
e.Theessaywil
lfurt
herproposechangesthe

15
governmentcanmaketothecurr
icul
um atpr
imar
yandsecondar
ylevelt
omaket
he
educati
onsystem mor
erel
evant
.

c)Mai
nBody

Thisis wher et he i
dea/argumenti ntr
oduced int he int
roducti
on is developed.
Youar eexpectedtobackupyourpoi ntswithotherpeople’sideaswhi chmustbe
proper
lycited.Themanybodywi llhavesever alpar agr
aphsdependi ng on the
numberofideas.Asyougi veci t
ations,avoi d monotony,wher eyou begi n every
ci
tati
on int he same way, (Accordingt o.
..
).Useavar i
etyofexpr essi
ons.Herear e
someoft heexpressionsyoucanusei fyouagreewithsomeone’ swor kthatyouar e
goingtoparaphrase:

 Thewor
kof(
X)i
ndi
cat
es/
reveal
s/shows/t
hat
..
.
 Tur
ningt
o(X)
,onef
indst
hat
..
.
 I
nast
udyof…,
(X)f
oundt
hat
..
.
 As(
X)poi
ntsout
…,
 As(
X)hasi
ndi
cat
ed.
..
 (
X)hasdr
awnat
tent
iont
othef
actt
hat
..
.
Note t hat aft
er pr
esent
ing evi
dence by ci
tati
on,you need to gi
ve your
conclusion.Donotgi
veaci t
ati
ont
henjustl
eaveithangi
ng.Thesear
esomeofthe
expressionsyoucanuse:

 Thi
sevi
denceseemst
oindi
cat
ethat
..
.
 I
tmust
,ther
efor
e,ber
ecogni
zedt
hat
..
.
 Thei
ndi
cat
ionsar
e,t
her
efor
e,t
hat
..
.
 I
tiscl
eart
her
efor
ethat
..
.
 Thusi
tcoul
dbeconcl
udedt
hat
..
.
 Ont
hisbasi
sitmaybei
nfer
redt
hat
..
.
 Gi
vent
hisevi
dence,
itcanbeseent
hat
..
.
d)Concl
usi
on

Thisiswhereasawr it
eryousum upthefindi
ngsintheessay.Youmayequal
ly
stat
ethelessonslearntfr
om t
herai
sedissues. Theconcl
usionmustst
atewhat
theessayhasestabli
shed.Her
eisanexampl eofaconcl
usi
onbasedontheear
li
er
questi
on.

Sampl
eConcl
usi
on:

16
From thefor
egoingitisevi
dentt
hatZambia'
scurrenteducat
ionsyst
em doesnot
adequatel
yprepareits ci
ti
zen f
or l
if
e. The essay has shown t hat t
hisi s
because the curr
icul
um does notequi
pl earners wit
hl i
fe ski
ll
s and other
entr
epreneur
ialski
ll
s.

e)Ref
erenceLi
st/
Bibl
iogr
aphy

Thi
smustal
waysbegi
nonasepar
atepageandwi
llbeatt
heendoft
heessay.

Somekeyconcept
susedi
nessaywr
it
ing.
Yourabili
tyt
oadequatelyansweranessayorexami nat
ionquestionwil
ldependon
how wellyouwi l
lunderst
andthekeywor dsusedi nt hequestion.Youshouldbe
awaret hatnotallquesti
onsmaybeused f orproducing answersofessayor
assi
gnmentnat ure.Yourlect
urer
si ndiff
erentareasofspeci ali
zat
ionwillusea
vari
ety ofcommand wor ds t
o give you assi
gnment s.Writ
ten scri
pts can be
cl
assif
iedintodescri
pti
ve,narr
ati
ve,argumentati
veandmanyot her
s(Clanchand
Ball
and,1981).

Manyst udentshaveendedupget t
ingl
ow marksbecauseofansweringagiven
questi
onwr ongl
yoranswer ingt
hequesti
onswhoser equi
rement
st heydidnot
underst
andverywell.Thefoll
owi
ngaresomethekeywor dsorconceptsusedin
essayandexaminati
onwrit
ing.

a)Defi
ne:Whenyouareaskedtodefine,youareexpectedt
ogivet he
exactmeani
ngoft
hetopicathand,andi nsomecases.Sometimes
youmayhavetoexaminedif
fer
entdefini
ti
onsadvancedbydeferent
schol
ars.
b)Descr
ibe:Todescri
beistotel
lwhathappenedorwhathappensor
whatthetopi
corsit
uati
onis.Br
ingoutthefeat
uresofwhatmakes
somethi
ngtobewhatiti
s.
c)I
ll
ustr
ateorexempl
if
y:Whenyouaskedt
oil
lust
rat
e,yougi
veoneor
moreexampl
esrel
ati
ngtot
hetopi
c.
d)Relate:Tor
elat
eistoshowhowt hetopichasaneff
ectonsomethi
ng
else.Youarerequi
redtoshow t
heextenttowhicht
heyareal
ikeand
theconnect
ionsbecauset
woormor efeatur
es.
e)St
ate:t
ost
atei
stopr
esentt
hei
ssueathandi
nabr
iefandacl
earf
orm.
f
) Outl
ineorsurvey:Anoutl
inegivesamai nfeatur
esorgener
alpi
ctur
e
orpr
inci
pleofasubject
,omit
ti
ngmi nordetai
ls.
g)Compar
ison:Compar
isoni
nvol
vesshowi
nghow t
wot
hingsar
ebot
h
17
 al
ikeanddiffer
ent.Youarer equir
edtoout
li
net
hesi
mil
ari
ti
esand
di
ffer
encedandreachtheconclusi
ons.
h)Contr
astordi
sti
nguishordi
ffer
enti
ate:Whenyoucontrastt
wothings
orsit
uati
ons,youshow onlyt hedifferencebet
weenthi
ngs,setin
opposi
ti
oninordert
obringoutthedi
fference.
i
) Anal
yse:Toanal
yseistobr eakdownthetopi
cint
oitspar
tsand
expl
ainhowt
hepart
srel
atet
oeachotherandt
othewhol
e.
j
) Exami ne:To examine toinvesti
gate,scrut
ini
se and inqui
rei
ntoa
subject,t
heoryorstatementwiththeview toestabl
ishi
ngthetr
uthor
fal
sityofthesubject
,theor
yorstatement.
k)Assess:Whenyouassess,youwei ghup,measure,est
imat
e,andthe
val
ueoft het
opi
corsubjectconsi
deri
ngt
hepointsforandagai
nstand
fi
nal
lyreachaconcl
usi
on.
l
) Discuss:Whenyoudi scuss,youexaminethevariousvi
ewshel
dupon
orvariousfactorstobeconsi der
edorinvol
ved,reachaconcl
usi
onas
towhichi nt
erpretat
ionismostval i
dinyouropinionorwhi
chaspect
s
arethemosti mpor t
antgivi
ngyourreasons.
m)Commenton: Tocommentonsomet hi
ngistomakeexplanat
ory
remarksorcr
it
ici
smsupon.Pi
ckoutt
hemosti
mpor
tantori
nter
est
ing
feat
uresasyouseet
hem.
n)Cr
it
ici
se:Her
eyouar erequi
redtobreakint
oparts(anal
yse)
,expl
ain
t
hemeaningof(
int
erpret
)andgiveyourownopi
nion.
o)I
nterpr
et: whenyouinter
pretyouexplainthemeani
ngofat
opi
c.
Gi
vingfact
stosuppor
tyouransweroropini
on.
p)Justi
fy:Yougiver
easonswhyt hetopi
corasser
ti
onistrue.Respond
toandr ef
utet
hemainobject
ionsl
ikel
ytomadeoradvanced.
q)Narrat
ion:Tonarratei
storetel
lastor
y.Itisalsowr
it
ingaboutt
he
succession of event
s. Narr
ati
on of event
s can eit
her be i
n
chronologi
calorl
ogi
calor
der.

Assi
gnment
1.Di
scussthestagesi
nanacademicwr
it
ingpr
ocess.Howdot
heydi
ff
erf
rom
t
hefeat
uresofanacademi
cessay?

18
 2.Comparethecomposit
ionsyouusedtowri
teinsecondar
yschoolwit
ht he
academi
cessayyouwi l
lbeexpect
edtowrit
ewhileintert
iar
yeducati
on.
Whataret
hesimil
ari
ti
esanddif
fer
ences?
Act
ivi
ty

1.Wi
thr
elevantexampl
es,
expl
aint
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
a.Obj
ect
ivi
ty
b.For
mal
it
y
c.Bi
bli
ogr
aphy
d.Ref
erencel
ist
2.Whati
sacademicwr
it
ing?Di
scussf
ivef
eat
uresofanacademi
cessay,
givi
ng
t
hei
rrel
evance.
3.Ifyouar
ewr i
ti
nganessayintheexami
nat
ion,whi
choft
hef
eat
uresofan
academi
cessaywi
llyoul
eaveout
?
Summar
y
Inthisunit,wehavelookedatt hedefinit
ionofanacademicessay,i
tsf eat
uresor
charact
eri
sti
cs,paragraphi
ng,diff
erenttypesofacademicessays,f
ormatorr ather
theappropri
atel
ayoutandt hekeyconcept sthatyoumaycomeacr ossinwr i
ting
academicessays.Inthenextuni t,weshal li
ntroduceyoutodiff
erentways of
ref
erenci
ngandcitati
on requir
edinacademi cwr i
ti
ng.Wehope bynow youknow
whatisrequi
redi
nwr it
ingacademicwor ks.

19
Uni
t3
Ref
erenci
ngandCi
tat
ion
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Welcomet oUni tThr ee.Int hi
suni t
,youwi l
llearnhow t owr i
teacademicwor ks,
carryoutyourr esearchandr ecordrefer
encesfrom vari
oussour cessuchasbooks,
journals,techni calreports,magazi nesand othert ext
s.Ref er
encewr it
ing i
san
i
mpor t
antski llasi thelpsyout oacknowl edget hesourcesofi nfor
mati
onusedi n
yourwor k.Ther ef
erencegi vesadet ail
eddescript
ionoftheitemsf rom whi
chyou
haveobt ainedyouri nformat i
on.Ther earedifferentref
erencingsystemswhi ch
diff
erentuni versiti
eswor l
dwi derecommendsuchas;

a)TheModernHumaniti
esResear
chAssoci
ati
onSyst
em (
MHRA)al
socal
led
TheOxf
ordRef
erenci
ngSyst
em.
b)The Har
var
d Ref
erenci
ng Syst
em whi
ch i
s al
so known as Aut
horDat
e
Syst
em
c)TheAmer
icanPsychol
ogi
calAssoci
ati
onSyst
em (
APA)
.
d)Chi
cagosyst
em.
e)Vancouver(Numer
ic)
f
) Moder
nLanguageAssoci
ati
onofAmer
ica(
MLA)
However,Muf uli
ra Coll
ege of Education r
ecommends t he APA system of
ref
erenci
ng.Itistheref
ore,veryimpor
tanttoacqui
tyoursel
veswi thal
lformsof
ref
erenceli
stedaboveinordernottost
rugglei
nwri
ti
ngdif
ferentacademi
cwor ksi
n
vari
ousfiel
dsindif
fer
entinsti
tut
ions

Itisessentialtoacknowl edget
hesour cesofinformati
onbecausei tsavesyouf rom
plagiari
sm.Pl agi ari
sm isaser i
ousof f
encei nacademicwr it
ing.Itisrefer
r edtoas
‘
academi cthef t’wher eyouuseot herpeople’
si deaswithoutacknowl edgingt hem
andconsi dert hem ast houghtheywer eyourown.Ci t
ationiswher eyouf or
mal l
y
recognize within yourt ext,t
he sources from whi ch you have obt ained your
i
nf ormati
on.Ont heot herhand,thebibl
iogr
aphy/Ref er
encelistaccor di
ngtoHor nby
(2010)descr ibes t he li
stofbooks orar ti
cles abouta par ti
cularsubj ectora
par ti
cul
arauthor .Itindicatesthel i
stofbooksusedbysomeonewr it
ingabook,
articl
eorothermat eri
als.

KeyQuest
ion
20
I
nthi
stopi
cwewi
lldi
scusst
hef
oll
owi
ngkeyquest
ions:

 Expl
aintheimpor
tanceofref
erenci
ngandbeabl
etowr
it
ether
efer
ences
corr
ect
lywit
houtmuchdi
ff
icul
ty.

 Writ
ediffer
enttypesofr
efer
encesf
rom var
ioussour
cessuchasbooks,
newspaperset
c.

 Ident
if
yt hedif
fer
entf
ormsofci
tat
ion and appl
ythem cor
rect
lyi
nthei
r
academicwork.

 Fol
low t
henecessar
yst
epsi
nwr
it
ingessaysandpr
oducegoodacademi
c
work.

 I
nter
pretquest
ionst
hatr
equi
recr
it
icalt
hinki
ngcor
rect
lywi
thi
nthest
ipul
ated
t
ime.

Topi
cCont
entLi
st
 TheConceptofr
efer
enci
ng

 I
mpor
tanceofRef
erenci
ng

 For
msofRef
erenci
ng

 I
n-t
extci
tat
ion

 TheRef
erenceLi
st

Terminologies
Reference:Asour ceofinformat i
on
Ci
tati
on:Theacademi cpr
acticeofacknowl edginguseofotherpeopl
e’
swork.
Quotation:Awor df orwordt extthati
sincludedi nyourwor
k
Paraphr ase:Useot herpeople’sideasusingyourownwor ds
I
npar ent hesi
s:Inbr acket
s
Contraction:Ashor tform,forexampl ecan’tforcannot
Si
gnalphr ase:Aphr aseorsent encethatintr
oducesaquotationorapar
aphrase

TheConceptofRef
erenci
ng
Letusbegi
nbydi
scussi
ngt
hemeani
ngoft
hewor
dref
erence.KomboandTr
omp

21
(2006: 138)wr otet hat,“Inresear
ch,thet erm‘ r
eference’appl i
est omat eri
alst hat
havebeenr eferredtoorquot edinthestudy” .Ingener al,ar efer
encei ssimpl ya
sour ceofi nf ormation.I n academic wri
ting,itr efersto a descr ipti
on ofit ems
from whi chi nf
or mationwasobt ained.Thi sdescr ipt
ioncanbei nform ofin-text
citati
onsorr eferencel ist
.Therefor
e,referenci
ngi sacknowl edgingt hesourceof
i
nf ormat i
onused.Ref erencesarebrief
lycitedwi thinthetext( i
n-t
extcitat
ion),and
giveni nf ul
latt heendofyourwor kinar efer
encel ist
/bibl
iography.Now,whyi sit
i
mpor tanttohaver eferencesinanacademi cessay?Letusl ookatt heimportance
ofr eferencing.

I
mpor
tanceofRef
erenci
ng
 Ref er
ences enable readers t
o locate the sources of your
i
nf ormati
on easil
y.Itcoul
dbeyourlect
urer
sorindeedotherpeopl
e
readingyouressay.
 They show the scope and breadth ofyourwor k;i
n ot
herwor ds
your refer
ences wi l
lindi
catehow wel lresearchedyouressayi s.
Refer
encesshowt hebodyofknowl edgeonwhi chyourworkisbased.
 Theyhelpto suppor
tyourargumentand vali
dateyourwork.Thi
s
means thatyou can use ot
herpeople’
si deas t
o suppor
tyour
argument
s.
 References mustal so be used t o avoid pl
agi
arism.Letus say
somet hi
ngaboutpl agiar
ism:i ti
ssaidt obet heinsigni
ficantuseof
otherpeople’
sworkori deasandsubmi t
ti
ngitasthoughi twereyour s.
Plagi
ar i
sm amountst ocheatingandt heref
oreisheavilypenalizedin
theacademi cworl
d.Al lideaswhetherdirect
lyquotedorpar aphrased
needt oberefer
encedint hetextofyourwork/assi
gnment .
St
udent
scommi
tpl
agi
ari
sm i
nmanywaysandt
hesear
esomeoft
heways:

a)Writ
ing an essay with paraphr
ases fr
om dif
fer
entsources yetwit
hout
acknowledgi
ngt hesources.Youmustknow t hatiti
sveryeasyf oryour
l
ecturertotellwhethertheEngl i
shusedisast
udent’
sorf
rom abook.
b)Copying a friend’sessayand justchanging personaldetai
lsand a f ew
l
ines.Agai n,youmustknowt hatyourl
ecturerwil
lremembert hats/heread
somet hi
ngsi milarandwhenyouar ecaughtbothofyouwi l
lbepenal i
zed.Be
awaret hatitisverymuchal lri
ghttoshareideaswi t
hyourf r
iends,butyou
cannotcertainlywrit
einthesameway.

For
msofRef
erenci
ng

22
Referencing i
n writ
ing assignment
s has two aspect
s;in-
textci
tat
ions and t
he
ref
erencel i
st.I
n-t
extcit
ationsareusedwi t
hinyourassi
gnmentoressaywhi l
ethe
ref
erencel i
stshouldappearont helastpageofyourassignment(Kil
ssarvoand
Cayley,2006).

A.I
n-t
extCi
tat
ion
Fir
stofallletuslookatthewor dcit
ati
on.Thewor dcomesf r
om thever b‘toci t
e’
whichmeanst or
ecognisewithi
nyourworkt he sources ofi
nformation.Citati
on
i
s,t her
efore,the academicpracti
ce ofacknowl edgi
ng use ofot herpeopl e’s
i
deas wi thi
nt he body ofa t ext
.Citat
ionisausef ulandbenefi
cialpracti
cein
academicessays.However,youmustensur ethateachtimeyouuseaci tati
on,itis
rel
evant.Belowaresomeinstanceswhenweexpectyout ousecitat
ions:

 Whenpr
esent
ingdat
aofst
ati
sti
calnat
ure.
 Whenpr
ovi
dingdef
ini
ti
ons.
 Whenyouwantt oaddcr
edi
bil
it
ytoyourar
gumentbybr
ingi
ngi
not
her
peopl
e’
sideas.
 Whendescr
ibi
ng/
discussi
ngat
heor
yormodelf
rom apar
ti
cul
araut
hor
Asal readypoi ntedout, you mustbe awar et hatthere are diff
erentsyst ems of
ref
er encing such as Har vard,APA,Chi cago,etc.Itisimpor t
antt hatyougett o
know t hedifferentreferencingstyles,theirsimilar
iti
esanddi fferencesi norderto
correctlyuset hestylet hatisrecommendedbyyouri nsti
tut
ion,school ,depar
tment
ortut or
.Ifyourinstit
utiondoesnotgi veapr eferr
edsyst em ofreferencing,usewhat
youwi l
lbecomf ort
ablewi th.Butwhat eversystem youadopt ,beconsi stent!Asfor
Muf ulir
aCol l
egeofEducat i
on,itisrecommendedt hatstudentsuset heAPAst yl
e,
whichweshal llookati ntodetail
sinthisUni t.

Whenyour ead,youar er equir

edt otakenot eofkeywor ds,conceptsorpointsthat
yout hinkar erelevantt oyourpur poseofr eading.Ther earet womai nwaysof
recordi
ngt hepoi ntsthatyouwi shtoremember .Youcanei t
herquotethem directl
y
wor dforwor dorpar aphrasewi thoutattempt i
ngt ochanget hemeani ng.Whatdo
wemeanbyt his?Di r
ectQuot ati
oni satypeofani n-textcit
ati
onwhi chrefer
stot he
directl
ift
ingoft hei deas(wor df orword)andphr aseologyoft hemateri
alasi tis
expressed by t he or i
ginalsour ce.Wher eas Par aphrasi
ng isf orm ofci t
ation
equival
entt other eportedspeecht ypeoflanguagewher eyouar eexpect
edt ouse
yourownl anguaget oexpr essideasthatarepi ckedf rom ot
hersources.

Letusnowl ookatdi r
ectquot
ati
onandparaphr
asi
nginacademi
cwri
ti
ngusingthe
American Psychologi
calAssoci
ati
on Syst
em (APA)as demanded by Muf
uli
ra
Col
legeofEducation(MUCE).

23
a)
.Di
rectQuot
ati
ons.
Encl
osethequot ati
oninquotat
ionmarks,i
ndi
cat
etheauthor
’ssurnameandthen
theyearofpubl
icationandpagenumbersinbr
acket
s.Theyearandpagenumbers
shoul
dbeseparat edbyaful
lcol
ony.

Exampl
e:

Accordi
ng to Kell
y(2006:62)
,“ The Addi
s Ababa Confer
ence not
es t
hat
educati
on cannotmakei t
sf ul
lestcontri
but
ion t
o economicdevel
opment
unlessiti
sparti
cul
arl
ygearedtot heneedsofeconomicdevel
opmentofthe
Nation”

or

Kell
y(2006:62)stat
edt hatt
heAddisAbabaConfer
encenotesthateducat
ion
cannotmakei t
sf ul
lestcont
ri
but
iontoeconomicdevel
opmentunlessiti
s
part
icul
arl
ygear edtotheneedsofeconomicdevel
opmentoftheNat i
on.

Not
e:t
heuseoftheword‘
that
’af
terst
atesissigni
fi
canti
nthati
tsi
gni
fi
est
hatt
his
i
sadir
ectquot
ati
onevent
hought
hequot at
ionmarksarenoti
ndi
cat
ed.

b)
.Par
aphr
asi
ng

I
nser
ttheaut
hor
’ssur
nameandyearofpubl
icat
ioni
nbr
acket
s.

Exampl
e:

Basiceducationtheref
ore,endeavorstoincul
cateinalearnert
hedesir
efor
soci
alserviceinordertocreateresponsibl
eci
tizensofthenati
on.Themore
educat
edt heciti
zensofanat ionare,themoredevelopedthecountr
ywould
be(Tanej
a, 2013)
.

OR

Taneja(
2013)all
udedtot
hefactthatbasi
ceducati
onendeavorst
oi ncul
cate
i
nal ear
nerthedesi
ref
orsoci
alservi
ceinordert
ocreat
eresponsi
bleciti
zens
ofthenati
on.

Ift
hebookwaswr i
tt
enbymor
ethansi
xauthor
s,wri
tet
hesurnameoft
hefi
rst
aut
horandindi
cat
eetalt
oshow t
hatt
her
eareotherwr
it
erswhoyouhavenot
i
ndicat
ed.

Exampl
e:

Mat
lock,etal
.(2004)al
ludest
othef
actt
hatr
ecor
dkeepi
ngi
sanessent
ial
24
 aspecti
never
yadmi
nist
rat
ion……………

Sourcescit
edwi t
hint
exts
Forsourcesthatyouhavenotact
uall
yseenbutwhi
char eref
err
edtoi
nthebook
youareusing,ci
teboththeor
igi
nalsour
ceandthesecondarysour
cewher
eyou
readit
.

Exampl
e:

Cunni
ngham (1982)
,quot
ed by Foroj
all
a( 2010)ext
rapol
ates t
he r
epor
ti
ng of
pr
ogressbyt
hehelpofaGant
tchart
…………. .

Whenmor ethanonerefer
enceisgi
veni nt
hetextwheretheaut
horquotesother
authors,t
heyshoul
dbel i
stedi
norderofyear
sofpubli
cati
onandnotaccordi
ngt o
theorderinwhicht
heyappeari
nthetext
.

Exampl
e:

Shah,(1971)
,Host
rop,
(1975)andCunni
ngham,(
1982)asquot
edbyFor
ojal
la(
2010)
descr
ibeleader
shi
pasasystem ofcont
rol
li
ngot
her
sforacommongoal……………

Ci
tat
ionf
orvi
suali
nfor
mat
ion,
phot
ogr
aphs,
il
lust
rat
ionsanddi
agr
ams

Insuchcases,youar eadvisedt oacknowledget

hesour cefrom whi
chyouhave
takent
hei mage,diagram orpictureasyouwouldinparaphrasi
ng.Thesur
nameof
theauthorandtheyearofpubl i
cati
onshouldbeindi
catedinbracket
s.E.
g.(Col
e,
1995)underthediagram orpicture.

Masl
ow’
s (
hier
archy of Needs) Mot
ivat
ion Theor
y.

25
 Sour
ce:Hannagan(
2008)or(
Hannagan,
2008)
Ref
erenci
ngLi
st/Bi
bli
ogr
aphy
Wenowcomet otheothertypeofreferencethatyouwil
lbeexpect
edtousei nyour
academi c essay.I sthere a diff
erence between the t
erm ref
erence l
istand
bibl
iography?Firstofal
l,notethatthetermsmaybeusedi nter
changeabl
ybecause
essenti
ally,t
heyar ewri
tteninthesameway.Howeveryoushoul dsti
cktotheterm
pref
erredbyyourt utor
/insti
tut
ion/department.

Thef
oll
owi
ngcanbet
hedi
ff
erence:

a)A Refer
enceli
strefer
st oal istofitemsyou had r
ead and speci
fi
cal
ly
r
efer
redt o(
orcit
ed)inyourassignment.
b)A Bi bl
iogr
aphy i
sal i
stofeveryt
hing you consul
ted i
n prepar
ati
on f
or
writ
ing yourassi
gnment
,whet
herornotyour efer
redspeci
fi
call
ytoiti
nthe
assignment.
c)APAst
ylepr
efer
stouseRef
erenceLi
st.
Doyour emembert hef ormatofwr it
inganacademi cessay? Ref ertoUnitTwo.
Afterwri
tingtheconclusion,youwil
lneedt ostar
tanewpagewher eyouwi l
lli
stal
l
thebookst hatyourefer
redt oinyourwork.Thisli
stofreferencesshouldappearat
theendofyourpaperandi tshouldbewr i
tteninal
phabeticalorderstar
ti
ngwiththe
author’
ssur name.Cent r
et heti
tl
e‘ref
erences’
,doubl
espace,al lyourent
ri
esat12
fontsi
zeandl etal
lentr
iesbeginwiththeleft–handmar gin.

Notethatthereferencepageshoul
dbeoni t
sownpagewi
thoutotheri
temsofthe
workoni t
.Obser vethefol
lowi
ngorderwhenent
eri
ngt
hedetai
lsofthebooksyou
r
eferr
edtoi nyourwor k:

 Aut
hor
’snamef
oll
owedbyi
nit
ial
s.

 Yearofpubl
icat
ioni
nbr
acket
s.

 Ti
tl
eoft
hebook(bol
dorhi
ghl
ight
ed)
.

 Townofpubl
icat
ionf
oll
owedbyaf
ullcol
ony.

 Publ
ishi
ngcompany.

Edi
tedbooks

Youmayalsocomeacrossbooksthathavebeenedi
tedbysomeoneel
sei
nyour
cour
seofst
udy.Ther
ear
ethreecommoneditor
s:

26
 a)Theedit
ormayexaminet
hetexti
nor
dert
oremovecommonerr
ors.Suchan
edit
ormaynotindi
catehi
sorhernameforheorsheplayst
her ol
eofa
revi
ewer
.

b)Theedit
ormaycompi l
eworkdonebyotherpeoplei
ntoapubl
ishabl
ework
wit
houtindi
cat
ingthenamesoft hecont
ri
butor
sbutheorsheedi tsand
acknowl
edgest
hatheisanedi
tor
.

Exampl
e:

Mwanabant
u,S.(
Ed.
)(1972)TheChi
temeneSyst
em OfFar
ming.Mpor
okoso:
Franci
scanPubl
isher
s

c)Theedi
tormaycompil
echapt
erscont
ri
butedbysever
alwri
ter
sonacommon
themeandshowsthenamesofthewr
iter
soneachchapter
.

Exampl
e:

Sai
li
,J.K.(1990).Educat
ioni
nGeneralTerms.I
nFulaniS.V.(
Ed).Educat
ion
i
n Devel
oping Communiti
es.Ndola:Fr
anci
scanMissi
onPress.

Recor
dingr
efer
encedet
ail
sforabookwr
it
tenby:

a)Oneaut
hor
:

I
ndi
catet
hesurnameoftheauthorfol
lowedbyi
nit
ial
s,yeari
nwhi chthebook
waspubl
ishedi
nbracket
s,thetitl
eofthebookunderli
nedort ypedinbold,
t
ownwher ethebookwaspubl ishedfoll
owedbyaf ul
lcolonyandl ast
ly,
i
ndi
cat
ethepubli
shi
ngcompany

Exampl
e:

Si
dhu,
K.S.(
2013)
.SchoolOrgani
sati
onandAdmi
nist
rat
ion.NewDel
hi:
St
erl
ing Publ
ishersPvt
.Ltd.

Or

Sapru,R.
K.( .2thEdi
2002) ti
on.Devel
opmentAdmi
nist
rat
ion.NewDel
hi:
Ster
li
ng Publ
isher
sPvt.Lt
d.

b)Thr
eeorFouraut
hor
s:

I
fthebookwaswri
tt
enbythreeorfourauthors,t
headvicei
sthatyouli
stall
t
hetwoorthr
eeaut
horsst
art
ingwit
ht hei
rsurnamesfol
lowedbytheiri
nit
ial
s,
27
 yearofpubli
cat
ioni
nbracket
s,t
it
leofthebookinboldorunder
li
nedi f
handwr
itt
en,t
ownorcit
yofpubli
cati
onandfi
nal
lyindi
cat
ethepubl
ishi
ng
company.

Exampl
e:

Thungu,J.
,Wmder
a,K.
,Gachi
e,L.&AlumandeG.(
2012)
.Mast
eri
ngPTE
Educat
ion.Nair
obi
: Oxf
ordUniver
sit
yPress.

c)Mor
ethansi
xaut
hor
s

Wri
tethenameofthefi
rstauthorwit
hhisorheri
nit
ial
s,indi
cat
eetalfortheother
s
t
oshowt hatt
her
ewer eotherauthor
swhower ei
nvolvedinwri
tingt
hebook.Show
t
heyearofpubli
cat
ioninbrackettheti
tl
eofthebook,thetownofpublicat
ionand
t
henindi
catet
hepubli
shingcompany.

Exampl
e.

Ger
har
t,B.etal
,(1994).HumanResour
ceManagement
.NewDel
hi:McGr
aw Hi
ll
Publi
shi
ngCompanyLi
mit
ed.

Ar
ti
cles.

Iti
simpor t
antthatyouunder st
andthatar
ticl
esarenotor di
narypiecesofwr it
ing.
Theyarepublicat
ionsthatarepubl
ishedbyspecial
istgr
oupsandassoci at
ionsand
aremostl
yf oundinJournal
s.Justl
ikebooks,art
icl
escanbecl assi
fi
edaccordingt o
thenumberofaut hor
sinvolvedwhocanbet woormor e.Youar ether
efor
er equired
toquotethesourcesinanacademi cmanner.Letusnowl ookatsomeexampl esof
art
icl
es:

a.Jour
nalar
ti
cles

Whenusi ngtheAPA system ofr

eferenci
ng,thelayoutofaj our
nalart
icl
e
begi
nswit ht
heauthor’
ssurnamef
ollowedbyinit
ial
s,thedateofpubl
icat
ion,
theti
tl
eoft hearti
cle,t
henameoft hejour
nalinbol d,t
hevolumeoft he
Jour
nalinbracket
sandthepagenumber s.

Exampl
e:

Makabe,
S.K.(1990)
.Fishingasameansofsur vi
valfort
heunder
pri
vil
eged.
The Af ri
can JournalforJour
nal
ist
s.42(
4)28-31

b.Magazi
near
ti
cles

Accordi
ngt otheAPAsyst em,theref
erenceinamagazinearti
clemaybe
ent
eredasf oll
ows:aut hor
’ssurnamefoll
owedbyinit
ial
s,year
,monthand
dat
e( 2016,Apri
l,16)
,thetit
leofthear
ticl
e,t
it
leoft
hemagazine,numberof
28
 i
ssueandl
ast
lyt
hepagenumberoft
hear
ti
cle.

c.Newspaperar
ti
cle

Thedetai
lsmayber ecordedasfol
lows:sur
nameoftheauthorfol
lowedby
i
nit
ial
s,year,monthanddat einbracket
s,t
itl
eoftheart
icl
e,nameoft he
newspaperandfi
nall
yindi
catet
hepagenumberofthear
ti
cle.
(APAsystem)

Exampl
e:

Mwansa,A.M.(
2016)
.Chol
erai
nLuapul
aPr
ovi
nce.Ti
mesofZambi
a,17
Febr
uar
y,p.
3.

d.Encycl
opaedi
aci
tat
ion

Example:
Hibbar
d,J.
D.,Kotl
er,P.&Hithens,K.
A.(1997)
.Mar
keti
ngandMer chandi
sing,
t
h
i
n:The new Encycl opedia Bri
tanni
a,vol.23,15 r evi
sed ed.London,
Encycl
opedi
aBr i
tannica.

e.Di
cti
onar
yci
tat
ion

Exampl
e:

TheOxf
ordEngl
ishDi
cti
onar
y.(
1989)vol 2nded.Oxf
.5, ord,
Clar
endon.

f
. Onl
inear
ti
cles

Foronlinear
ti
cles,youar
esupposedt oindi
cat
et hedateofret
ri
evaland
show thewebsi
t e.I
ndi
cat
ethesur nameoft heauthorfoll
owedbyini
ti
als,
dateofpubli
cat
ion,ti
tl
eoftheart
icle,numberofissue,vol
umeofissuein
bracket
sandpagenumbersofthearticl
e.

TypesofRef
erence

29
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
her
efer
encesyoumustknowabout
:

i
.I n-
textCi
tat
ion:aref
erenceincl
udedwi
thi
nthebodyofat
extandshowst
he
authoranddateofpubli
cat
ion.
i
i.Footnotes:anexpl
anat
orynot
e/commentorref
erenceatthebot
tom ofa
page.Footnot
esaremarkedbyasuper
scri
pt(
araisednumbert
hatmarksa
ref
erence)
i
ii
.Endnot
es:acol
lect
ionofnot
esatt
heendofachapt
eroranent
ir
ewor
k.
i
v.Bi
bli
ogr
aphy/
Ref
erenceLi
st:adet
ail
edl
i
stofbooks,j
our
nal
s,ar
ti
cles,et
cat
t
heendofabook
I
mpor
tantTi
psont
heRef
erenceLi
st
 ARef
erenceLi
st/
Bibl
iogr
aphyal
waysbegi
nsonasepar
atepage
 I
tmustbeacomplet
erefer
ence:unli
keacitat
ion,
abibl
iogr
aphi
calr
ef er
ence
mustgi
veaut
hor
s,ti
tl
e,edi
ti
ons,
dates,pl
aceofpubli
cat
ionandpubl
isher.
 Itmustbearr
angedinalphabet
icalor
derusi
ngt
hesur
namesoft
heaut
hor
s;
however,
itmustnotbenumbered.
 Thedate,t
it
le,edi
ti
on,pl
aceofpubl
icat
ion andpubl
isherf
oll
ow i
nthat
order
.
 I
tmustbedoubl
espaced:t
her
eshoul
dbenol
inespacesbet
weenr
efer
ences.
 It
ali
cise t
it
les ofbooks,journal
s and newspapers butnotf
orar
ti
cles
andchapters.Under
li
neti
tl
esforhandwri
tt
enassignments.
 Use hangi
ng Indents:thi
si s wher
et he f
irstl
ine st
arts by t
he mar
gin
andsubsequentl
inesareindent
ed(appr
ox.1.3cm)asbelow.
Phi
ri
,J.( .TheEducat
2006) ionoft
heunder
pri
vil
eged.Lusaka:Bookwor
ld
Publ
isher
s.

Assi
gnment
1.Whati
spl
agi
ari
sm?Whatar
esomeoft
hewaysi
nwhi
chi
tcanbecommi
tt
ed?
2.Di
scussthei
mportanceofref
erencesinacademi
c wr
it
ing andhi
ghl
ight
i
nst
anceswhenyouwouldusein-
textci
tat
ions.
3.Contr
astani
n-t
extr
eferenceandar ef
erencel
ist
.Whatt
hingsshoul
dyou
beari
nmindwhenmakingaparaphr
ase?
4.Compar
eandcont
rastt
hef
oll
owi
ngpai
rs
(
i)apar
aphr
aseandashor
tquot
ati
on.
30
 (
ii
)Chi
cagoandVancouversyst
emsofr
efer
enci
ng.
(
ii
i)
APAandHar
var
dsyst
emsofr
efer
enci
ng.
5.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenabi
bli
ogr
aphyandar
efer
encel
ist
?

Act
ivi
ty

I
dent
if
ywhati
swr
ongwi
tht
hewayt
hef
oll
owi
ngci
tat
ionshavebeenf
ormat
ted:

1.Wi
thr
egar
dto(
Joan,
1992)achi
ldmayhavemi
ssedaper
iodduet
oil
lness.
2.Accor
dingtoFarrant
, 2006 ther
e ar
e f
ew physi
cal condi
ti
ons t
hat
cont
ri
butet
olear
ningdif
fi
cul
ti
es.
3.BecauseinEngl
isht
herelat
ionshi
pbet
weensoundsandsymbol si
scomplex,
evenspeaki
ngisaprobl
em tomanyusersoft
helanguage.(
Byr
ne,1983)
.
4.(
MOE,2000)posi
tsthatwri
ti
ngacti
vit
iesshoul
dbeal
lowedi
fthel
ear
ner
sar
e
t
odevel
opconfi
denceinthei
rwri
ti
ng.
5.Forinst
ance,(
Chibweetal.1998,p.
11)maintai
nsthat:Engli
shisthe most
i
mpor t
antlanguage i
n Zambia because i
thas beenaccor ded a uni
que
rol
et oplayintheaffai
rsofthenat i
onsincecol
onialrul
e
6.Accordi
ngt oMOE(2005,p.5)definesl
anguage poli
cy as,“
Adocument
thatoutl
ineswhi
chlanguagesar
etobeusedi nteachi
ngandlear
ningi
na
countr
y.”
7.(
Jonat
hanand Li
nda2007,
p15)Addst
hat“
Dial
ect
sar
etypesofvar
iet
iesof
apar
ti
cul
arl
anguage.
”
8.Accor
dingtoHornby(
2006,p.863)st ates:“
Al ingua fr
anca i
s ashar ed
l
anguage ofcommunicat
ion used bet
ween people whosemainlanguages
ar
ediff
erent
.”
9.Iti
sJ.S.Far
rant2006whosayst
hatdysl
exi
ais one physi
calcondi
ti
ont
hat
aff
ect
sschoolachi
evement
.
Summar
y
Inthi
s unitwe have l
ooked atref
erence ski
ll
sin academi
c wr
iti
ng.Itisour
hopethatnow youwil
lbeequippedtowr i
teyourassi
gnmentsusi
ngt hecorr
ect
31
f
ormat
s.Youwi
llneedt
opract
icet
heseski
ll
sfr
om t
imet
oti
meandconst
ant
lyr
efer
t
othemodul
ewhenyouareindoubt
.

Uni
t4
St
udySki
ll
s
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Inthepr eviousunit,welookedatRef er
encingandCi tati
on.I nthisuni t
,weshall
beginlookingatstudyskil
ls.Intertiaryeducati
on,youwi l
lbeexpect edtodoal otof
studyi
ngonyourownwi t
hl i
tt
leorl esshelpfrom yourlectur
er s.Therefore,youneed
tohaveski llsthatcanhelpyoust udyeffecti
velyandi ndependent lyandmanage
ti
mewel linor dertobesuccessfuli nyourstudies.Aswedi scusst hestudyskill
s,i
t
i
si mportantforust oal
sot al
kaboutt hefourlanguageski l
ls,alsocal l
edthemacr o
skil
lsoflanguage.Thesear elistening,speaking,readi
ngandwr i
ti
ng.Justast hey
areimpor t
antcommuni cati
onski ll
s, t
heyarealsoimpor t
antst udyski l
ls.

KeyQuest
ion

I
nthi
stopi
cwewi
lldi
scusst
hef
oll
owi
ngkeyquest
ions.

 Expl
ainwhatismeantbypar tsofspeech.
 Defi
netermssuchasphr ase,cl
auseandasent
ence.
 I
dentif
ythedif
ferentt
ypesofsentences
 Explai
nt heelementsofasentence.
 Demonstrat
ethesubject-
verbagreementi
ndi
ff
erentsent
ences.

32
 Usedi
ff
erentpunct
uat
ionscor
rect
lyi
ndi
ff
erentsent
ences

Topi
cCont
entLi
st
 Thef
ourMacr
olanguageski
ll
sofl
anguageasst
udyski
ll
s

 Not
e-maki
ng

 Readi
ngski
ll
s

 Not
e–t
aki
ng

 Abbr
evi
ati
oni
nNot
e–t
aki
ng.

 Li
brar
y/Resear
chSki
ll
s

Ter
minol
ogi
es

Macrol anguage ski

ll
s:Thisrefer
st ot
he f
ourlanguage ski
ll
s,namely
l
ist
ening,speaki
ng,readi
ngandwr i
ti
ngwhi
cheachandeverystudentmust
possessinalear
ninginst
it
uti
on.
Mnemoni cs:Thesearewordsorphr asesthat astudentcanusetohelp
them remembersomething,e.
g.SUCCSESSor‘ MyVeryErnestMot
herJust
ServedUsNoPor ri
dge’f
ormemor i
singthesevenpl
anet
s.
Pr
imeTime:Thi
sref
erst
otheti
mewhenthebr
aini
sati
tsbestandwi
thl
east
di
str
act
ionsast
hebestt
imetouti
li
set
hest
udyski
ll
s
Bl
urb:Asummaryofabookusual
lyf
oundinthejacketcoverofabookorat
t
hebackofabookwil
lgi
veyougui
deinthest
udies.
Ski
mmi ng:A readi
ng ski
llwhich i
nvol
ves r
eadi
ng a t
extqui
ckl
ytogeta
gener
alideaofwhatiti
sallabout
.
Scanni
ng:A readi
ng ski
llwhi
ch i
nvol
ves r
eadi
ng a t
extt
o getspeci
fi
c
i
nformat
ion.
Not
etaki
ng:t
aki
ngdownnot
esf
rom aspokensour
cef
orf
utur
euse.

33
 Notemaki
ng:wr
it
ingormaki
ngnot
esf
rom awr
it
tensour
cef
orr
esear
chand
assi
gnment
s.
Librar
yskil
ls:t
echniquesi
nfor
m knowl
edgeyouwi
llr
equi
ret
out
il
izei
n
l
ibrari
esorr
esearches.
Summaryski
ll
s:abi
li
tyt
ogett
hemai
nideasf
rom achunkorbul
ky sour
ce
ofi
nfor
mati
on.
TheFourMacr
o-LanguageSki
ll
s
Aswet alkaboutstudyskil
ls,i
tisimpor
tantf
orustotalkaboutthefourlanguage
skil
ls,alsocall
edt hemacr oskill
soflanguage. Thesearelisteni
ng,speaking,
readingandwr it
ing.Justast heyareimport
ant(l
anguage)communi cat
ionskill
s,
theyarealsoimpor t
antst
udyskill
s.

Letusnowl
ookbr
ief
lyateachoft
hef
ourl
anguageski
ll
s.

a)Listeni
ng:Thisispayingattenti
ontowhati sbei
ngsai di
nor dertoget
meaning.List
eningis an importantstudy skil
lwhi ch you need when
youar eatt
endi
ngl ectur
es,tut
or i
alpr
esent
ati
onsandgr oupdiscussi
ons.
Not
et hatt
hereisadiff
erencebetweenheari
ngandl i
stening.

b) Speaki
ng:Thi sisanactofgener ati
nganideaandor gani
zingiti
nto
speechinordertogivethei
ntendedmeaning.Speaki
nggoeshandi nhand
wit
hlist
eni
ngsi ncebothoft
hem oralski
ll
sofl
anguage.

c)Readi ng:Thiscanbesai
dtobegett
ingmeaningfr
om graphi
csymbols
(pri
nt).Itcanal sobesai
dt obedecoding,ori
dent
if
yingmeaningfr
om
writt
en mar ks.Readi
ng i
s an i
mportantskil
lwhich you need when
researchi
ng.

d)Wr i
ti
ng:Thi
sisf
orming/
usinggraphi
csymbol s(
mar ksthatcor
respond
wit
hsounds)onasurf
aceofsomeki ndorgani
zedaccordingtoconventi
on
i
nordertogi
vemeani
ng.Writi
nggoeshandi nhandwit
hr eadi
ng.

Alsonotethatononehand,Li
steni
ngandSpeakingareoralski
ll
sbasedonspoken
l
anguagewhi l
eReadingandwriti
ngareLi
teracySki
ll
sbasedonwr it
tenlanguage.
Ont heot
herhand,List
eni
ngandReadi ngareReceptiveSkil
lsthatareusedi na
decodi
ngpr ocesswhil
espeakingandwr i
ti
ngar eProducti
veSki l
ls usedi nan
encodi
ngprocess.

Not
e-maki
ng
Not
emaki
ngi
stheabi
li
tyt
omakegr
aphi
csymbol
sorwr
it
ingyourownnot
esf
rom

34
awr i
tt
ensourceandt hi
scanonl ybepossi bl
ewher eonehasl it
eracyski
ll
sof
r
eadingandwr i
ti
ng.Readingi ssai
dt obegetti
ngmeani ngfr
om graphicsymbols
(
pri
nt).Itcanalsobedef i
nedasdecodi ng,orident
if
yingmeaningf r
om writ
ten
marks.Readi
ngisani mportantski
llwhi
chyouneedwhenr esear
chinginorderto
makeyourownnot es.

Readi
ngasast
udyski
ll
Inthissegmentwear el
ookingatr
eadingasast udyskil
landnotreadi
nggenerall
y.
Inthepr evi
oussegment ,wesawthatreadingisusedwhendoi ngresear
ch.Inthi
s
segmentweshal llookatvari
oustypesofreadingthatyoucanuseasski l
lswhen
studyinginordertocomeupwi thi
mpor t
antnotes.

a)Ext
ensi
veReadi
ng.

Thewor dext ensivemeans‘ wi de’.Therefor e,thisi sthet ypeofr eadingavar ietyof

text
ssuch novel s,shor tst ories,magazi nes,et c.f orenj oymentorpl easur e.It
requi
resagener alunder st
andi ngofat ext.I tisreadi ngf orcompr ehensionofmai n
i
deasnotspeci f
icdet ail
s.Doyour emembert helessonsdur ingyourprimaryschool
dayswher ethet eacherwoul dbr i
ngavar ietyof r eaders? Yes,“ Supplement ary
Reading”.Thati stheot hernamef orext ensi ver eadingi nl anguageteaching,and
herelearnersnor mall
ysel ectwhatt heywantt oread.Not et hatextensiver eadi ng
i
s notnecessar i
ly classroom based,buti s mai nl ydoneoutoft heclassr oom.
Whatdoyout hi
nkar et hebenef i
tsofext ensi ver eadingt oyouasast udent?I fyou
saidi timpr oves reading f luency you ar e qui ter ight.I talso improves your
vocabulary,reading compr ehensi on skills,cr eat i
ve wr it
ing skill
s and gener all
y
l
anguageski lls.

b)I
ntensi
veReadi
ng

Thewor dintensivemeans‘deep’.Theref
ore,thisisthetypeofr eadingthatrequires
deep understanding ofthe textbeing read.I ti sreadi
ng f orspeci fi
c details.
Intensi
vereadingisalsor
eferr
edt oasa“ read-t
o-study”ski
ll
.Itisar eadingskil
lthat
youwi l
luseof tenasyour esearchfrom textbooksandot herst udymat eri
als.I n
l
anguaget eaching,itisalsoreferr
edt oas“ ReadingCompr ehension”. Heret he
teachernormallysel
ectsthetextthelearnersmustr eadandi tisusual l
yclassroom
based.

c)Ski
mmi
ng

Theverbto‘ski
m’ meanstopasscl oselyoverthesurfaceofsomethi
ngortogl ance
(l
ookquickl
y)throughabookorapaper .Ski mmingi st
heabili
tytorunyoureyes
overatextt
ogett hegist(
generalorr oughidea)ofwhati ti
saboutwit
houtreading
wholepageswor dforword.Therefore,ski
mmi ngisreadingsomethi
ngveryqui ckl
y

35
l
ookingonl yatoccasionall
inesinor dert ogetageneralideaofit
scontent.When
youar eskimming,youar eexpectedt obever ysel
ective.Youwilll
eaveout( skip)
somepar tsofthetext.Furt
her,ski
mmi ngdoesnotrequirehighcomprehensionbut
justabout50%compr ehension.Skimmi ngisani
mportantstudyskil
lbecauseitwi l
l
helpyout odecidewhet herapar t
iculartextwil
lgi
veyout hedesir
edinformation.
Belowaresomeoft hethi
ngsyoucandowhenski mmi ng”

 Readt
hrought
hesummar
yoft
hebooksuchast
hebl
urb.

 Readthrought
het
abl
eofcont
ent
stof
ami
li
ari
zeyour
sel
fwi
tht
hebookor
ar
ti
cle.

 Readtheti
tl
eofthechapterorsect
ionoft
hatpar
ti
cul
art
extt
oseei
fitcover
s
t
hetopicofyourconcer
n.

 Readt
hesub-
ti
tl
esi
ftheyar
ether
e.

 Readtheopeni
ngsent
encest
oseei
fthewhol
epageorpar
agr
aphwoul
dbe
rel
evant
.

 Run youreyes oversome pages,looki

ng f
orkey wor
ds orphrases,
unt
ilrel
evantwor
dsstr
ikeyout
oenabl
eyouhaveagener
ali
deaaboutat
ext.

d)Scanni
ng

To‘ scan’ist oexami nesomethingi ndet ai

l. Scanningi stheabi l
it
yt oidentif
y
specifi
ci nformati
onasqui cklyaspossi ble.Therefore,itisreadingf orspecifi
c
i
nformat i
on.Thi scouldbeawor dinadi ctionaryoraspeci fi
cansweri nar ef
erence
book.Whenscanni ng, you have tor un youreyes qui ckl
yovera t extand l ook
forcer t
ainsi gnpostssuchaschapt ert i
tles,sub-ti
tl
esorkeywor dsorphr ases.
Whenyouf i
ndar elevantsignpost,pauseandr eadthenextbi tofinf
ormationmor e
carefull
yt ocheckwhet heritprovi
dest heanswerorspeci fi
cinformationyouar e
l
ooki ngfor.

Not
e-Taki
ng
Wehaveal readynotedthatnot e-t
akingi st
heski l
lorpr act
iceofmaki ngnot esfr
om
aspokensour cesuchasal ectureoranor aldiscussion.Iti
sani mpor t
antstudy
ski
llasi
tenabl esyoutotakenot esfrom lect
ures.Whatdoyout hinkittakesforyou
tot
akenot es?Letushopet hatyouri deaswer esimilartowhatwehavesuggest ed
her
e:
( i
) Youneedt obeabl etohearcor r
ectly.Anyonewhoi snotabl et ohear
correctl
ycannottakenot es.
( i
i) Af terthatyouneedt ohavet heskil
lorbeingabl et
ol i
stenorpayact i
ve
attenti
onbothmai nideasandsuppor ti
ngdet ail
sinthelecture.

36
 (
ii
i) Thenextski
llyou need i
s bei
ng abl
eto under
stand whati
s bei
ng
sai
d
(
iv) Fi
nall
y,youmusthavet
heski l
lofwri
ti
ngusef
ulnotes,notj
ustanynot
es.
Haveyoueverwri
tt
ennotesthatyouf
ail
edtounder
standaftersomet
ime?
I
fyouhave,i
tmeansthenotesyouwrotedownwerenotusef ul
.
Pr
epar
ati
onf
oraLect
ure

Youhaveat t
endedanumberofl ectures.Reflectonhowyoupr epar edforlectures
andsuggesthow yout hi
nkyoumustpr epar
ef orl ectures.Di d youment i
ont hat
youneedt o ensur e youhavewr it
ingpensandnot ebooks andt hat youmust
reporttot hel ecturer oom i ngoodt i
me?Yes, thatisver ytrueyouneedal lthose
preparat
ions.Itdoesnothel pyouasast udentt ogot oal ect
ur e,forexampl e,
withoutapen.How t henwoul dyout akedownnot es?Buthaveyouevert hought
thatonewayofpr epar i
ngf oral ectureisreadingaheadoft hel ecture?Thi sisa
usefulst
udyski l
lthatwewi llencourageyout oadopt .Therear emanyadvant agesi f
youdot his.First,t hiswi llmakei teasyf oryou t of oll
ow t hel ectureand wi ll
simpli
fyunder standi ng.I twillal
sohel pyout of ocusonar easofdi ff
icul
ty.I twill
alsoenableyout oaskusef ulquesti
ons.

Strat
egiesoffollowingaLecture
Now,when you ar elist
eni
ng toal ect
ure,ther
e ar e some st r
ategies you can
uset o help youf ol
lowthelect
ure.Sowhenthelectureisgoi ngon,trytolist
enfor
thefol
lowing:
a)Sl owingdownofspeech:Whenal ecturerslowsdowni nt heprocess
ofspeaking,s/
hecouldbemakingani mpor tantpoint
.

b)Emphasis: Takenotewhent hel

ect
ureremphasizesapoi
nt. Thi
s
coul
dbedonebyr epeat
ingsomewor
ds,phrasesorwhol
esent
ences
orchangingt
hetoneofvoice.

c)Si
gnal
ing devi
ces (
signposts)
:These are wor
ds orphr
ases t
hat
dr
aw att
enti
ont oanimportantpoi
ntbei
ngmake.

 Andt
akenot
eoft
his…

 Thepoi
ntIam maki
ngi
s…

 WhatIam sayi
ngi
s…

 Letmeputi
tint
hisway…

 Pl
easenot
ethat
…

 Anddon’
tfor
gett
his…
37
  Letmer
epeatt
his…

 I
nconcl
usi
on…

d)SequenceI ndi
cator
s:Theseareexpr
essi
onsthati
ndicat
etheor
derof
points, for exampl e f i
rst
, next, then, fi
nall
y, the next
factor/
questi
on/poi
nt.

e)LinkWor ds/Connectors:Theseareexpressionsthatconnectideasin
diff
erentsentences.They may be expr essi
ng concept s such as
contrastorr esult,forexampl e however,nevert
heless,asar esul
t,
forthisr
eason, i
nanycase, ontheotherhand.

f
) Mar
ker
sofAr gument
:Theseexpr
essionsindi
cat
eapointofargument
f
ori
nst
ance:someexpert
sarguethat
,ithasbeensai
dthat
,etc

Thef
ollowingstr
ategiescanhelptotakedownhel pfulnot
es:
a)Donott rytowr i
tedownsent encesorpassagesver bat
im(wordforwor d)
.
Canyouwr it
edownsent encesatthesamet imeandspeedasonei stal
king?
Cert
ainl
ynot !Speakingisfasterthanwrit
ing.Anat tempttowrit
edownt he
l
ecturer
’spointsast heyar esaidwi l
lactual
lymakeyoul osesomeoft he
thi
ngsbeingsai d.
b)Donott akedownever yt
hingthelectur
ersays.Part
icularl
ydonottakedown:

 Di
gressi
ons (
to di
gress i
sto move away f
rom t
he subj
ectyou ar
e
t
alki
ngor

wri
ti
ngabout
).Fr
om t
imet
oti
mel
ect
urer
sdi
gressi
nthecour
seofdel
iver
yof
a

Lect
ure.

 Repet
it
ionsandpara-
phrases–i fyouhavealr
eadywri
ttenapointt
hereisno
needt
owr i
teitdownagain.Somet i
meyoumayhearapoi ntt
hatwasall
uded
toear
li
erment i
onedgainlat
erinthelect
ure;t
herewi
llbenoneedf oryouto
wri
tet
hesamepoi ntagain.

 Unnecessar
yexampl
es–onl
ywr
it
edownanexampl
eifi
tist
heonl
ywayt
o
make

apoi
ntcl
ear
.Al
ect
urermaygi
veyousi
xexampl
est
oil
lust
rat
eapoi
nt;you
may

onl
yneedt
owr
it
edownoneort
wooft
heexampl
es.

c)Whatt
otakedown:

38
  Topicsandsubtopi
cs
 Defi
niti
ons
 Concepts
 Evi
dence
 Rel
evantf i
gur
es/st
ati
sti
cs
 References
Abbr
evi
ati
onsi
nNot
eTaki
ng
Inthepr evioussegment ,weindicated t
hati
n or
derforyou to wr
it
ef ast,you
need t o use abbreviati
ons.Int hi
s segment
,we shal
ll ookatabbreviat
ions.
Abbrevi
ationsareshortformsofwor dswhichar
emadebyl eavi
ngoutpartsofthe
word.Therear et
wotypesofabbreviati
on:

a)Per
sonalAbbr
evi
ati
ons.

Theseareabbrevi
ationsthatanindivi
dualcomesupwithandmaynotalways
beunderst
oodbyot hers.Forexampl eyoumayabbr evi
atetheword“l
ect
ure”
as“lct
”whi l
eanothermayabbr evi
atethesamewordas“ l
re”
,andsoon.

b)Convent
ional
/St
andar
dAbbr
evi
ati
ons.

Theseareabbr eviat
ionsthatar egener
all
yunderst
ood.Insomecases,t
heycan
even be found inthe di ct
ionar
y. Now,l etus l
ook atsome oft
he t
ypes of
convent
ionalabbrevi
ations:

i
.Shor t
enings:Theseareabbr
evi
ati
onthatconsi
stofpar
tofawor
d,usuall
ythe
fi
rstfew l
ett
ersofawor dandareusuall
yspell
edwithaful
lstop(cont.=
conti
nued,i
n=i nch)
.

i
i.Clippi
ngs:Thesear eshort
eningst hathavecomet ober egardedaswor dsin
theirownr i
ghtandthefullstopi somi t
ted( hi
ppo=hi ppopot amus,li
mo=
l
imousi ne,phone=tel
ephone/cel l
).Theyar eusuall
yinformal.Somebecome
the standardf or
ms,and t he fullfor
ms ar et hen r
egar ded as formalor
technical( bus = omnibus,t axi= t axicab,zoo = zool ogicalgarden)
.
Somet imes shorteni
ngs are altered tof acil
it
atethei rpr onunci
ati
on or
spelli
ng:bike=bicycl
e

i
ii
.Cont r
act
ions:These are abbrevi
ations in whi
ch lett
ersfrom the mi ddl
e
ofthe f
ullform havebeenomi t
ted( Dr
.=doctor,
St .=sai
ntorstr
eet).Such
for
msaref oll
owedbyaf ullst
op.Anot herki
ndofcont r
acti
onisthetypewi t
h
anapostrophemarkingtheomi ssionofl et
ter
s(can't=cannot,didn'
t=di d
not)
.

i
v. I
nit
ial
isms/al
phabet
ism :These ar
e abbr
evi
ati
ons t
hatar
e made f
rom

39
 i
niti
allett
ers ofwords andpronouncedseparatel
y( UK,US,UN,CD,NGO,
DVD).Fullstopsar
eopt i
onalbutcurrentpracti
cef avour
somi t
ti
ng t
hem
especi
all
yi ft
heyar
eincapit
all
ett
er.

v.Acronyms:Thesear eabbr eviati

onsf or
med f r
om init
iall
etterseach wor d
i
n a phr ase/nameandar et reat
edaswor dsintheirownr ight.They are
pronounced as t hey ar e spelled and not as separ ate l et
ter
se.g.
AIDS,UNIP,ZESCO.Theydonotr equi
reaf ul
lstope.g.ZESCO. Mostcan be
writ
ten in capitals orwi t
h an i ni
ti
alcapi t
alonly:ZANACO orZanaco.
Some have become est abli
shed as ‘ nor
mal ’words wit
houtconsci ous
awarenessoft heirori
ginalf
ullform.

vi
.Blends:Thesearewher
eawordismadeoutoftheshorthandf
rom oftwo
wor
dsjoi
nedtoget
her
.Somebl
endst
hatyoumighthavecomeacrossar
e;

 ‘
brunch’
forbr
eakf
astandl
unch.

 ‘
Hel
ipor
t’f
orHel
icopt
erandAi
rpor
t.

 Smogef
orSmokeandFog.

vi
i.Therear ealsoabbr evi
ati
onswhichdonotf al
lneatl
yi ntoanyoneoft he
categor
iesment ionedabove.Forexampl e,someabbreviat
ionscaneitherbe
i
niti
ali
sm oracronymsaswi t
hUFO-caneitherbeU.
F.Oor‘you-for
’.Whi
leothers
mixinit
ial
ism andacronymsi noneword-CDROM.‘See-
deer om’.

Li
brar
ySki
ll
s
TheLibrar
yski l
lscanal sober eferredt oasResear chSki l
ls..These arecall
edby
vari
ousnamessuchasr esear
ch/r eferenceskil
lsorlibr
ar yskil
ls.These are ot
her
ski
ll
s you as a st udentneed i n ordert o study effectivel
yTheyi ncl
udeskill
s
l
ikebookknowl edge(knowi nghowbooksar eorganized)
, usingrefer
encebookslike
adicti
onary,encycl
opaedi a,at
lasandt hesaur
us andski ll
sofl ocat
inginfor
mation
byusingthet i
tl
es,tabl
eofcont ent
s, i
ndexandgl ossary.

a)Pr
e-vi
ewi
ng

Pre-viewingi
sar eadingacti
vit
yi nwhichareaderget
scluesaboutt
hebookfrom
thetitl
e,sub-
ti
tl
es,t
ableofcont ent,
indexort
heblur
b.Iti
sreadi
ngbefor
etheactual
reading.Iti
simportantbecause:

 I
tsavest
ime

 I
thel
pst
osel
ectr
elevantmat
eri
al
40
  I
thel
pst
osuppl
ythei
mpor
tantf
act
squi
ckl
y

 I
tgi
vesanover
viewofwhatt
hebooki
sabout

 I
thel
pst
ofocusr
eadi
ngandi
mpr
oveconcent
rat
ionandunder
standi
ng

b)Locat
ingI
nfor
mat
ion

Youcanlocat
einf
ormat
ionwhenyouar
eresear
chi
ngf
rom wr
it
tensour
cesusi
ng
thef
oll
owing:

 Tit
le:Thisisthenameorheadi ng ofa book,jour
nal
,magazi
neetc.It
summar i
seswhatabookcontainsandsowillhel
pyou toknowifthebook
i
srelevantf
ort
herequi
redi
nformati
on

 Tabl
e ofcont ent
s:Thisi sal i
stoft opi
cs covered i
n a bookf
ound at
thebeginni
ng ofabook.Itcanhelpyou togotot hespeci
fi
cchapt
erwhere
therel
evantinf
ormat
ioncanbefound.

 Glossary:Thi
si s an alphabet
icall
istofwor ds and expr
essi
ons wi
th
thei
rmeanings,usual
ly att he endof a book.Itcanhelpyou tof i
nd
defi
nit
ionsandmeaningsofterms.

 Index:Thisis an alphabet
icalli
stshowing pages where a subj
ect,
name,term,etc can befound.Usingthepagenumbers,youcan easil
y
l
ocat et
heinf
ormati
onyouarelooki
ngfor
.

Assi
gnment Compar
ethet
wost
udyski
ll
sNot
emaki
ngandNot
etaki
ng;
howdo t
heydi
ff
er andwhatar
ethef
eat
urest
hatt
heyhavei
n
common?

Act
ivi
ty

I
dent
if
ythest
udyski
ll
syouwi
llempl
oyt
odot
hef
oll
owi
ng:

a.Tof
indat
elephonenumberi
nadi
rect
ory.

b.Youmeetaf
ri
endwi
tht
oday’
snewspaper
.Theheadl
inear
ouses
41
 curi
osi
tyi
nyou.Youar
einhur
rybutwhatt
oknowwhatt
hest
oryi
s
about.

c.Wr
it
eusef
ulpoi
ntsaf
terr
eadi
ng‘
Eff
ect
iveSci
enceTeacher
’.

d.Tof
indawor
dinadi
cti
onar
y.

e.Tof
indt
heanswert
oaquest
ionbyr
efer
ri
ngt
oar
efer
encebook

f
. Youcomeacr ossanol dbookwi t
houtacoverintheLibrary
Sect
ionlabel
led“Communi cat
ion”
.Youarenotsureifitcanbe
usef
ulinanswer i
nganassi gnmentonstudyski
ll
s.Whatskil
lwil
l
youusetodeterminet
his?

g.Togeti
mpor
tantpoi
ntsf
rom aser
monatchur
ch.

Summar
y
InthisUni t
,wehavet alkedaboutdi fferentstudyski l
lst hatyouar eli
kelytoengage
i
nasast udent
.Thef ourmacr oskillshavebeendi scussedatdi f
ferentlevel
sas
study skill
s.However ,the two ski l
ls ofReadi ng and Wr iti
ng have come out
prominentlyinr
elationt oNotemaki ngandNot e–t aking.Theseski l
lsmustnotbe
confused.The t wo ski ll
s ar e similarin many ways:f i
rstbot h ar etypes of
study skill
s;bothi nvolve wr i
ting;bot h ar
e ki nds ofsummar y skil
ls because
theyrequireonlywr it
ingr el
evantpoi nts;bothinvolvewr it
ingi deasi nnote f orm.
Theirmaj ordif
ference i st he sour ce ofi nformat i
on: not e-taki
ng i s wr it
ing
notes from aspokensour ce whi lenot e-
maki ng iswr it
ingnot esfrom awr it
ten
source.Wehaveal sot ouchedt heLi brar
yski l
lsinbr iefast heseski l
lscannotbe
effect
ivel
yusedwi thoutaLi brary.

42
Uni
t5
Or
alCommuni
cat
ion
I
ntr
oduct
ion
WelcometoUnitFi
ve.Int hi
sunitisdevotedtodiscussing‘Or alCommuni cati
on’.It
i
si mport
antatt hi
sstaget o not ethatspeaking isal so referr
ed to as ‘ oral
communicati
on’
.Theunitwi l
lfurtherlookatthedef i
nit
ionofor alcommuni cation,
types of or
al communi cati
on,t he advantages and di sadvantages of or al
communicati
on and oralpr esentat
ion ski
ll
s and t echniques r equi
red in or al
communicatK
i e
on.yQ uesti
o n

I
nthi
stopi
cwewi
lldi
scusst
hef
oll
owi
ngkeyquest
ions:

 Whati
sOr
alCommuni
cat
ion?

 Whatacademi
cact
ivi
ti
esf
oundi
nor
alcommuni
cat
ion?

43
  Whatdif
fer
encesandsimi
lar
it
iescanbei
dent
if
iedbet
weenacademi
cessays
andacademicpr
esent
ati
on?

 Whatar
etheel
ement
sofnon-
ver
balact
ivi
ti
es.

 Identi
fy some oft
he t
echni
ques peopl
e use i
nreduce anxi
etyi
n or
al
presentat
ions.

Topi
cCont
entLi
st
 Def
ini
ti
onofOr
alCommuni
cat
ion.

 Typesofor
alcommuni
cat
ion

 Advant
agesanddi
sadvant
agesofOr
alCommuni
cat
ion

 El
ement
sofnon-
ver
balcues

 Pr
esent
ati
onski
ll
s

 Techni
quest
oresol
veanxi
ety

Whati
sOr
alCommuni
cat
ion?
Thisistheactofgener
ati
ngani deaandor
ganizi
ngi ti
ntospeechinordert
ogive
theintendedmeani
ng. Speaki
nggoeshandi nhandwi thli
steni
ngsincebothof
them oralski
ll
soflanguage. Itisoneofthepr oduct
iveskil
lsinanencoding
process.

TypesofOr
alCommuni
cat
ion

Therear etwomai nt ypesint

owhi chot herformsof or alcomminati
onactivi
ti
es
canf al
l.Theseoralacti
vit
iesmightbeincorporatedinmanyf iel
dsofstudy.Onthei
r
own,t heycanhel pstudentslear
ncour semat erial
sast heyspeak.Theycanal so
helpst udentstobecomemor eprof
icientspeakersbyt het i
metheyf i
nishthei
r
tr
aining pr ogr
amme. These communi cati
on act i
vit
ies are di
vided into two
categories;

(
i)FormalOr alCommuni cati
on:certai
nrules,conventi
onsandprinci
plesare
fol
lowed while communi cati
ng a message.Thi sis al
so r
eferr
ed to as
businesscommuni cat
ion.Itoccur
sinoff
icialst
yle.

44
 a)In cl
assdebate and del
iber
ati
ons.
-al
lows par
ti
cipant
sto ar
guef
oror
againstani
ssueort
opi
c
b)Speechesandpresentat
ions.–t
hisisast
anduppodi
um speechdel
iver
edby
anindi
vidualf
rom anoutl
ineorscr
ipt.
c)Oralexaminati
ons-
rangesf
rom oralquesti
onsonawr it
tenexam ordefence
ofwr it
ten answerorpaper.Hel ps to det
ermine t
he range ofstudent
knowledgeandstimulat
ehi
ghlevelsofprepar
ati
on.
(
ii
)Infor
maloralcommunicati
on:I
tusual
lyhappensi
ncasualtal
ks,
facetoface
discussi
ons.Theuseofinf
ormall
anguagesuchassl
angsisnotrest
ri
cted
a)Oneononespeaki
ng(
student–st
udentorst
udentt
olect
urer
).-St
udent
scan
beaskedt
oexplai
nordiscusssometaskorprobl
em wit
haper sonnextt
o
them.
b)Smallgroupsorteam –basedor
alwor
k-smal
lscal
egr
oupst
hatwi
llal
low
par
ti
cipati
onforal
llear
ner
s
c)Fullcl
assdiscussi
on(teacherorst
udentled)-thesearemoreagonisti
c,
argument
ati
ve,compet
it
ive.I
tall
owsf
orout-
loudthinki
ngandact
ivel
ear
ning
Advant
agesandDi
sadvant
agesofOr
alCommuni
cat
ion
a)
.Advant
ages

 I
tbr
ingsqui
ckf
eedback.
 Inaf ace-
to-
face conver
sat
ion,by readi
ng f
aci
alexpressi
on and body
l
anguageonecanguesswhet herhe/
sheshoul
dtrustwhat’
sbei
ngsai dor
not
.
 Timesavi ng:Whenacti
onisr equir
edtobet akenimmediat
elyitisbestto
tr
ansmi tamessageoral
ly.I
ftheexecutivesworkloadi
shighthentheystop
writ
hingandbyor ali
nstr
ucti
onst heycompletethei
rmessagetransmi
ssion
andreleasedthei
rwor
kloadandal soitsavest
ime.
 Cost savings: Cost is i
nvolved in any communi cati
on. When t he
communi cat
ionisneededwit
hintheorgani
zat
ionandi
fitandiscompletedin
oral
ly,
ithasnotneededanypaper ,
penorstamporcomput er
.Soitsavesthe
moneyoft heorgani
zati
on.
 Morepowerful
:Speechisamorepowerf
ulmeansofpersuasionandcont
rol
.
Ther
efor
e,execut
ivesof
tenpr
efert
otr
ansmitmessagesoral
ly.
 Eff
ectiveness:Wit
hthehelpofvar i
ati
onsinthetone,pi
tchandi
ntensi
tyof
voi
ce,t he speakercan convey shades ofmeani ng.Thisfactoralso
contr
ibutestotheeff
ect
ivenessoforalcommuni
cati
on.

45
  I
mmedi atefeedback:Thespeakercangeti mmedi at
efeedbackonwhet herit
i
scr eat
ingaf avourableimpressionont her eceiverorwhethert
her eceiver
wil
lprotestorwhet herthereceiverhasr eceiverhasclearl
yunderst
oodhi s
meaningori sfeel
ingper pl
exedorbaf f
ledandhecanmoul dandadjusthi s
messageaccor di
ngly.
 More sui
tabl
e:The empl oyees f
eltmore suit
able when t
he message
t
ransmit
sinoral
ly.Theygetanopport
uni
tyf
orfeedbackandcl
ari
fi
cat
ion.
 Devel
opingrel
ati
onshi
ps:Or
alcommunicat
ionismost
lycarr
iedouthel
pst o
pr
omot efri
endl
yr el
ati
onsbet
ween t
hepar t
iescommunicati
ng wi
th each
ot
her.
 Flexi
bil
it
y:Byt hedemandoft hesi
tuat
ions,or
alinst
ruct
ionscanbechanged
easil
yandf orthesecasesmaintai
ntheformali
ti
esarenotnecessar
y.Soiti
s
verymuchf lexi
bleandeff
ect
ive.
 Easiness:Iti
ssoeasymethodofcommunicat
ion.I
tneedsli
tt
lepr
eparat
ion
tosendamessage.Noneedofpens,pencilsandotherwri
ti
ngequipment’
s
whichar eneededi
nwri
tt
encommunicat
ion.
 Corr
ect
ion of er
ror
s:If any er
ror i
s expressed at t
he time of or
al
communicat
ion.I
twaspossibl
etorect
if
yatthattimeorwithi
naveryshort
ti
me.
 Inf
ormalcommunicati
on:I
noralcommuni
cat
ion,noneedtomai
ntai
nsuch
for
malit
ieswhi
char eneededi
nwr i
tt
encommunicat
ion.Soi
tiseasyand
hel
pfult
oanyorgani
zati
on.
 Moti
vati
on:Inoralcommunicat
ionsystem,t
opexecut
ivesandsubor di
nat
es
st
affcansitface-
to-
faceandexchangethei
rvi
ewsdir
ectly,sosub-
ordi
nat
es
ar
emot i
vateddaybyday.
 Speci
alappl
icat
ions:Or
alcommunicati
onismorehelpfuli
ncommuni
cat
ing
messagestogroupsofpeopl
eatassemblymeet
ingsetc.
 Mai
ntai
ningsecr
ecy:I
nter
est
edpar
ti
esofor
alcommuni
cat
ioncanmai
ntai
n
t
hesecr
ecyofmessageseasi
ly.
b)
.Di
sadvant
ageofor
alcommuni
cat
ion

 I
nbusi
ness,
itmaynotbesuf
fi
cientasi
tisf
ormali
never
yor
gani
sat
ion.
 I
tisl
essaut
hent
ict
hanwr
it
tenbecausei
tconsi
der
edasi
nfor
mal
.
 I
tisnoteasyt
omai
ntai
nhencei
tisunst
eadyorunst
abl
e.
 Ther
eisapossi
bil
it
yoft
hei
nfobei
ngdi
stor
tedbef
orei
tisdel
iver
ed.
 Ther
emaybemi
sunder
standi
ngsi
fthei
nfoi
sincompl
eteandl
ackpr
oofor
46
 essent
ial
s.
 Itmaynotbefr
equentl
yusede.
g.speechescannotbeusedi
nlegalr
ecor
ds
excepti
nsomeinci
dences.
 I
trequi
resat
tent
ivenessandgr
eatr
ecept
iveski
ll
sont
hepar
toft
hel
ist
ener
.

El
ement
sofNon-
ver
balCommuni
cat
ion
 Vocalcues,r ef
err
ed to as Para-li
ngui
sti
cs,isaf or
m of non- ver
bal
communicati
onthatincl
udessucht hi
ngsaspi t
ch,i
nfl
ect
ion,t
one,volume,
speedofthespeech,quali
ty,non-
wor dsounds,pr
onunci
ati
on,enunciat
ion
andevensil
ence.
 Bodymovementandgest ur
esarealsopar
tofnon-ver
balcommuni
cat
ion.
Forexample,l
eani
ngf or
wardmaymeani nter
est
,whil
ecrossi
ngarmsi s
oft
enviewedasadefensi
vepost
ure.
 Faci
alexpr
essions are a common form ofnon- ver
balcommuni
cat
ion.
Exampl
esoffacialexpr
essi
onsincl
udesmil
ing,
cryi
ngandgri
maci
ng.
 Spacecanal soactasaf orm ofnon-verbalcommuni cati
on.Spaceincludes
theconceptoft err
it
ori
ali
tyandpersonalspace.Territ
orial
it
yisaboutmaki ng
sure others know yourt er
ri
tor
y.A f ence is an example ofterr
itor
ial
ity.
Personalspace, ontheotherhand,i
sat hree-di
mensionalspacesurrounding
yout hatyoudonotwantpeopl etocross.Iftheycomet ooclose,youget
uncomf ort
able.
 Touch i
s of
ten consi
der
ed as posit
ive and r
einf
orci
ng,such as pat
ti
ng
someoneonthebackforajobwelldone.
 Clothingandart
ifact
scanal sosendamessage, i
ncludi
ngst
atus,conformit
y
orr ebel
li
on.Thinkaboutadoct or
.Dot heyr eal
lyneedtowearal abcoat
duringallexaminati
ons?Notr eall
y,butiti
sacuet ot
hei
rstatus.Arti
fact
s
i
nclude such things as hair
styl
es,jewell
ery,cosmeti
cs,watches,shoes,
tatt
oosandbodypi erci
ng.
Pr
esent
ati
onSki
ll
s
a)Asast udent
,youneedpresent
ati
onskil
ltodel
iveref
fect
iveandengaging,
present
ati
onstoavari
etyofaudiencest
heseskil
lcoveravariet
yofareas
suchas:
 st
ruct
ureoft
hepr
esent
ati
on.
 desi
gnofyoursl
ides.
 vi
sualai
ds.

47
  t
oneofyourvoi
ce.
 bodyl
anguage.
b)Youneedtoknow t
her
easonst
ocommuni
cat
einor
dert
ocommuni
cat
e
pur
posef
ull
y.
 Per
suasive:Ar
e you communi
cat
ing t
o convi
nce someone about
somet
hing?
 Ar
eyour
epor
ti
ngoni
mpor
tanti
ssue?
 Al
soconsi
dert
heout
comet
hatyouexpectaf
tercommuni
cat
ing.
c)I
tisi
mper at
ivet
of i
ndthebestwor
dst
oexpresswhatyouwantt
osayusing
t
helanguageskil
ls,i
fnot
;yourcommuni
cat
ionwil
lfai
ltoyi
eldt
hei
ntended
r
esul
ts.
d)Obser
vether eact
ionsofthepeopl
eyouaretal
kingtobecauseitwouldgi ve
youafeedback.Expressi
onsuchassuddengestur
e,asharpint
akeofbr eath
orotherelements ofnon- ver
balcommunicat
ion ar
e ablet o convey a
messagetothesenderinter
msofresponse.
e)Yourdr esscodeduringoralcommunicati
onwi l
lconveyamessageabout
whatyout hi
nkofyoursel
forhow youregardt hepersonorpeopl
eyouare
tal
kingt o.
Inthi
scaseyoushoul dbesmar t,cleanclot
heswouldconvey;
eff
iciency,
order
,cour
tesyaboutone’
spersonali
ty.
f
) Yourpost ur eandor ient
ati
onr efert
ot heposi ti
onofyourbodyasyouspeak
topeopl e.Involvementintotheconver sationmaybesuggest edbyfaci
ngthe
personyouar et al
kingtoandifyout urnawayorwal kawayi tshowsthatyou
areinterestedi ntheconversationandt hatislackofr espect.Openpostur
es
such asl eaning backwi th handscr ossed behi nd maysuggestext reme
confidence i n some cases,butmay have negat ive cultur
alimpli
cati
on
dependingont heper sonyouar etal
kingt o.e.g.fear,
disrespectorpomposit
y.

Techni
quest
oResol
veAnxi
ety
Itisnor
malf
orateacher
,orasaper sontofeelanxi
ousbef
oreyourpresent
ati
on.
Howdoyouovercomeanxiet
y?Techniquest
hatmayhelpyoutoovercomeanxiety
are:

 Pr
epar
eadequat
elyf
ort
hepr
esent
ati
onort
eachi
ng.
 Uset
her
elaxat
ionexer
ciseoft
alki
ngadeepbr
eat
h.
 Ber
eal
ist
icbynotset
ti
ngst
andar
dst
hatar
etoohi
ghf
oryou.

48
  Behaveast
houghyouar
efeel
ingconf
ident
.
 Usenon-
ver
balbehavi
ouri
ntoappearconf
ident
.
Morei
mpor tant
ly,r
ehearseyourpr
esentat
ionintermsofhow youwi
llst
and,how
youwi
llchangeyoursli
desandhowt osetyournotes.

Bodyl
anguagedur
ingt
hepr
esent
ati
on

 Youshoul
dbehaveent
husi
ast
ical
lyandsmi
lewher
eappr
opr
iat
e.
 Mai
ntai
neyecont
act
.
 Actast
houghyouconf
identandr
elaxed.
 Mind yourmannerofspeech how you t
alki
scar
dinali
n capt
uri
ng t
he
audi
ence’sat
tent
ionandi
nter
est
.
 Yourspeechshoul
dcl
ear
.
 Voicepr
oject
ion:t
hevoi
ceyouproduceshoul
dbemodestandnott
ool
oud
forsmal
laudi
enceandnott
oolow.
 Useappr
opr
iat
espeedr
ate.
Pl
anni
ngyourpr
esent
ati
on

Ef
fect
ivepl
anni
ngofyourpr
esent
ati
onmayt
aket
hef
oll
owi
ngst
eps:

 Setyourobject
ivesusi
ngasi
mplesentencesuchas‘
aft
ermypr
esent
ati
on,
theaudienceshouldbeableto…… underst
andthemeani
ngof…..
orfi
nd
sol
uti
ont o….
 Under
standyouraudi
encei
nter
msoft
hei
rlevelknowl
edgeandexper
ience.
 Wr
it
edownt
hecent
ralt
hemeofyourpr
esent
ati
on.
 St
ruct
ureyourt
alkandwr
it
edownyourout
li
ne.
 Yourpr
esent
ati
onshoul
dhaveani
ntr
oduct
ion,
mai
nbodyandconcl
usi
on.
 Askyour
sel
fquest
ionsuchas;whatsuppor
ti
ngi
nfor
mat
ionwi
llIneed?
 Knowyourset
ti
ngandcheckt
hel
ocat
ionoft
hepr
esent
ati
on.
 Findoutt
heequipmentt
hati
savai
labl
eforyourpr
esent
ati
onsuchassl
ides,
chart
sorpict
ureset
c.
Or
deroft
hepr
esent
ati
on

a)I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Endeavourtocapt
uret
heat
tent
ionofyouraudi
encebyaski
ngr
het
ori
c
quest
ions.
49
  Provi
dingr el
evantf
actsoroutl
iningval
uabl
einf
ormat
iont
hatyouwant
theaudiencetogainfr
om yourpresent
ati
on.
b)Mai
nbody
I
nthemai
nbodyensur
eto;

 Sel
ectyourpoi
ntsi
nanor
gani
zedsequencet
osuppor
tyourar
gument
.
 Donoti
ncl
udet
oomanydet
ail
s
 Donotuset
omanysl
ides
 Oryouraudi
encemayf
orgetwher
eyoust
art
edf
rom.
c)Concl
usi
on
Asyousum upyourpr
esent
ati
on:

 Summar
izeyourpr
esent
ati
onusi
nganyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngst
rat
egi
es;
 Changi
ngt
hepace
 Usi
ngvi
sualai
ds.
 Summar
izi
ngyourpoi
nts.
 Aski
ngquest
ingquest
ions
 Maki
ngr
ecommendat
ionset
c.
 Fi
nal
lyt
hankt
heaudi
encef
ort
hei
rti
meandat
tent
ion.

SpeechDel
iver
y
A Speechi saf or
malt al
kgi vent oanaudi
enceorpr eparedpieceofwr it
ingor
i
nformationonagi ventopic.ASpeechisanythingspokenf oranaudiencetolist
en.
Itisbasi
callyaf or
maladdr esst oagroupoflistener
s.Relatedt
oacademi cwor k,
academic pr esent
ati
ons can f al
linthis category as they are also formal
present
ations.Thef oll
owing tipscan beusef ulin bot
h speech and academi c
present
ations.

Whatt
oconsi
derwhenwr
it
ingaspeechoranAcademi
cpr
esent
ati
on

1.TypeofAudi
ence

Speeches and academic presentat

ions ar
e made forl
ive audience.Decide on
whetherthe speech orpr esentati
on isintended f
oradult,scholars,chil
dren,
di
plomatsorjournal
ist
s,businessmenandwomenorsophi st
icatedclassofpeople
e.
g.Lawyers,Doctor
s,andPol i
ti
ciansetc.

50
 2.Thepur
poseoft
hespeech/
Present
ati
on

Deci
deonwhet hert
hespeechorpr esent
ati
onist
oinf
orm,toper
suade,t
oentert
ain,
toappease,toinci
te,t
or epr
imand,educateoracombinati
onofthese.Thiswill
det
erminetheuseofappropri
atel
anguage.

3.Thesubj
ectmat
ter(
ort
opi
c)

Ascertai
nwhetherthetopi
cisfamil
iart
otheaudienceor i tisj
ustforacademic
purposes and det
ermi
ne how much inf
ormati
on to give and hol
d back.Also
ascert
ainwhethert
hetopi
cis‘
techni
cal
’i
nnatur
eanddet erminehowtotackl
eit.

4.Thesi
tuat
ion

Ascertain whetherthe si
tuati
on (oroccasion)is a sol
emn one (
mour ning)
,a
business oracademi cmeeting( wher
epeopleareonlyinter
est
edinresult
s),aft
er
di
nnerspeech( humorous)
,orat ensesi
tuat
ion.Thesi
tuati
onandtheaudiencealso
determinethelanguage.

Pr
epar
ati
onoft
hespeechorpr
esent
ati
on

Once you have a t

opi
c,al
low your
sel
fti
me t
othi
nk abouti
tis par
tofyour
pr
eparati
on:

 Gat
heral
lnecessar
yideasandi
nfor
mat
ionont
het
opi
cgi
ven.

 Ar
ranget
hemat er
ial(
ideasandi
nfor
mat
ion)i
nappr
opr
iat
eor
derandt
hen
pl
anthef
orm ofpr
esentat
ion.

 Pl
anni
ng

Aspeechmusthaveast
ruct
ureandasenseofdi
rect
ion.Not
edownal
lthe
mai
npoint
syoushoul
dcover
:

-
whatt
heai
m oft
hespeechi
s

-
whatt
heaudi
encemayhopet
olear
n

 Review yourl
ist
,gr
oupi
ngt
hem underheadi
ngsandassembl
ingt
hesei
na
l
ogicalorder
.

 Whatevert
het
opi
c,youwi
llneedast
ri
kingwayofopeni
ngandcl
osi
ngyour
speech.

Openi
ng

Shouldbeori
ginalandi
nter
est
ing(
enought
omakepeopl
ewantt
ohear
whatyouhavet
osay)
51
 Apar
tfr
om gi
vingt
heai
m andt
heout
li
neoft
het
alk:

 Askaquest
ion,
tel
last
oryoruseaquot
ati
on.

Cl
osi
ng

 Youshoul
dfi
nishposi
ti
vel
y

 Thest
andar
dappr
oachi
sasummar
y

 Givetheaudi
encechancet
opar
ti
cipat
ebyi
nvi
ti
ngt
hem t
ocomment
,if
necessar
y.

Languageandst
yle

 Uset
het
enseyouwoul
dusewhenspeaki
ngt
otheaudi
ence(
Presentt
ense)

 Sal
utepeopl
einat
tendanceaccor
dingt
oseni
ori
ty(
orderofhi
erar
chy)

 Repeatfor
msofaddressl
ikesi
r,l
adi
esandgent
lemen,t
heguestofhonour
,
et
c.tocaptur
eInt
erest

 Par
agr
aphsar
eusual
lyshor
tasspeechest
akeaspokenf
orm ofl
anguage

 Endwi
thcour
tesyt
otheaudi
ence.

Sampl
eofaspeech.

SPEECHDELIVEREDATANAWARDSGIVINGCEREMONYBYTHEHEADTEACHER
ATWAWAHI GHSCHOOLON24.09.
2015AT14:
00HRS

The GuestofHonour ,PermanentSecr et

ary,and Provinci
alEducati
on Of
fi
cers
present
,Di str
ict Educat
ion Boar
d Secr etar
ies,Educat i
on Standar
d Offi
cer
s,
Headteachers,
HeadsofDepartment,al
lteacherspresent
,LadiesandGentl
emen.

Iti
sar ar
eprivi
legetowelcomeyoual ltothi
sawardsgivi
ngcer emony.Formany
year
s,ourschoolhas been per f
orming very wel
lbutwe have neverhad an
opport
uni
tyli
ket hi
stoawardthem.Therefor
e,wit
hthesupportoftheschoolboard,
wesatandcameupwi t
hpr i
zestogivetotheimmediatepastGr ade12sfortheir
perf
ormance.

TheGuestofHonour,Madam,Ladiesandgent l
emen,al l
ow metothankthePTA
executi
vewhoareaveryhardwor
kingteam,theteachersandthepupil
swhohave
equall
yworkedhar
dtoensur
eourschoolkeepsonpr oduci
nggoodresul
ts.

GuestofHonour
,Madam,Ladi
esandGent
lemen,l
astyearwer
ecordedanincr
ease
i
nourpassr at
e.Thi
sisbecausewehadthir
typupi
lswhogotsixpoint
s.Agr eat

52
achi
evementI ndeed!Thi
sentai
lsthesepupil
sareallgoingtoUni
ver
sit
iesacross
thecountry.Thi
sal someansthatthesepupil
swillj
oinourfor
merpupil
sholding
keyposit
ionsint hegover
nment.Whatagr eathonourtohavesuchhardworking
pupi
ls!

Madam Mini
ster
,thegi
rlchi
ldatourschooli
sproudofhavi
ngyouinthatof
fi
ceas
youarearol
emodelt othem.Theyaremot i
vat
edfurt
hertoworkext
rahardtobe
l
ikeyou.

Ladiesandgent
lemen,evenwhenourschoolhasbeendoi ngwel li
tdoesnotmean
alli
swell.
Theschoolhasitschall
enges.Forexample,mostofourt eachersarenot
accommodated;hencetheyl i
vefarf r
om ourschoolwhi chmakesi tdiffi
cul
tfor
them toar
ri
veforworkont i
me.Apar tfr
om that
,wehaveacr it
icalshortageoftext
booksanddeskswhi chmakesl earni
ngandt eachi
ngabi tdi
fficul
t.Mor eover
,the
schoolhasonl
ytwocomput ersandweappealt oyou,madam,tocomet oouraid.

Madam,Ladi es and Gentl

emen,we also have a crit
icalshor
tage oft
eacher
s
especi
all
yinMat hemat i
csandScience,wet her
eforeur geyou,madam,tosend
moreteacher
sint hosesubj
ect
stomiti
gatet
heshor tage.

Inconclusion,Iwoul
dli
ket othankyoumostsi ncerel
ymadam,forhavi
ngtaken
ti
meof ffrom yourbusyscheduletocomeandgr acethi
soccasi
on.Thi
sshould
cont
inuesot hatwecanpresentourgri
evancesdi
rectl
ytoyouandalsot
oseehow
wearedoi ngacademi
cal
lyandprofessi
onall
y.

It
hankyoual
lforyourat
tent
ion.

Act
ivi
ty

1.Whati
sfacet ofacecommuni
cat
ion?Whatact
ivi
ti
esi
nvol
vet
hiski
ndof
communi
cat
ion?
2.Howbestcanweor
gani
seanacademi
cor
alpr
esent
ati
on
3.Whatisdebate?How wel
lcan t
hisact
ivi
tybeut
il
ised i
n academi
cor
al
pr
esent
ati
ons?
4.Whatisaspeech?Whatt
echni
quescanbei
ncl
udedf
ort
hebestdel
iver
yofa
speech?
5.Whati
saVot
eofThanks?How doesi
tdi
ff
erf
rom aspeechofi
ntr
oduct
ion

53
 (
Int
roduct
oryspeech)
.

Assi
gnment
Having l
ear
ntaboutacademi c wri
ti
ng,whatdo you thi
nkwoul d be the
feat
uresofanacademicoralpr
esentat
ion?Whatdi
ff
erencesandsimilar
it
ies
canbedrawnfrom anacademicessayandacademi
coralpresent
ati
on?
Summar
y
Inthi
suni t
,youhavebeeni ntr
oducedt otheskil
loforalcommuni cati
on( speaki
ng)
andt heact i
viti
esthatinvolvespeakingi nacademicci r
cles.Wehopeyouhave
l
earntsomet hingonwhatyouar eexpectedtodoinyouracademi coralpresentat
ion.
Notet hatther
ei snomuchdi f
ferencebetweenandacademi cessayandacademi c
oralpresentat
ion.Bothhavet hesamef eat
ures.Onl
yconsi derthetechniquesthat
shouldbeusedt opr
esentanacademi cworkorall
y.

Uni
t6
LanguageSki
ll
s
I
ntr
oduct
ion

54
Welcomet oUnitSi xofLanguageSki ll
s.I
nt hi
sUnityouwillbeexposedt ovar i
ous
l
anguage ski ll
s some ofwhi ch you did when you werei n secondar y school.
AccordingCr ystal(1997) ,thebasicpar t
sofspeechi nEngl i
shi ncludet heVer b
(l
exical
,modalandpr i
mar yver bs)
,Noun( commonandabst ractnouns) ,Adjectives
(numericalandi ndefinit
eadj ecti
ves)andAdver bs(
adverbsofpl ace,ti
me,manner
andbel iefordoubt )
. Ot herpar t
sofspeechi ncl
ude;preposi
tions,interj
ections,
conjunctions,enumer at
ors and det ermi
ners.Each one oft hese has di f
ferent
functi
onsi nasent encewhi chwewoul dhavelookedat,i
fwewer estudyingEngl ish
Languageasacour se.

Thest udyofLanguageSkil
lsi
sassociat
edwi ththetwoaspectsi
emorphol
ogyand
syntax.Morphologyisfor
m ormakeupofi ndivi
dualwords.Synt
axist
hestruct
ure
i
et hewaywor dsareputtogetheri
nphr ases,clausesandsent
encesinorderto
producemeaningfuli
deas.

KeyQuest
ion

 Expl
ainwhatismeantbypar tsofspeech.
 Defi
netermssuchasmor phol
ogy,syntax,
phrase,andclause.
 I
dentif
ythedif
fer
enttypesofsentences
 Explai
nt heelementsofasentence.
 Demonstratet
hesubject-
verbagreementindiffer
entsentences.
 Usediff
erentpunct
uationscorrectl
yindiff
erentsentences

Topi
cCont
entLi
st
 Par
tsofSpeech.

 TheSent
ence

 TypesofSent
ences

 El
ement
sofaSent
ence

 Sent
encepat
ter
ns

 Subj
ect–ver
bagr
eement

 Punct
uat
ion

55
Ter
minol
ogi
es
Mor phol ogy:themake–upofi ndi
vidualwords.Example:un/grat
eful/
ness
Af/forest /
ati
on/un/ cook/ed
Infl
ections:addi t
ionalmor phologi
calbi t
stoawor d.Thechangesi nthewor
dfor
m
arecal l
edi nfl
ectionswhichcanbei nf or
m offor
m andt ense.
Phrase:agr oupofwor dswhi chdoesnotcont ainafinit
ever b
Clause:apar tofasent encewhi chcont ai
nsasubj ectandaver beg…whenIsee
her.
Subject :Doerorper for
merofanact ioninasentence.
Object:Recei verofanact i
oni nasent ence
Wor ds:asi nglegr ammaticalunitwhichcannotbespl i
t
V-Ver b-anact ionwor d
Partsofspeech:ar ecl
assesi ntowhi chwordsareclassif
ied.
Syntax:t
hest
ruct
ureoft
hewaywor
dsar
eputt
oget
heri
ntophr
ases,
clausesand
sent
ences.
Exampl
e: Maryi
swashi
ngthebaby.
S V O
.
Par
tsofSpeech
There are ei
ghtcat egories 
int
o whi ch 
words ar
e cl assif
ied accor
ding tot hei
r
funct
ionsin 
sentences.Alsoknownas" wordclasses,
"t hesearethebuildi
ngblocks
ofgrammar .Theei ght(8)maj orpartsofspeechi nEngl i
shgr ammarar e:Noun,
pronoun,ver
b,adverb,adj
ect i
ve,conj
uncti
on,preposit
ionandi nterj
ect
ion.

56
a)Nouns
Thesear ewor dst hatar eusedt onamesomet hing.I tmi ghtbeaper son,apl ace,an
object,event ,orevenat houghtori dea.
TypesofNouns
 Pr opernouns–namesapar ticularperson,pl ace, thingori dea.Pr opernouns
alwaysbegi nwi thacapi tall etterandmayconsi stofmor et hanonewor d.
Exampl es:KamuzuBanda, Malawi,LakeTanganyi ka,Memor ialDay,
Gameof Thrones.
 Co mmonnoun–Theynameoneoral lthemember sofacl assoragr oupof
persons, places, thi
ngs, ori deasandar egener allynotcapi talized.
Exampl es:car ,pizzapar lor,t
eacher,gl ass.
 Co ncretenoun–t histypeofnounnamessomet hingt hatyoucanper cei ve
throughyourf ivesenses.
Exampl es:f older, sand, board,cat
 Ab str
actnoun-  Thesear enounswhi chr el
atet osomet hingt hatar eyoucannot
perceivet hroughyoursenses.Anabst ractnounnamesani dea,af eel i
ng,a
quality,orachar act
er i
stic.
Exampl es:happi ness, love,grudge, braver y, kindness, f
reedom, well-
being, hope.
 Co unt–i tr eferst oanyt hingt hatiscount able,andhasasi ngul arandpl ur al
form.
Exampl es: kit
ten, video, ball
 Ma ss–Massnounsar eal socal lednon-count abl enouns, andt heyneedt o
have“ count ers”t oquant i
fyt hem.Count erscanbe; kilo,cup, met er
Exampl es:r ice,flour ,garter
 Co l
lect i
ve–r efer stoagr oupofper sons,animal s, ort hings.Acol l
ect
ivenoun
maybeei thersi ngularorpl ural,dependingoni t
smeani nginasent ence.
57
 Exampl es
People:audi ence, commi tt
ee,crew, jur
y, f
aculty(groupofteacher
s),cl
ass
(groupofst udent s),f
ami l
y,group, publi
c,assembl y,club,
team,army,etc.
Animal s:f
lock,her d,gaggle,brood, pri
de( gr
oupofl i
ons),
swarm
Things:assor tment ,batch,bundle,cluster,f
leet
 Co mpoundNouns:Acompoundnounconsi stsoft woormor ewordsused
togetherasasi nglenoun.Thepar tsofacompoundnounmaybewr it
tenas
onewor d,
assepar at
ewor ds,orasahyphenat edwor d.
b)Pr
onouns
Apronouni sawor dt hatisusedinpl aceofanoun.

Exampl
e:Mar
yboughtanexpensi
vesui
t.Shewi
llweari
ttomor
row.

Thepr
onoun‘
She’
standsf
orMar
yand‘
i
t’st
andsf
orsui
t.

TypesofPr
onouns

 PersonalPr
onouns:Refer
stothepersonspeaki
ng,
thepersonspokento,
or
thepersonort
hingspokenabout.Pr
onounshaveperson,
number,gender,
andcase.

 Person:Apronounthatr
efer
stothepersonspeaki
ngisafi
rst-
per
son
pronoun;t
othepersonspokento,asecond-
personpr
onoun;andtot
he
personorthi
ngspokenabout,athi
rd-
personpr
onoun.

 Number
:Apr onount
hatref
erst
ooneperson,
place,t
hing,
ori
deai
ssi
ngul
ar.
Onet
hatref
erstomorethanoneoft
heseispl
ural.

 Gender:Personalpronounsinthethi
rd-
personsingul
arhavegender.A
pr
onouni smascul i
ne,femini
ne,orneuterdependi
ngonwhetheritr
eferst
oa
male,t
oaf emale,ortoananimalort hi
ng.

 Case:Apersonalpr
onounhasthreecases,
orforms,thati
ndi
cat
eit
sfunct
ion
i
nthesentence;nominat
ive,
obj
ecti
ve,andpossessi
ve.

c)Adjecti
ves
Anadj ecti
veisawor dthatmodi f
iesanounorapr onoun.Thispartof speechis
usedt odescribeanounorapr onoun.Adject
ivescanspecif
ythequal i
ty,thesize,
andt henumberofnounsorpr onouns.Anadjecti
veprovi
desinformati
onaboutt he
size,shape,colour
,text
ure,f
eeli
ng,sound,smell
,number,orconditi
onofanounor
pronoun.Itchangest hemeani ngofanounorpr onounbyl i
mi t
ing,quali
fyi
ng,or

58
speci
fyi
ng.Itanswer
sonethesequest
ions:
a)Whichone? Thosebooks,
thi
splate,
anot
hercup.
b)Whatki
nd? Si
lverr
ing,
li
vel
ywr
it
ing
c)Howmany? Thr
eepl
ates,
somef
armer
s,f
ewpar
ent
s
d)Howmuch? enoughhel
p,abundanthar
vest
,li
tt
lechance
d)Ver b
Averbi sawor dorphr aset hatexpr essesanact i
on( physi calorment al),
acondi ti
on,
orast ateofbei ngoft hesubj ectinasent ence.
Exampl esof“ St ateofBei ngVer bs” :am,
  i
 s, was,ar
  e,and  were
Act ionVer bs–anact i
onver bexpr essesanact ion.Theact ionmaybe
physicalorment al.
a)Physi calact ion Chi rwashout edatt hechi ldren.
b)Ment alact ion Bwal yaconsi der edal lhisopt ions.
TypesofVer bs
a.Tr ansitivever bs– t hesear ever bst hatmustbef oll
owedbyanobj ectt
obe
correctEngl i
sh.I nadi cti
onar y,ver bst hatar eonl yt r
ansi t
ivear eusual ly
mar kedwi tht hel ettersvt .Commont ransitivever bsar e:l i
ke,enjoy,bring,
cli
mb, discuss, rob, steal,contain, prepar e,take, putetc.
Exampl e:
a) Il ikeor anges.
b)Mar yenj oysAf ri
canmusi c.
c)Wewi l
ldi scusst heissuet oday.
b.I ntr
ansi tivever bs–Thesear ever bst hatdonotr equireanobj ectaftert
hem
orver bst hatcanneverbef oll
owedbyanobj ect .Inadi ctionary,theseverbs
aremar kedwi tht hel et t
ersvi . Someoft hesever bsi nclude;di e,arri
ve,
compl ain, consi st,emer ge, happen, occur ,seem, yawn, et
c.
Exampl e:
a)Shel aughed.
b)Jesuswept .
c.Somever bscanbebot ht ransiti
veandi ntransi t
ive–somever bscanhavean
objectornothaveanobj ectaf t
ert hem.I nadi cti
onar y,thesever bsar e
mar kedwi tht hel etterv.Tr ansitivever bsincl udepl ay,pr acti
se,cook,r ead,
move, study, wat ch,oper ate,etc.

e).Adver
b
Anadver bisawordthatmodifi
esordescri
besaverb,anadject
ive,oranother
adverb.Anadverbmakesthemeaningofaverb,anadj
ect
ive,oranotheradverb
mor edef
ini
te.
Exampl
e
a)Verbs Thestudent
sworkedcar
eful
lyont
hei
rproj
ects.

59
 b)Adj ectives Lusakai saver ybusyci tyinZambi a.
c)Adver bs Mar yl eftt heclassqui tesuddenl y.
Waysadverbsmodi fyver bs
Whenmodi fyi ngaverb,anadver bmaydescr ibehowori nwhatmannert heact i
on
i
sdone.Itmaydescr i
bewhenorhowof t
enanact ioni sdone.Al soitmaydescr i
be
wher
eori nwhatdi rectionanact i
onwasdone.
a)How? Kamangawor kssi l
entl
yint hecl assroom.
b)When? Manymi nersnowexpl oreLuf wanyama.
c)Wher e? Manymi nersexpl oretheref orcopperandot hermi nerals.
TypesofAdver bs
 Adver bsofmanneranswert hequest ionofhow, occuraf terthedirectobjectif
thereisone.
Example:Thest udent sfi
nishedt heexam qui ckl
y.
 Adver bsoft imeanswert hequest i
onofwhen,andi ncludesuchadver bsas
earl
y, tomorrow, yest erday, todaytonamebutaf ew.
Exampl e:Iwr ot etoheryest erday
 Adver bsofl ocat i
on/ placeanswert hequest ionofwher e,andi ncludesuch
adverbsasupst airs, downst air
s,up,above, andi nsidet onameaf ew.
Example:Johnhasgoneout side.
 Adver bsoff requencyanswert hequest i
onofhow of t
en,andi ncludesuch
adverbsassomet imes, always, andr arelytonameaf ew.
Exampl e:Shegoest othemar ketever yFr i
day
 Adver bsofdegr eeanswert hequest ionofhowmuch, andi ncludesuch
adverbsasver y,extremel y,almost ,
har dly,compl etelyetc.
Exampl e:
a)Thej ourneyi sext remelydanger ous.[ bef oreanadj ecti
ve]
b)Sheal mostbr okehermot her’sfavour itecup.[ beforethemai nver b]

f).Prepositi
on
Thispar tofaspeechbasi cal
lyref
erstowordsthatspecif
ylocationoral ocat
ioni
n
ti
me.Exampl esofPr epositi
ons:above,
  bel
ow,thr
oughout,outside,bef
ore,
near, 
and since.
a)Mi cahishiding under 
thebed.
Thei tal
ici
zedpr eposit
ionintr
oducest hepr
eposit
ionalphr
ase“ underthebed,”and
tell
s where Micahishiding.
b)Dur i
ng thegame, theaudienceneverst
oppedcheer i
ngf orthei
rteam.
Thei tal
ici
zedpr eposit
ionintr
oducest hepr
eposit
ionalphr
ase“ duri
ngt hegame,”
andt ell
s when theaudiencecheer ed.

g)
. 
Conj
unct
ion

60
Theconj uncti
onisapartofaspeechwhi chjoinswor ds,
phr ases,orclauses
toget
her. ExamplesofConj uncti
ons: 
 and,yet
,but ,
for,nor,
or, 
and so
a) Th i
scupofteaisdeli
ci and 
ous  verysoothing.
b) Kiyokohastostartal
loveragai because 
n  shedidn’tfoll
owt heprofessor
’s
i
nst r
ucti
ons.
c) Ho meralwayswantedtojointhepl  
ay,but 
hedidn’thavet hegutstoauditi
on.
Theitali
cizedwordsinthesentencesabovear esomeexampl esofconj uncti
ons.

h).
 I
nter
jecti
on
Thispartofaspeechr ef
erst
owordswhi
chexpressemoti
ons.Si
nceint
erj
ect
ions
arecommonl yusedtoconveyst
rongemoti
ons,
theyareusual
lyf
oll
owedbyan
exclamati
onpoint
.
ExamplesofInter
ject
ions:

 Ouch!  
Thatmusthavehurt.
 Hu rr
ay,wewon!
 He y!
 Isaidenough!
Theboldwor dsattachedt
othemai
nsent
encesabovear
esomeexampl
esof
i
nter
jecti
ons.

TheSent
ence
Thesent encecanbedef inedasal ongestuni twithmeani ngfulidea.Ther earel ong
andshor tsentences, howeverbot hcanbeacompl etegr ammat i
calaccountofhow
thepartsfitt
oget her
.Fol seetal .(
2010: 15)def i
nesasent enceas, “agroupofwor ds
thatexpressesacompl etet hought.Itbeginswi thacapi tallett
erandendswi t
ha
kindofpunct uationmar k” .Asent encei sgroupofwor dsgr ammat i
call
ycombi ned
toget
hert of orm a compl etet houghtoran i dea.Sent ences ar e categorised
consideri
ngt woper spect i
vesordi mensi ons;pur poseorf unction(semant i
caspect )
andt henumberofcl ausesi tcontains.Int ermsofsemant icsandi tspur poseor
funct
ion,asent encecanbeei ther
:
Mostbasi csent encepat ter
nsbegi nwi t
ht hesubj ectf ollowedbyt hever b.( S+V)
thesemost l
ydescr ibet hingst hatar ehabi tual.Other smaycar r
yt hef oll
owi ng:
S+V+O,S+V+A,S+V+O,S+V+O+C( S=subj ect,V=ver b,A=adver b,C=compl ement ,
61
O=obj
ect
)

Typesofsent ences
Sentencesar eunitsmadeupofoneormor eclauses.Thosecontainingoneclause
arecal l
edsi mplesent enceswhi lethosewi thmor et hanonecl ausearecalled
complexsent ences.Asi mplesentencemaybe;
a)Decl arat
iveSent ence:A declarat
ivesent enceist hekindofsent enceusedt o
makeast at
ementorasser t
ionasitsfuncti
on.Ast atementcanbe;
Iwil
lspeaktothePr i
ncipaltoday.
Itdeclares,assert
sorst at
essomet hi
ngandendswi t
haf ul
lstopasi ll
ust
rated
bel
ow:
MrChi l
esheisthePr i
ncipalofMuf ulir
aColl
egeofEducat i
on.

b)
.Inter
rogat
iveSent
ence:Thisist
het ypeofsentencewhichisusedtoaska
Quest
ionegWhati syourname?Theref
ore,i
tendsinaquestionmark.I
tsf
uncti
on
i
stomakeaquest i
onorforint
err
ogat
ionorsol
ici
ti
ngforanswersasshownbel
ow;

I
sther
eloveanyl
ongeront
hisear
th?

c).Imper ati
veSentence:Ani mper at
ivesentenceisyetanothert
ypeofsentence
whosef uncti
onistogiveor ders,commandsormakear equesttosomebodyorfor
somethingasi nt
hesent encegivenbelow:
(
i)Command:Youspeakt othePrincipalt
oday.St
opmakingnoise!
(
ii
)Or der:Wouldyoust opmaki ngnoise?
(
ii
i)
Pol i
teRequest:(Please)
, l
eavemeal one.

d).Excl
amatorySentence:Thisi sakindofsentencethatisusedtomakean
excl
amationtoshow emotion;shoutorexcl
aim.Mostl
y,i
tendsinanexcl
amat
ion
markasintheexamplegivenbelow:
(
i)Whatanoisetheyaremaki ng!
(
ii
)Helpme!
(
ii
i)
Stopri
ghtther
e!

Form classesofwor dswi t

hinsent ences
Therear etwomai ncl asses.Thesear eopenandclosedcl
asses
a)OpenCl ass-Thi si sacl asstowhi chnewwor dscaneasi
lybeadded.Ther
ear
e;
(
i)Nouns:gi r
l,
singi ng,honesty.Tabl e,bal
l
(
ii
)Ver bs:sing,dance, desir
e, go, ki
ll
(
ii
i)Adjecti
ves:good, abl
e,honest y
(
iv)Adverbs:now, fast,away, slowl y

b)ClosedClass
Aclosedclassisacl
asst
owhi
chnonewwor
dscanbeadded.
62
 (
i)Determiners:The, an,a,all
,thi
s,someetc
(
ii
)Pronouns:I ,me,you,t
hem.One, et
c
(
ii
i)
Conjunctions:And,but
,or,
nor
(
iv)
Int
erj
ections:Oh,Alas,
GoshOuch
(
v)Enumer ators:One,Two,Fif
th,Fi
rst
,Second

PartsofaSent ence
Ther ear
etwomai npartsofthesent ence.Thesearethesubj
ectandapr
edi
cat
e
Example:John/car ef
ull
ysear chedtheroom.
Subject Predicate
a)Subjectiswhati sbei
ngdi scussedi nthesent
ence.
b)Predicatei swhatisbeingsaidaboutt hesubject

El
ement
sofaSent
ence
Asent encecompr i
sesf i
ve( 5)uni t
scal l
edel ement s.
Exampl e: John car efull
y searched t her oom.
Subject Adver b/Compl ement Verb Obj ect
a)Subj ect : Usual l
yanounphr aseoracl ausewi thanomi nalf unction.Itcomes
beforet hever bandi mmedi atelyaf tert heoper ator.Thereisal waysanagr eement
betweent hesubj ectantt hever b.Eg‘ John’ issubj ectinthesent ence.
b)Obj ect :ThiscanbeDi rectorI ndi rect.Iti sanounphr aseoracl ausewi t
ha
nomi nalf unction.I tfollowst hesubj ectandver bphr ase.Eg‘ Ther oom’i sobj ectin
thesent ence
c)Compl ement :Itcanei thermodi fyasubj ectoranobj ect;ther efor
ei tisacl ause
withnomi nalf unct ionwi thco- referent ialrelati
onwi ththesubj ectorobj ect.Itisa
nounphr aseoradj ectivalphr ase.Eg.Theyel ectedhi m chairperson.Chai rpersoni s
objectcompl ementi nthissent ence.
d)Ver b:isanact ionver bi nthesent ence.Eg‘ Sear ched’isaver bi nthesent ence.
e) Adver bi
al:I ti s an adj ectivalphr ase,adver bialphr ase,noun phr ase,or
prepositionalphr ase.I tismobi l
ebutdoesnotchanget hemeani ngoft hesent ence.
a)Jamescar ef ullysear chedt her oom.
b)Car efull
y, Jamessear chedt her oom.
c)Jamessear chedt her oom car eful l
y.

Sent
encePat
ter
ns(
Types)
i
)S+V:Intr
ansit
ive:Thesent encehast hesubjectandt hever
bbutwi thoutanobject.
Example:a)Jesuswept .b)Mar ylaughed
i
i)S+V+DO:Monot r
ansitive:Thereisonlyoneobj ect.Theverbtakesadi r
ectobject
i
nt hesent
ence.Exampl e:Johnlovedhiswife.
i
ii
)S+V+DO+I O:Di -
transiti
ve:Thistypeofasent encecontainstwoobj ectsbot h
dir
ectandindi
rect.Exampl e:Johnboughthiswi fear i
ng.

63
(i
v)S+V+SC:SubjectCompl ement:Int hi
ssentencethesubj
ectismodified.Mor
e
i
nfor
mat i
onisgivenont hesubj
ect
.Exampl e:Johnwasachair
person.
(i
v)S+V+OC:Compl exTransi
ti
ve:Int hi
spat t
erntheobj
ectoft hesubjecthasa
complementieobjectcomplement.Example:Johnmadehiswifequeen.

Gr
ammat
icalAgr
eement(
Concor
d)
Agreementi salsor ef er
r edt oasconcor d.Thismeanst hatcert
aingrammati
cal
i
temsagr eewitheachot herinnumberandper son.Thereshoul dbeconcordinthe
fol
lowingi t
ems.
a)Subj ect–Ver bAgr eement
Thisonlyar i
seswi t
ht het ense.Thetensecanei therbepresentandpastoftheverb
‘
be’.Thever b‘be’ hasei ght( 8)di
ff
erentforms,theseare‘ am’,‘
is’
,‘
are’
,‘
was’
,‘
were’
,
‘
be’,‘being’and‘ been’.
Exampl e
PresentTense PastTense
a)Iam cooki ng. Iwascooking.
b)She/ Hei scooki ng. She/Hewascooki ng.
c)Theyar ecooki ng. Theywer ecooki
ng.
b)PronounAgr eement .
Exampl e
a)Theboyl ikeshi stoys
b)Theboysl i
ket heirt oys

c)Not i
onalAgr eement
Thesi ngularform ofagr oupnounl ikegover nmentcanbesomet i
mest
reat
edas
plural
.
a)Thegover nmenthasbr okenal litspromises.
b)Thegover nmenthavebr okent heirpromises.
Int heabovesent ences,thever bagr eeswitht heideaofplur
ali
nagroupnoun
ratherthantheact ualsingularform ofanoun.
d)Agr eementwi thgroupnouns.
Thisisanext ensionofnot ionalagreement .
Exampl e
a)Thepubl icistir
edofwai ting
b)Thepubl icaretiredofwai ti
ng
c)Thecommi tteehasr ati
fi
edt hepr oposal
d)Thecommi tteehaver ati
fiedthepr oposal
Whengr oupisconsi deredasanundi videdbody, thesi
ngul
ari
sused.

e)Pr
oxi
mit
y
Averbagr
eeswi
thwhat
evert
henounorpr
onouncomi
ngbef
orei
t,i
nst
eadoft
he

64
headwor doft hesubj ect.Thus,your elyont henount hatisclosesttotheverbin
ordertodeter minewhet hert heverbwillbesingularorplural.
Exampl e
a)Al argenumberofpeopl ehaveappl i
edforf urt
herstudies.
b)Ei t
herMar yorhersi stersareprepari
ngdi nner
f)Agreementwi thco-ordinatedsubjects.
Whent hesubj ectsconsistsoft woormor enounphr ases,coordinat
edby‘and’
,the
verbisusual l
ypl ural
.
Exampl e
a)Tom andMar yarer eady
b)Pet erandJamesl ostt hei
rconfi
dence.
Singularverbsar eagainusedwhent henounphr aserefertothesamet hi
ng.
Exampl e
a)Thesi ckleandahammerwasf l
yingfrom at al
lfl
agpol e.
b)Hi sLawyerandf ormerr oommat e,JohnPhi riwaswi t
hhi m att
hefuner
al.

h)Eit
her
…orandNei ther…nor
Whennounsar ejoinedby‘ ei
ther
…or’or‘
neit
her…nor
’,t
hever
bisdet
ermi
nedbyt
he
numberofthelastnounphr ase.
Example
a)Ei
theryoubrakesoryoursi ghti
satfault
.
b)Ei
theryoursightoryourbrakesareatfault
.
c)Neit
herthepr i
cesnorthequalit
yhaschanged.
d)Neit
herthequal i
tynorthepri
ceshavechanged.

i
)NumberandAgr eement
Whenanynumberexceptone,i susedi nf r
ontofanoun,useapl
uralnoun.And
whenanumberwi thapl uralnouni susedtotalkaboutt
woormor
et hi
ngs,usea
pl
uralver
b.
Example
a)Ther eweret enpeoplepresent.
b)Sevenboyswer esuspended.
However,whent alkingaboutanamountofmoneyort i
meordi
stance,speed,
wei
ght,usual
lyuseanumberpl uralandsingul
arverb.
a)Thr eeMil
li
onKwachai sal otofmoney.
b)Tenyear sisal otofti
me.
c)TwoHundr edKi l
omet r
esanhouri stoofast
.

Punct
uat
ion
Inspeechweusepausestomakewhatwearesayi
ngclear
.Someoft
hesepauses
arequit
eshor
tandothersar
elonger
.Inwr
it
ing,weusecommasforshor
tpauses

65
andFullstopsforlongerpauses.
Example:
a)Iam verytired.Ican’
twal kanother10km.
b)Iam tir
ed,andsoIcan’ twalk10km.
Othertypesofsent encesr equir
equest i
on and excl
amati
on marksand so on.
Punctuat
ionmar kshel ptomakeourwr i
ti
ngclearandeasytounderst
and.Capit
al
l
etter
sandI ndentati
onsofpar agraphsaresimil
arl
yused,soi
tisver
yimport
antthat
weknowt hecor r
ectuseoft hepunct uat
ionsyst
em.

Funct ionsofPunct uations

Ther ear et hreemai nfunctionsofpunct uati
ons.Thesear e;
(i)Separ ationofsuccessi veuni tsuchassent encesbyf ullstopsoritemsi na
li
stbycommas
(ii)Separ ationofi ncludeduni taswhenpar enthesi smar ksofani nt
erpolat
ed
phr aseorcl ausejustt oaddt hei nfor
mat ion.
(iii
)Speci ficationofl anguagef unct i
onsaswhenanapost r
ophei ndi
catesthatan
infl
ect ioni sgeni ti
veeg.John’ sbook.
Somecommonl yusedpunct uat ion
Thef ol l
owi ngar esomeoft hei mpor t
antandcommonl yusedpunct uati
ons.
a).Ful lstop( .)
Iti
susedt omar kt heendofasent enceandabbr eviations.
Exampl e:
a)Il i
keor anges.
b)It alkedt oMr .K. M.Banda
b).Comma( ,)
Itisusedi nt hel istofnouns,adj ectives,clausesandphr ases.Itisalsousedt o
separ ateitemsoft hedat e.
Exampl e:
a)Iboughtapen, penci l,
rul erandabook.
b)Mar ywear sexpensi ve, new, cl
eancl othesever yday.
c)Thel ectur ewasgood, butf ewpeopl eattendedi t
t
h
d)Zambi abecamei ndependentonOct ober,24 , 1964.
c).Capi talLet t
ers.
Iti susedt ost artanew sent ence,t ostartapr opernoun,f orlanguagesand
national i
ty,f ort it
les ofpeopl e and books,magazi nes,newspaper ,poems and
abbr eviati
ons.
Exampl e:
a)Chandai sr eading.Shedoesnotwantnoi se.
b)Jameshasi nvit
edMar y, Chanda, andDumit ohi sbi
rt
hday.
c)MostofZambi ansspeakBemba.
d)Hi sExcel l
encyt hePr esi dent, Mr.Rober tMugabe.
e)Iam r eading‘ ThingsFal lApar t’
.
66
d).SemiColon(;)
Thisisakindof¾ ofaf ul
lst
op.Itisparti
cular l
yusefulbeforewordslike;t
heref
ore,
ont heotherhand,however,et
c.whi chdonotact uall
yjointhet wosentencesasin
thecaseofconj unct
ions.Itdoesnotr eal
lysepar atethesecondsent encefrom t
he
fi
rst.
Example:
a)Hecoul dnotsaveanymoney;t herefore,heisal waysbor r
owi ngfrom hi
s
f
ri
ends.
b)Seemeat10: 00hrs;t
henwecant al
k.
c)Youmustcomeback;ot her
wiseyouwi llbefi
redtomor row.

f).FullColon( :
)
Usedt oi ntroduceal istoft hi
ngs,t osepar atet herepor
ti
ngver bfrom whatis
act uall
yspokenandcanal sobeusedi ndialogue.
Exampl e:
a)Buymet hef oll
owi ngitems:Sugar ,tea,coffeesal
tandbread.
b)Johnsai d:“Doyoul oveme, John?”
c)Pet er:Hi, therePaul !
Paul :Hi!Long- t
imenosee.
g) .QuestionMar k( ?
)
Itisusedi ndi rectquest ionsandt hosewi t
hauxi l
iaryver
bs,quest
iontags.
Exampl e
a)Whati syourname?
b)I sMar yher e?
c)Shecamehomeyest erday,didn’
tshe?
h) .Exclamat ionMar k(!
)
Itisusedt oi ndicat eshar psoundandst rongfeelings.
Exampl e
a)Anger -Shutup!
b)Fear -Hel p!
c)Sur prise-Whatashame!
d)Di sgust -Howf oolish!
e)War ni
ng-Wat chout !
i
) .Apost rophe( ‘)
Itusedaf terapossessi vei t
ems( geniti
ve).
a)Mar y’
sbook.
b)I nJesus’ name.
c)Muf ul
iraTeacher s’ Coll
ege.
j
) .Hyphen( -
)
Itusedt osepar atecompoundwor ds,syll
ables,toshowi nt
err
uptedthoughtori
dea.
67
Example
a)Thevice-pr
esi
dent
b)Wri-
ti
ng
c)Iwanttosee–

Act
ivi
ty

1.I
neachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngsent
ences

a.St
atet
owhi
chpar
tofspeecht
heunder
li
nedwor
dbel
ongs.

b.St
atewhet
heri
tisopenorcl
osed.

(
i)Hur
ray!Ipassedt
het
est
.

(
ii
)Si
ngi
ngi
sar
ewar
dingpr
ofessi
on.

(
ii
i)
Thef
ir
stt
rai
nhasgoneaway.

(
iv)
Somepeopl
ethi
nkt
hatt
heyshoul
dbepr
aisedal
lthet
ime.

(
v)Shecamef
if
thi
nther
ace.

2.Explai
nt hedif
fer
enceintheuseoft
heunder
li
nedwor
dsi
neachoft
he
fol
lowingpai
rsofsent
ences.

a)(
i)Ki
ndnesspays.

(
ii
)Heshowedki
ndnesst
othewi
dow.

b)(
i)Honest
yishernumberonepr
inci
ple.

(
ii
)Johnpr
act
iceshonest
y

c)(
i)Shear
ri
vedatni
ght
.

(
ii
)Ni
ghti
sver
yfr
ight
eni
ng.

d)(
i)Mar
yrunsf
ast
.
68
 (
ii
)Mar
yisf
ast
.

e)(
i)Hewasdownwhenhel
osthi
sjob.

(
ii
)Theyl
ivej
ustdownt
her
oad.

3.Expl
ainhowt
headj
ect
ive‘
Pret
ty’hasbeenusedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngsent
ences.

a) Shei
sapr
ett
ygi
rl
.

b)Al
lthegi
rl
sint
hecol
legear
epr
ett
y.

4.Stat
ewhichnoungr oupeachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngunder
li
nedwor
dsbel
ongst
o
(egcol
lect
ive,
countetc)
.

(
i)Ihaveor
anges.

(
ii
)Woul
dyoul
ikecake?

(
ii
i)
Thesuppl
ierwi
lldel
ivert
heequi
pmentsoon.

(
iv)
Haveyour
epor
tedt
hemat
tert
opol
ice?

(
v)Whi
chschooldoyourchi
ldr
engot
o?

5.Di
videt
hef
oll
owi
ngsent
encesi
ntosegment
s(egS-
VO)
.

a)Jesuswept
.

b)Mar
yiswashi
ngpl
ates.

c)Theyel
ect
edhi
m pr
esi
dent
.

Uni
t7
Per
sonalandPr
ofessi
onalCommuni
cat
ion
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Welcomet olastUnitoft
hisModul e.Inthepreviousunit
,welookedatLanguage
Skil
ls. Int his uni
t,we shallbegi nl ooki
ng atPer sonaland Prof
essi
onal
Communi cat
ion. Thi
sunitwillequipyouwi thski l
lst
hatwil
lbeexposedtoand
expectedtopossessinmanagementr esponsi
bil
it
ies.
69
 KeyQuest
ion

I
nthi
stopi
cwewi
lldi
scusst
hef
oll
owi
ngkeyquest
ions:

 Expl ai
nthemeani ngofpersonalcommunication.
 Expl ai
nthemeani ngofprofessi
onalcommuni cat
ion.
 Differenti
atebetweenpr
ofessionalandpersonalcommuni cati
on.
 Differenti
atebetweenarésuméandacur r
iculum vi
tae.
 Ident i
fyandexplai
nt hetypesandvar i
ousformsofpr ofessi
onal
communi cati
on.
 Wr i
tevar i
oustypesofbusinesslet
ters,
curri
culum Vit
ae(CV),speeches
withoutdi f
fi
cult
.

Topi
cCont
entLi
st
 Let
terwr
it
ing

 Repor
twr
it
ing

 SpeechWr
it
ing

 Cur
ri
cul
um Vi
tae

 Resume

Ter
minol
ogi
es

Pr
ofessi
on:aj
obespeci
all
yonet
hati
nvol
vest
rai
ningandf
ormal
qual
if
icat
ion.

Pr
ofessi
onal
:Rel
atedt
opr
ofessi
on.

Busi
ness:Asyst
em t
hati
sfor
malr
athert
hani
nfor
mal
.

Cur
ri
cul
um Vi
tae:wr
it
tenover
viewofper
son’
sexper
ienceandj
obqual
if
icat
ions.

Resume:adocumentusedt
opr
esentone’
sbackgr
oundandski
ll
ssi
mil
art
otheCV.

Mi
nut
es:r
ecor
dsoft
hepr
oceedi
ngsoft
hemeet
ingorhear
ing.

Speech:af
ormalt
alkgi
vent
oanaudi
enceorgr
oupofl
ist
ener
s.

70
Let
terWr
it
ing
Therear ethr
eemai
ntypesofl
ett
ersandweshoul
dknow how t
odoeacht
ype
correct
ly.
a.Informal

b.Semi
-f
ormal

c.For
malorbusi
nessl
ett
ers
a)I
nfor
malLet
ter

Thesear
eletter
swhichwewrit
etofr
iendsorpeopleourownage.I
ntheselet
ters
weusethekindofEngl
ishweusewhenwear espeaki
ngtoourf
ri
ends.However,
it
mustbecor
rectandaccept
abl
e.

LayoutofanI
nfor
malLet
ter

1.(a)Thesender
saddr
essi
swr
it
tenatt
het
opont
her
ighthandsi
deoft
he
page.

(
b)Ther
eisnosender
snameabovet
headdr
ess.

(
c)Therei
sacommaattheendofeachli
neintheaddr
essexceptf
ort
hel
ast
i
tem (
thet
ownoft
hecountr
y)whi
chisfol
lowedbyaful
lstop.

2.(
a)Ther
eisal
inespacebet
weent
headdr
essandt
hedat
e.

(
b)Thedat
eiswr
it
teni
nful
l,
wit
hacommabet
weent
hemont
handt
heyear

3.(
a)Ther
eisl
inespacebet
weent
hedat
eandt
hesal
utat
ion.egDearChi
bwe,
.

(
b)Thesal
utat
ionbegi
nscl
oseornextt
othel
efthandmar
ginl
ineandi
s
f
oll
owed byacomma.

4.Thefi
rstpar
agr
aphbegi
nsjustbel
ow t
hemi
ddl
eoft
hesal
utat
ion.Thef
ir
st
wordbegi
nswit
hacapit
all
ett
er.

5.Thel
ett
eri
sdi
videdi
ntopar
agr
aphs.Eachpar
agr
aphi
sindent
ed.

6.The‘f
arewel
l’begi
nsabouthal
f-
wayacr
osst
hepage.Itst
art
swi
thacapi
tal
l
ett
erandendswi t
hacomma.Thesecondwordsdonotbegi
nwi
thacapi
tal
l
ett
er.

7.Thewr
it
ersnamei
swr
it
tenj
ustbel
owt
he‘
far
ewel
l’
.
b)Semi
-For
malLet
ter

Semi
-f
ormall
ett
ersar
elet
ter
swewr
it
etopeopl
ewhom youknowbutwhoar
enot

71
cl
oset oyou(e.
g.afr
iendofyourf
ather,apri
estoryourcl
asst
eacher
.Insucha
l
etteryouwouldnotusethesameregistert
hatyouwouldusewhenwr i
ti
ngtoa
fr
iendoraper
sonofyourownage.

LayoutofaSemi
-For
malLet
ter

 Thesender
saddr
essi
swr
it
tenatt
het
opont
her
ighthandsi
deoft
hepage.

 Nosender
snameabovet
headdr
ess.

 Ther
eisal
inespacebet
weent
headdr
essandt
hedat
e.

 Sal
utat
ioni
tisgener
all
yDearMr
…,DearMr
s….
,DearUncl
e….Et
c

 Thebegi
nni
ngoft
hel
ett
erst
atest
hepur
poseoft
hel
ett
er.

 Themai
nbody

 Theendi
ngi
sgener
all
y‘your
ssi
ncer
ely,
’

c)For
mal(
orBusi
ness)Let
ter
s

Thesear ewri
ttent opeopl
einthei
roff
ici
alcapaci t
ies.Theyalsoincl
uderepl
ies
fr
om suchof f
icial
stothepeopl
ewhohavewr i
ttentot hem.Veryoft
en,wedonot
know thesepeoplewel lorwedonotknow t hem atal l
.Theselett
ersar
ever y
‘
businessli
ke’
.Weonl ywrit
ewhati
sreal
lynecessary.

LayoutofaFor
malLet
ter

 Thesender
saddr
ess,
whi
chi
swr
it
teni
nthet
opr
ightcor
nerofapage.

 Dat
e

 Ti
tl
eandaddr
essoft
heper
sonyouar
ewr
it
ingt
o.

 Sal
utat
ion

o Ifyouknowthesurnameoft
hepersonyouarewri
ti
ngto,
youmayuse
dearfol
lowedbythename/e.
g.DearMrSoko.Ifyoudonotknowthe
person’
snameyoushouldusedearSir
,orDearMadam.I
fyouarenot
surewhethert
hepersoni
samanorwomanyoumaywr i
teDearSi
ror
Madam.

 Headi
ng

o Thisisusual
lywrit
tenincapi
tallet
ter
s.Thi
ssumsupt hecont
entofa
l
etter
.Itmustbewr it
tenbel
owt hesalut
ati
onandshouldbebri
efand
preci
selyst
ated.

72
  Openi
ngpar
agr
aph

o Thisstateswhatt
helett
erisabout
.Notet
hati
tdoesnotincl
ude
greet
ingsofanenqui
ryaboutt
hehealt
hoft
heof
fi
cialt
owhom you
arewrit
ing.

 Mai
nbody

o Useofcour
teousandpr
ofessi
onalt
one

o Useoffor
malSt
andar
dEngl
ish.Avoi
dcont
ract
ions,
abbr
evi
ati
onsand
sl
ang.

o I
ndi
cat
ethepur
posef
orwr
it
ingt
hel
ett
er.

o I
falet
terrequi
resar esponse,gi
vet
henecessar
yinf
ormat
iont
oget
t
heappropr
iat
eresponse.

 Endi
ng

o Thi
sisusual
lyyour
sfai
thf
ull
y,your
ssi
ncer
ely.

o Yourful
lnamesandposi
ti
on(
ifonl
y).Yournamemustbewr
it
teni
n
capi
tall
ett
ers.

Sampl
eofFor
malLet
ter
s

Appl
icat
ionLet
ter

HouseNumberB139,
Kali
kanya,
Mufuli
ra.
t
h
20 August
,2018

73
TheManager
,

Shopr
it
eChecker
s,

P.
O.Box20398,

Ki
twe.

DearSi
rorMadam,

REF:APPLI
CATI
ONFOREMPLOYMENTASATI
LLATTENDANT

Withr eferencetot headver t

isementt hatthathasbeen r unningont el
evisi
onsi nce
th
Monday, t
he15 ofMar ch,2018, Iwouldliket
oappl yf orempl oyment .
Iam twent yyear sofage.Ij ustsatmyGr adeTwel veexami nati
onlastyear
2016andwai ti
ngf ort heresults.Isatsevensubj ectswhichal soincludedBusi ness
Studies, Mathemat icsandEngl ishandIhopet opassi nallofthem.
Honestly speaki ng,I do not have t he experience as st ated i nt he
advertisement ,however ,Ihavebasi c experi
encei n handl i
ngcashbecausewhi l
e
atschoolIhel pedsel l
ingi ntheSchoolTuckshop.Iam conf i
dentthatIcanst i
lldo
thejobt oyourexpect ati
ons.
I
fyouwantmor einformat i
onaboutme, pleasecont actmyGr adet eacher,Mr .
DenizeZul uatmyf or merschool ;KitweBoys’Secondar ySchoolonCel lPhone
number096412345.Iwi l
lber eadyf ortheinterview wheneveryoumaycal lupon
me.
Yoursfaithfull
y,
J.Banda
JOHNBANDA.

74
Repor
tWr
it
ing
Ar eportisawrit
tenorspokenaccountofsomet hingwi
tnessed,hear
d,seen,done,
studiedorworkcar r
iedoutorofaninvesti
gati
on.Itmaybeani nfor
malreportabout
anacci dentoral ostitem oraformalreportabouttheacti
vit
iesofani nsti
tut
ion
suchasaschooloracl uboranannualr eportofabusinessf i
rm.Thef ol
lowing
quest i
onsareanswer edwhenwrit
ingareport:

 whathappened?

 whendi
dithappen?

 wher
edi
dithappen?

 whowasi
nvol
ved?

 howdi
dithappen?

 whydi
dithappen?

Purpose
Haveweeverr ecei
vedar eport
?Whatwasi tabout ?Thebasi cfuncti
onofar eportis
toinform peopl eaboutevent sthathavet akenpl ace.Repor t
sar ecommoni nt he
Poli
ceFor ce,t
heAr medFor ces,Gover nmentdepar tments,volunt
aryor ganisati
ons,
newspaper s,r
adio,tel
evision,andinbusi ness.Ar eportgivesadet ai
ledaccountor
descr i
pti
onofaspeech,event s,exper i
encesorhappeni ngst hatoccuri nourdai l
y
l
ives.Wehearr eportsonsoci al,poli
ti
calandeconomi calandsoon.Forexampl e,
wer eadt hesereportsinnewspaper sorl i
stent othem onradioortelevision.
Repor tsar eofdi f
ferentt ypesandt hesei nclude:poli
cer eport
,nar rati
ver eport,
medi calreport,i
nvestigat
ivereport,projectrepor t
,bookreport,newsr eport,medical
report,sportsreportandmanymor e.

For
mat

Ther earedi
ffer
encesintheorgani
sati
onofreport
sbetweenvari
oussubjectfi
elds,
compani esandinsti
tut
ions.However
,ther
eareanumberofbasi csi
milari
ti
esand
featureswhicharecommont oallr
eport
s.Inareportt
hefol
lowi
ngpoi
ntsshouldbe
takeni nt
oaccount:

Headi
ng/Ti tl
emustbebriefandsaywhatther
epor
tisallabout
.Somer
epor
ts
havesubheadi
ngsi
nordert
omakeiteasyf
oronet
ounder
stand,

Int
roducti
on–t heopeningsentencesofar epor
tsumsupthemajorfact
soft he
event.I
ndicat
ingwhattherepor
tisallaboutbyanswer
ingWh-
quest
ions(i
.e.what
happened?,when….?where…?Who. .?

75
Mai
nbody-mustgivedet
ail
softher
eporti
nparagraphs(eachparagrapht
odeal
wi
thonemai
nidea)
,thei
nfor
mati
onmustbepreci
seclearandrel
evant
.

Conclusi
on-t
helasteventser
vesasaconclusi
onwhenoneismer
elyr
epor
ti
ngan
i
ncidentsuchas‘atourofthenati
onalpar
k’orthewr
it
ercanmakeaconcl
udi
ng
remark.

Recommendati
on–arecommendat
ioni
sincludedi
nani nvesti
gati
ver
eport
,pr
oject
repor
toranyot
her
.Ar
ecommendati
ongivessuggest
ionsforfutur
eact
ion.

LanguageandSt
yle

 Arepor
tshoul
dbef act
ualandtot
hepoint(
onlyi
mportantpoi
ntsshoul
dbe
i
ncl
uded).I
tshoul
dnotcontai
nopini
onsalt
houghyourviewsorcomments
maybeuseful
asaconclusi
on.

 Uset hepasttensewi
thalotofbi
asintheuseofrepor
tedspeecht
hough
di
rectspeechcanbeusedt
oquotest
ri
kingi
nfor
mat
ion

 Uset
hir
dper
son(
i.
e.he,
she,
they)r
athert
hanf
ir
stper
son(i
.e.I
,we)

 Languagemustbef
ormal
,si
mpl
eandst
rai
ghtf
orwar
d.

 Ifawr i
ttenspeechistobeofanyuse,t hei
nformati
onitconveysmustbe
clear
lythoughtoutandwellor
dered.Whenwr
it
ingareportofaroadacci
dent,
forexampl e,wor
koutprecisel
ywher eyouwereinrel
ationtothevehi
cles,
whatyousawandhear d,
andwhyyout hi
nkt
heaccidenthappenedmightbe
aconcludingremark.

 Poi
ntscanbenumber
edi
fther
epor
thassubt
it
les

 Theauthorofthereportshoul
dbei
dent
if
ied-i
tshoul
dbesi
gnedf
orand
posi
ti
onofresponsi
bil
it
yindi
cat
ed

Sampl
es

(
a)APol
iceRepor
t

Fr
om:Const
abl
eJohnZul
u

To: TheOf
fi
cer
-In-Char
ge-Kaf
ir
ondaPol
icePost
,Muf
uli
ra.

e:20thAugust
Dat ,2018.

RE:MURDERCASEI
NCHI
BALEVI
LLAGE

Irecei
vedarepor
tyest
erdayar
ound23.
00hoursaboutamur dercasei
nChibal
e
vi
ll
age.Int
hecompanyofConst
ableMwansaChi
tambo,Idr
ovetothesceneoft
he
76
i
ncidentandcarri
edoutani nvest
igati
on.Itwasdiscoveredthat,thedeceased,
JacksonMulwi
la,wasinagr oupoff r
iendsdr
inki
ngal ocali
ll
ici
tbrew commonly
knownasKachasuatthehouseofAnnieMwengwe.

AnnieMwengwesai dthati
nit
ial
lysheheardJacksonandhi sf
ri
endsquarr
ell
ingand
l
it
tledidsheknowthatthei
rconti
nuousargument scoul
dleadtosuchafat
alending.
SinceAnnieMwengedi dnotfoll
ow thediscussi
on,sheonlyrememberedseeing
VodafoneChikul
istandi
ngupandgr abbedSimcardPhiribythecoll
arofhisshirt
andpushedhim vi
olentl
y.

Shewentont osayt hedeceasedmovedunst eadi

lyfew stepsbackwar
ds.The
eff
ectofthebrewcouldnotlethi
sbodyholdtheground.Hewentdownheadf ir
st,
andlandedheavi
lyonast umpashor tdi
stanceawayt hatactedasastooli
nthe
di
lapi
datedst
ruct
uretheyweredri
nki
ngin.

Basingontheinf
ormati
ongat
her
edfrom t
hewi t
ness,wearr
estedthet
hreekey
suspect
sallmal
e;Kal
ufumoMwape22,ofhousenoMG009,Kawamacompound,
Chil
ambwe Musuma 18,of house No 34 Kapoto compound and Chumbu
Musholol
wa30ofhouseNo56Chi
mwemwecompound.

Iimmediat
elyputthethr
eeco-
accusedi
ntopol
icecust
odyawai
ti
ngot
hercour
seof
acti
onandinvest
igat
ion.

A good Samar it
an of f
ered t
or ush the deceased t
o Kal
omo Dist
ri
ctHospital
.
However,uponar r
ivalthedeceasedwasexami nedandcerti
fi
eddeadbytheDoctor
oncall
.Inhisr eporttheDoctorsaidthatJacksonMul wi
ladi
edbecauseofsevere
br
ainHemor rhageandf ract
uredskull
.

(
b)Nar
rat
iveRepor
t

Repor
tofanAcci
dentonMachi
ne1i
nRoom 2I
ndust
ri
alAr
tson18thApr
il
,2016

At10.35 hourstoday,Thomas Bwalya,a pupilatMindolo Secondary School

suf
fer
edt hel
ossoftheskinofhi
sarm whent
hel ooseshi
rthewaswear i
ngbecame
ent
angledint
hemachi neonwhichhewasworking.

Witnesses,WhysonMwapeandGer al
dGondweconf i
rmedt
hatThomashadbeen
operati
nghismachi newi
thoutaproperguar
dinplace.MrMul
enga,theI
ndust
rial
Sci
encet eacher,hadcheckedthemachineat10.
30hoursandtheguardhadbeen
i
nposi t
ionatthattime.

Thomaswasgivenf
ir
stai
dinthemedicalr
oom andwasthenaccompani
edhome
becausehewasi
nsomepainandsuf
fer
ingfr
om somesl
ightshock.

Ther
eisnodoubtthatt
heaccidentwascausedbyt
heunaut
hori
sedremovaloft
he
saf
etyguar
dont hemachine,thoughi
fThomas’shi
rthadnotbeensoloose,t
he
77
acci
dentcoul
dsti
llhavebeenavoi
ded.Ther
ewasnonegl
igenceont
hepar
tof
anyoneel
seoroft
heschool
.

To preventrecurr
ence oft hi
s kind ofaccident
,pupils shoul
d be cont
inuall
y
reminded ofsafet
yr equir
ements byt hei
rteachers.Pupi
ls wit
hloose cl
othing
shouldneverbeall
owedt ooperat
eonsi mil
armachines.

JohnNt
ambo

St
udent
-Year2-
2018

(
c)I
nvest
igat
iveRepor
t

THEREPORT

Repor
tont
heCommut
ersCompl
aintAboutUni
tedTr
anspor
tandTaxi
sAssoci
ati
on
(
UTTA)

Invest
igati
onint
ovar iouscomplai
ntsofpoorservi
cesof f
eredbyUnitedTransport
andTaxi sAssociationofZambi a(UTTA)wascar ri
edoutbyt hesecr et
ary.Many
routes bot
hin ur ban and ruralareas wer
e covered and a numberofr egul
ar
travel
ler
swereint
er viewed.

Adequat
enumberofbuses

Mostr egul
arbustravell
erswereoftheopi nionthatthenumberofbusesoncer t
ain
routesisinadequate.Thelow incomegr oupar ea,forinstancecoulddowit
ht he
presentnumberasver yfewpeopl ehavetr ansportofthei
rown.Further
morethese
areasaremor edenselypopul
atedthanhighi ncomear eas.

St
ateofBuses
Anumberofbusesshoul
dnotbeal
lowedont
her
oadast
heyar
einbadst
ateof
78
di
srepair
.There ar
e some whi
ch l
it
eral
ly have no over
head r
ail
sforst
andi
ng
passengerst
oholdonwhichmayonedayleadt of
atalacci
dent
s.

BusSchedul e
Themaj ori
tyofbusesdo notkeep t ot ime,whi ch i
san i nconveni encet ot he
passenger swhohavet oreacht heirworkingpl acesatagi vent ime.Ont opoft hat
,ther earenoshel tersandt oil
etsatt hebusst op,whichr esul ti
npeopl ebei ng
soakeddur ingther ainyseasonandusi ngt henear bybushest oanswert hecal lof
nat ure.
Cr ewAt t
itude
Thedr i
versandconduct orstendtobever yr udet othepassenger s,par t
lybecause
theyar enott rai
nedt odealwi t
hpassenger s.Theyhavet obei nstructedt otreatthe
publ icwithcourtesyot herwisetheassoci ati
onwi l
llosebusinessi nthiscompet it
ive
era.Theyar efondofaski ngforsomemoneyf r
om passenger s, whichi saver ybad
tread.
St ateofRoads
Thest at
eofmostr oadsi ssobadt hatdr iversdr eadtravellingal ongt hem.On
cer tai
nrout estherear ebiggul l
iesont her oadsespeci all
yi nr uralareassucht hat
passenger shavet oal ightf r
om t hebusesf ortheirownsaf et yti
lltheyhaveby
passedt hebadspot .Itisthisbadst atesofr oadst hathascont r
ibutedgr eatl
yt othe
poorst ateofbuses.

Recommendat i
ons
Thefoll
owingaretherecommendati
ons
(i
)I nurbanareas,dur
ingmorni
ngandeveni
ngr
ushhour
s,smal
lbusesar
emor
e
sui
tableonbusyroutes

(
ii
)Anup-t o-datest
ati
sti
cali
nfor
mat
ionaboutthenumberofpeoplet
ravel
li
ngon
var
iousr out
esisrequi
redtogetatruepi
ctureofthetr
ansportneedsonthe
publi
c.

(
ii
i)
Busshel
ter
sandt
oil
etsmustbeconst
ruct
edwher
enecessar
y.

(
iv)
Shor
tcour
sesshoul
dbei
ntr
oducedf
ordr
iver
sandbusconduct
ors.

(
v)TheAssoci
ati
onmusti
mpr
essupont
hegover
nmentandt
hecounci
lst
heneed
tor
epai
rbadroads.

HARRI
SONMWEETWA

UTTASecr
etar
y

SpeechWr
it
ing
79
ASpeechi sapr
eparedpieceofwri
ti
ngorinfor
mati
ononagiventopi
c.ASpeechis
anythi
ngspokenforanaudiencet
olist
en.I
tisbasi
cal
lyaf
ormaladdr
esstoagroup
ofli
stener
s.

Typesofspeeches

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofSpeeches:For
malandI
nfor
mal
.

For
malSpeech

Thesearespeechesmadeonoccasionssuchasmeet i
ngs,r
all
ies,pri
ze-gi
vingday,
aconfer
enceandal lot
heroff
ici
algat
heri
ngs,meeti
ngsorfunctions.Inthiscase,
for
mali
ti
esandr ul
esofeti
quet
temustbestri
ctl
yobser
ved.

I
nfor
malspeech

TheseareSpeechesmadeatbi rt
hdayparti
es,anyoccasi
oninvol
vingf
ri
endsand
rel
ati
ves,f
ell
ow student
s,cl
assmates,cl
ubmember setc.I
nthiscasefor
mali
ti
es
neednotbestri
ctl
yfoll
owedandtonali
tymaybeinf
ormal.

Theset
ypesofspeechesar
efur
therdi
videdi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies:

a.I
ntr
oduct
orySpeech

b.Vot
eofThanks

c.KeyNot
eSpeechorMai
nSpeech

Whatt
oconsi
derwhenwr
it
ingaspeech

TypeofAudi
ence

Speechesaremadeforl
iveaudience.Decideonwhet hert
hespeechi
sint
endedf or
adul
t,chi
ldr
en,di
plomat
sorj our
nali
sts,businessmenandwomenorsophi st
icat
ed
cl
assofpeoplee.
g.Lawyers,
Doctors,Poli
ti
ciansetc.

Thepur
poseoft
hespeech

Deci
deonwhetherthespeechi
stoinfor
m,t
oper suade,t
oenter
tai
n,toappease,t
o
i
ncit
e,t
or epr
imand,oracombi nat
ionofthese.Thiswi l
ldet
erminetheuseof
appr
opr
iat
elanguage.

Thesubj
ectmat
ter(
ort
opi
c)

Ascert
ainwhetherthetopicisfamil
iart
ot heaudienceornotanddet
ermi
nehow
much infor
mation t
o give and hol
d back.Also ascer
tai
n whet
hert
he t
opi
cis
‘
techni
cal’i
nnatur
eanddet ermi
nehowt otackl
eit
.

80
Thesi
tuat
ion

Ascertain whetherthe si
tuati
on (
oroccasion)is a sol
emn one (mourni
ng),a
business meet i
ng (where peopl
e are onl
yi nt
erest
ed i
nr esul
ts)
,afterdinner
speech(humor ous)
,ora t ense si
tuat
ion.The sit
uati
on and t
he audi
ence also
determinethelanguage.

Pr
epar
ati
onoft
hespeech

Once you have a t

opi
c,al
low your
sel
fti
me t
othi
nk abouti
tis par
tofyour
pr
eparati
on:

 Gat
heral
lnecessar
yideasandi
nfor
mat
ionont
het
opi
cgi
ven.

 Arr
angetheideasandi
nfor
mat
ioni
nappr
opr
iat
eor
derandt
henpl
ant
he
for
m ofpr
esent
ati
on.

 Pl
anni
ng

Aspeechmusthaveast
ruct
ureandasenseofdi
rect
ion.Not
edownal
lthe
mai
npoint
syoushoul
dcover
:

-
whatt
heai
m oft
hespeechi
s

-
whatt
heaudi
encemayhopet
olear
n

 Review yourl
ist
,gr
oupi
ngt
hem underheadi
ngsandassembl
ingt
hesei
na
l
ogicalorder
.

 Whatevert
het
opi
c,youwi
llneedast
ri
kingwayofopeni
ngandcl
osi
ngyour
speech.

Openi
ng:

Shouldbeori
ginalandi
nter
est
ing(
enought
omakepeopl
ewantt
ohear
whatyouhavet
osay)

Apar
tfr
om gi
vingt
heai
m andt
heout
li
neoft
het
alk:

 Askaquest
ion

 Tel
last
ory

 Useaquot
ati
on.

Cl
osi
ng

 Youshoul
dfi
nishposi
ti
vel
y

81
  Thest
andar
dappr
oachi
sasummar
y

 Givetheaudi
encechancet
opar
ti
cipat
ebyi
nvi
ti
ngt
hem t
ocomment
,if
necessar
y.

For
matofaspeech.

A Speechcanbewr
it
teni
nthef
oll
owi
ngf
ormat
:

1.Ti
tl
e:

Thet
it
leshoul
dhavet
hef
oll
owi
ngi
tems:

 Thegi
veroft
hespeech

 Theoccasi
onwhent
hespeechi
sdel
iver
ed

 Thevenue

 Thedat
e

2.Sal
utat
ion

Hereyougr eett hepeopl epresentinorderofimport

ance.Thesetoutcanei therbe
verti
callyorhor i
zontall
y.
3.Appr eciation
Thiscomesaf t
ert hesal utat
ionandcanbewr i
tt
eni nthesamepar agr aphas
salutat
ions.Her eyout hankt heChai r
personoror ganiserfortheoppor tunityto
addresst hegat heri
ng.
4.Mai nbody
Thisiswher et hedet ai
lsaredeveloped.Donotbeataboutt hebush.Gostraighti nt
o
discussingt hepoi ntsyouhavegat hered.
5.Concl usion.
Endwi thast at
ementt hatrestat
esthepur poseandf ol
lowt heorderofsalutations.
Thankt heaudi encef orpayingattenti
on.
Languageandst yl
e

 Uset
het
enseyouwoul
dusewhenspeaki
ngt
otheaudi
ence(
Presentt
ense)
82
  Sal
utepeopl
einat
tendanceaccor
dingt
oseni
ori
ty(
orderofhi
erar
chy)

 Repeatfor
msofaddressl
ikesi
r,l
adi
esandgent
lemen,t
heguestofhonour
,
et
c.tocaptur
eInt
erest

 Par
agr
aphsar
eusual
lyshor
tasspeechest
akeaspokenf
orm ofl
anguage

 Endwi
thcour
tesyt
otheaudi
ence

a)SpeechofI
ntr
oduct
ion

Thi
sisaspeechgi
venwheni
ntr
oduci
ngt
hemai
nspeaker
.

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Addressthepeopl
einattendancei
ndescendi
ngor
derandt
hankt
hemai
nspeaker
forspar
ingti
mefortheoccasion

Mai
nbody

Gi
veabr
iefaccountorbackgr
oundoft
hespeakerwhi
chshoul
dincl
ude:

a.Ment
ionbr
ief
lyt
hesubj
ectt
obedi
scussedbyt
hemai
nspeaker

b.Ment
ionhis/heroccupat
ion,professi
onalqual
if
icat
ions(
ifany)
,exper
ience
andi
fnecessaryhi
s/herf
ami l
ylif
e.

Keynot
eormai
nspeech

Thisisaspeechgi venbythemai nspeakeratagivenoccasion.Itcont

ainsdetail
s
ofthesubject/t
itl
et obediscussed.Memberspresentar
eaddr essedindescending
orderofsocialrank.Themai nspeakeri
nhi sorherconcl
udingr emarksthanksthe
audiencef
orl i
steningatt
enti
vely.

b)Vot
eoft
hanks

Thisisaspeechwhi
chi
sdel
iver
edatt
heendofaguest
’saddr
ess.Thef
ormati
sas
fol
lows;

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Her
eyout
hankt
heguestf
orhi
swonder
fulmessageoutofcour
tesy.

83
Mai
nBody

Summar
isemai
npoi
ntsoft
heguest
’sspeech.

Show how guest’

sspeechhasbr
oadenedaudi
ence’
sscopeofknowl
edgeont
he
themediscussed.

Concl
usi
on

Expr
esswisheithertoinvi
tetheguestagain,putguest
’stheor
iesint
opract
icet
o
i
mproveperformanceormakeanyper sonalrequest
st oguest.Agai
nthankhim
whol
ehear
tedlyforspar
ingsomeofhispreci
ousschedule.

MUFULI
RACOLLEGEOFEDUCATI
ON

11TH GRADUATI
ONCEREMONY

TheSpeechbyTHEViceChancel
lorDuri
ngthe11thGraduat
ionCer
emonyHel don
the1stJune,
2018atMuf
uli
raCol
legeofEducat
ionatt
heNewGr aduat
ionSquar
e.

TheMast erofCeremony
ThePermanentSecr etary
TheDean-SchoolofEducat ion( UNZA)
TheDirector–TeacherEducat ionandspeciali
sedser
vices
TheHead–Advi sor yUnityforcollegesofEducat
ion(
AUCE- UNZA)
TheProvincialEducationOfficer-Copperbel
t
Dist
ri
ctEducat i
onBoar dSecretari
es.
YourWor shiptheMayoroft hecityofMuf ul
ir
atown
TheBoar dChairperson
ThePrincipalsofCollegesofEducat i
on
TheGraduands
Ladi
esandgent l
emen.
84
Iam gr eatlyhonour edtoof fi
ciateatt s11th Gr
hi aduati
onCer emonyofMuf ul
ira
Col l
egeofEducat i
oni nassociati
onwi ththeUniversi
tyofZambia,toconferthef i
rst
ever Bachel or of Educat i
on Degr ees and Secondar y Teachers’ Diplomas
respectively,tothedeser vi
nggr aduands.Iam gr eatlyhumbledandexci tedt obe
par tofthiswonder fuleventyetagai n,especi
all
yt oseet hefi
rstgraduandsoft he
degr eepr ogramme.Iam r el
iablyinformedthatwear egraduati
ng at ot
alnumberof
…. .degr eeand……. .
dipl
omast udentst oday,ofwhi ch….arefemal esand…….ar e
mal es f ortheDegr eepr ogrammeand…. .f
emalesand……mal esf ortheDi ploma
bringingat otalnumberofgr aduandt o………………. .
.

Madam Pr inci
pal,distingui
shed i
nvi
ted guests,Ladies and gentl
emen,we ar e
assembledheret oacknowl edget
hehar dwor kofthelectur
ers,parentsandt hese
graduands seatedher e,whichhasculminatedint
ot hiscelebr
ati
ont oday.Ladies
andgent l
emen,allow met ocongrat
ulat
eyoumostsi ncer
elyformaki ngit.Well
doneLadiesandGent lemen!

Madam Pr i
ncipal,i
nvitedGuest s,di
stingui
shedLadiesandgentl
emen,Iwouldbe
fai
li
nginmydut iesifIdonotr ecognisetheExaminati
onBoar
d;TheUniversi
tyof
Zambia,whicht he collegehaswor kedincoll
abor
ationwi
thtomaket hi
seventa
success,becausewi thoutt hem,wewoul dnothavebeenher etocelebrat
et hi
s
i
mpor t
antevent.Intel
lectual
s,jobwelldone.

MayIalsothankthegover nmentthroughthe Mi nist

ryofGener alEducati
onwhich
has pri
ori
ti
sedinf
rastruct
uredevelopmentt owhi chMuf uli
raCollegeofEducat
ion
hasbornetest
imony,especial
lyi
nmaki ngt
helifeofst udent
seasyi naccessi
ngthe
quali
tyeducati
on f
ollowing t
he introduct
ion oft he degree programmes inthe
col
lege.

Madam Pr i
ncipal,dist
inguishedi nvitedguest s,l
adiesandgent l
emen,al l
ow met o
addresst hest udentsgr aduati
ngt oday.Int hecommuni t
y,outtherewear esending
yout odayasambassador soft hiscol l
egei nassoci ati
onwi ththeUni versit
yof
Zambi a.Goandi mpartt heknowl edge,skill
sandval uesthatyouhaveacqui red
duri
ngt het hreeandf ouryear soft rai
ningatt hisi nstit
uti
on. Please,donotbe
contentwi t
ht hecer ti
ficateyouwi llreceivetoday.A goodt eacheralwayskeeps
oneselfabr eastwi t
h new knowl edge.Ver y soon,st artthinki
ng ofupgr ading
yourselves.Int hisvein,Iwoul dli
ket oappealt oalldiplomagr aduatest ocomeback
tothisi nstit
utiontheBachel orofEducat iondegreepr ogrammes.Thesameappl ies
tothedegr eegr aduates,stri
vetoi mpr oveonyourqual if
icat
ions,aim higher,gofor
yourMast ersdegr ees andachi eveexcel lence.

Madam Pri
nci
pal,di
sti
ngui
shedinvi
tedguest
s,ladi
esandgent
lemen,iti
snow my
honourandpr
ivi
legetoaskthi
senti
re gat
heri
ngt ojoi
nmein congr
atul
ati
ng you

85
onyourachi
evementsandwishi
ngyou God’sbl
essi
ngs and successasyou
embar
konthisnobl
eprof
essi
on

Congr
atul
ati
onst
oyoual
l.Thankyou!

Wr
it
ingaCur
ri
cul
um Vi
tae(
CV)
Whendidyoulastwrit
eam appl i
cationlet
ter?Whatar
esomeoft hedocument sdi
d
youenclosewi
ththatlett
er? Weal lknowt hatwhenajobi
sadverti
sed,appli
cant
s
areadvi
sedtosendtheirl
etter
sofappl i
cati
onandcurri
cul
um vi
taetothepersonnel
managerorHumanr esourcepersonnel.
Whati
saCV?

Thi
sisawr i
tt
enrecor
dofone’seducat
ionandthej
obsdone,whi
chissenttogether
wit
hanappl i
cat
ionlet
ter.Iti
ncl
udesdetai
lssuchasschoolsat
tended,col
leges,
uni
ver
sit
ies,
cour
sesortraini
ngdone.
Cont
ent
sofaCV

A CV consist
sofonet it
leandsever alsub-
ti
tl
es.Thereisnoneedf orwri
ting
sentencesbutjustmainpointsinrel
ationtotheinf
ormati
onr equir
ed.Ther
ei s
equall
ynoneedt owr
it
etheintr
oduct
ion,mainbodyandtheconcl
usion.

Thef
oll
owi
ngi
sanexampl
eofaCV.I
tisbasi
cal
lymadeupofsi
xmai
ncat
egor
ies.

CURRI
CULUM VI
TAE
A.Per
sonalDet
ail
s

Sur
name:Chi
pambe

Fi
rstname:James

86
Ot
herNames:Chi
bal
ange

Emai
lAddr
ess:chi
bal
angecj
@yahoo.
com

Physi
calAddr
ess:HouseNumberB139.Par
klands,
Kit
we.

Post
alAddr
ess:C/OMr
.P.Chi
pambe,
P.OBox38772,
Muf
uli
ra.

Sex:Mal
e

Mar
it
alSt
atus:Unmar
ri
ed

NRCNumber
:654321/
78/
1

Passpor
tNumber
:ZN67895
B.Academi
cQual
if
icat
ion

1991-1997.Gr
ade7Cer
ti
fi
cat
e.LuanshyaPr
imar
ySchool

1998-1999.Gr
ade9Cer
ti
fi
cat
e.LuanshyaSecondar
ySchool

2000-
2002:Gr
ade12Cer
ti
fi
cat
e.St
.Cl
ement
sSecondar
ySchool

C.Pr
ofessi
onalQual
if
icat
ion

2014-
2016.Mast
erofEducat
ioni
nMat
hemat
ics-Copperbel
tUni
ver
sit
y

2009-2013Bachel
orofAr
tsDegr
eei
nEducat
ion-UNZA

2006-
2008.Secondar
yTeacher
s’Di
ploma.
-Chal
imbanaTeacher
sCol
lege

2003-
2004Pr
imar
yTeacherCer
ti
fi
cat
e:Ki
tweTeacher
sCol
lege
D.Wor
kExper
ience

2016– t
odat
e:HeadofDepar
tment
-Mat
hemat
ics.Tang–upSecondar
ySchool

2016t
odat
e:Juni
orSecondar
yschoolMat
hemat
icsexami
nat
ionset
terandmar
ker
.

2016t
odat
e:Mat
hemat
icsj
uni
orMat
hemat
icsJETSPr
ovi
nci
alor
gani
zer
.

2015.CPDZonal
coor
dinat
or

2014.Par
t-
ti
met
eachi
ngatChi
bol
yaCommuni
tySchool
.
E.Hobbi
esandI
nter
est

Debat
esqui
zor
gani
zingandAr
ti
clewr
it
ing.
F.Ot
herI
nfor
mat
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
otheJob

2015-Awar
dedasbestqui
zor
gani
zeri
nMat
hemat
icsi
nthepr
ovi
nce.

87
2016-At
tendedaspeci
alt
rai
ningf
ormat
hemat
icsi
nSout
hAf
ri
ca.

2016-Present
edapaperonPedagogi
esi
nthet
eachi
ngofMat
hemat
icsatBUSTAZ
Confer
ence
G.Ref
erees

Mrs.Jackl
eenZulu.
LuanshyaSecondar
ySchool
P.OBox56789
Luanshya
CellNumber0966123456

Mr.JohnJere
Muf ul
ir
aCol
legeofEducat
ion
P.OBox40400
Muf ul
ir
a
CellNumber0955-
123456

Mr.PeterChi
balange
Copperbel
tUniversit
y
SchoolofEducati
on
Kit
we.
CellNumber0977- 123456

Note:Atl
eastthr
eeoft
hem,i
ncl
udet
hei
rful
lnames,cont
actaddr
essandcel
l
phonenumber
s.

Li
keanappl i
cationl
ett
er,aCVisaform ofpersuasi
ondesignedt
oemphasizethe
quali
fi
cati
onf orapar t
icul
arj
obandt ogetani nter
view.Arr
angethei
nformati
on
accordi
ngly,givi
ngthemostrecenti
nfor
mationfir
stinrel
ati
ontoworkexperi
ence,
quali
fi
cati
onset c.

Remembert
hat
;

 ACVi
saf
ormalpi
eceofwor
k.
 I
tshoul
dbet
ypeandpr
int
edongoodqual
it
ypapert
olookpr
ofessi
onal
.
 Avoi
dfancyl
ett
eri
ng.
 Donotcompr
essal
linf
ormat
ionont
oonepage.
 Fami
lyhi
stor
yshoul
dnotbei
ncl
uded.
 TheCVshoul
dbesi
gnedandt
hedat
ebewr
it
ten.
 Itshouldbeupdat
edasonei
mpr
ovet
hei
rqual
if
icat
ionsandacqui
remor
e
experi
ence.
88
Di
ff
erencebet
weenaCVandaResume.

Arésuméi saFr enchnamewhi chisusuall

yoneofthef i
rsti
temsputal
ongwitha
coverlet
terandsomet i
mesanappl icat
ionl
ett
erforemployment.I
tisadocument
usedbyaper sontopr esentt
heirbackgr
oundandskill
s.Resumescanbeusedfora
vari
etyofreasons,butmostoftentheyareusedtosecurenewemployment.

At ypi
calresumecont ai
nsasummar yofr el
evantjobexperi
enceandeducati
on
dif
fer
entfrom theCV.A CV i samor edetai
leddocumentwhi lear esumeisa
summar i
zedandonlydepi ctt
heskill
srelat
edt otheparti
cul
arjobneeded.I
tisa
short
ersummar yver
sionofone’seducat
ionandjobrelat
edexperi
ence.

Ther
ear ethr
eemaj
ordi
ff
erencesbet
weenacvandr
esume,t
hesear
ethel
engt
h,
t
hepurposeandt
hel
ayout.

Q1Therearet
hreemajordi
ff
erencesbet
weenacvandr
esume,
thesear
ethel
engt
h,
t
hepurposeandthel
ayout.

Therearet
hreemajordif
ferencesbet
weenacvandr
esume,t
hesear
ethel
engt
h,
thepur
poseandthelayout.

Her
ear
eaf
ewdi
ff
erencesbet
weent
hem

TheCur
ri
cul
um Vi
tae

 Cur
ri
cul
um Vi
taeistoBri
ti
shwhi
ler
esumei
stoAmer
ican.CVi
saLat
inwor
d
whi
chmeans‘courseofl
if
e’.
 I
tisani
n-dept
hdocumentt
hatcanbel
aidi
ndept
hovert
woormor
epages.
 I
tcont
ainshi
ghl
evelofdet
ailaboutachi
evementmor
ethancar
eerbi
ogr
aphy.
 Itcover
seducat
ionbackgroundaswel
lasot
heraccompl
ishmentsuchas
publi
cat
ions,
awards,
honor
setc.
 Iti
sor gani
zedinachr onol
ogicalorderandthi
smakesi
teasyt
o gett
he
over
viewofanindi
vidual’
sful
lworkingcareer
.
 TheCVi
sst
ati
canddoesnotchangef
ordi
ff
erentposi
ti
ons.
Ther
esume

 I
tisaconci
sedocumentnotl
ongert
hanonepaget
osavet
imef
ort
her
eader
.
 I
thel
psanappl
icantt
ost
andoutf
rom t
hecompet
it
ion.
 Theappl
icantadapt
sthei
nfor
mat
ionf
orj
obbei
ngappl
iedf
or.
 Theappl
icantcant
ail
ort
her
esumet
otheneedsoft
hespeci
fi
cpost
s.
 I
tdoesnotneedt
obechr
onol
ogi
cal
lyar
rangedasonl
ythei
nfor
mat
ion
89
 r
elat
edt
othej
obi
spi
cked.
 I
tdoesn’
tcovert
hewhol
ecar
eerl
if
e,i
tisacust
omi
zabl
edocument
.

Act
ivi
ty

1.Therearethr
eetypesoflet
ter
s;Formal
,Inf
ormalandSemi-
for
mal.Whatar
e
for
mal l
ett
ersandwhatisthecor
rectf
ormatofwri
ti
ngthem.

2.WhatareSemi-f
ormall
ett
ers?Howar
etheywr
it
tenandhowbestcant
heybe
usedi
nbusinesscommunicati
on.

3.Whatar
einf
ormall
ett
ers?Whatar
ethef
eat
uresofi
nfor
mal
let
ter
s?

4.WhatisaRepor
t?Ident
if
ythediff
erentt
ypesofr
epor
tst
hatar
ecommonl
y
used.Gi
veaf
ormatofa Repor
t.

5.Whatar
emi
nut
es?Howar
etheysupposedt
obepr
esent
ed?

6.WhatisaCur ri
cul
um Vi
tae(
CV)
? Whatar
ethechar
act
eri
sti
csofgood
cur
ri
cul
um vi
tae?

7.Whati
sthedif
ferencebet
weenaCur
ri
cul
um Vi
taeandaResume?Hi
ghl
i
ght
t
hemajordi
ff
erences.

8.Whati
saMemo?Howbestcant
hememosbewr
it
tent
oser
vet
hei
rpur
poses.

9.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenNot
icesandAdver
ti
sement
s?

10.
Whatis an Art
icl
e? I
denti
fyt
he di
ff
erentt
ypes ofar
ti
cles.Gi
ve t
he
char
act
eri
sti
csofanar
ti
cle.

Summar
y
Int
hisuni
t,wehavelookedatper
sonalandprof
essi
onalcommunicati
on.Wehope
youhaveendeavor
edtoanswerthequesti
onsaskedinvari
ousacti
vit
ies.Youcan

90
now begi
ntorefl
ectonever yt
hingyouhavel earntinthismodul
einor dertowrit
e
goodacademicpieceswrit
ingaswel lasyourpersonalbusi
nesscommuni cat
ion.It
i
snowt imetobeginprepar
ingforthecomingfinalexaminat
ioni
nthiscourse.

Ref
erences

Af
olayani
,A.andH.
E.Newsum.( .TheUseofEngl
1983) ish.Essex:Longman.

American Psychol
ogi
cal Associati
on ( . Publ
2010) icat
ion Manual of the
th
American Psychologi
cal Associat
ion (
6 ed. )
. Washi
ngton DC: Amer
ican
Psychologi
cal Associ
ati
on.

Ber
lo,
D.( .ThePr
1960) ocessofCommuni
cat
ion.NewYor
k:Ri
nehar
tandWi
ston.

Byr
ne,
D.( .Teachi
1993) ngWr
it
ingSki
ll
s.London:Longman.

DeVit
o,J.A.( .TheEl
2000) ement
sofPubl
icSpeaki
ng.
(7t
hed.
).NewYor
k,NY:
Longman

Har
low,
E.( .Pr
1967) act
icalCommuni
cat
ion.Essex:Longman.

Kenr
ick,
E,S,
H.etal( .Busi
1987) nessCommuni
cat
ion.Essex:Longman.

Leena,
S.( .Communi
2009) cat
ionSki
ll
s.NewDel
hi:PHILear
ningPr
ivat
eLt
d.

91
Mont
gomer
y,M.
( .St
1982) udySki
ll
s.London:Longman.

O;br
ien,D.( .Wr
1996) it
ing f
or Zambi
an School
s.Lusaka:Zambi
aEducat
ion
Publi
shi
ngHouse.

Shael
,
P.( .Wr
1981) it
ingski
ll
s.Essex:Longman.

Uni
ver
sit
y ofWest
ern Sydney ( .APA Ref
2013) erenci
ng St
yle Gui
de.Sydney:
Uni
ver
sit
y of West er
.

Wol
vin,
A.,
andCoakl
ey,
C,G.( .Li
1996) steni
ng(
5thed.
).Bost
on,
MA:McGr

92
1