UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,

JAMAICA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND SPORT

CHEMISTRY DIVISION

MOLE CONCEPT WORKBOOK

2020
Introduction

The Mole Concept Workbook is designed to increase the understanding of the mole concept

amongst students doing pre university and undergraduate chemistry courses. Our mission is to

change the attitude of Chemistry students towards the Mole Concept.

At the end of this workbook, it is expected that students should have:

1. a greater understanding of selected mathematical and chemical principles.

2. an increase in critical thinking skills.

3. an increase in the ability to apply the knowledge learnt.

2
Acknowledgement

The compilation of this workbook would not be possible without the hard-working Lecturers of

the Chemistry Division at the University of Technology. Special thanks to the past Head of

Division, Mr. Robert Johnson, who gave the mandate to conduct the Mole Concept Workshop out

of which the Mole Concept Workbook was birthed. The team is eternally grateful to Dr. Sacha

Campbell, Mr. Robert Johnson, Dr. Zeyar Min, Dr. Stacy Ann Parker, Dr. Alexa Redway and Mr.

Coniel Roye who provided content for the workbook. Thanks to Drs. James Smith and Melissa

Sanderson who reviewed the workbook.

3
 Table of Contents
1. General Concepts .................................................................................................................5

1.1 Dimensional Analysis ........................................................................................................... 5

1.2 Logic Statements ................................................................................................................... 7
2. Atomic and Molecular Formula............................................................................................9

2.1 Relative Atomic Mass (R.A.M.)........................................................................................... 9

2.2 Relative Molecular Mass (R.M.M.) ................................................................................... 12
2.3 Relative Formula Mass (R.F.M) ......................................................................................... 14
2.4 Unified atomic mass unit (u) .............................................................................................. 16
3. Mole and Inter-conversions ................................................................................................18

4. Percent Composition, Empirical and Molecular Formula ....................................................25

4.1 Percent Composition ........................................................................................................... 25

4.2 Empirical Formula............................................................................................................... 28
4.3 Molecular Formula .............................................................................................................. 31
5. Methods for Balancing Chemical Equations .......................................................................33

5.1 The need for balancing chemical equations....................................................................... 33

6. Limiting Reagent ...............................................................................................................38

6.1 What is the limiting reagent? .............................................................................................. 38

7. Theoretical and Percent Yield ............................................................................................44

8. Masses Consumed and Produced in Chemical Reactions ....................................................41

8.1 What are masses in chemical reactions? ............................................................................ 41

9. Molarity .............................................................................................................................44

9.1 What is molarity? ................................................................................................................ 48

10. Solution Composition.........................................................................................................54

4
1. General Concepts

1.1 Dimensional Analysis

Objectives:
At the end of the exercise students should be able to:
1. describe dimensional analysis
2. write unit equivalence in fractional form using common laws, hypotheses or principles
3. solve mole concept calculations using dimensional analysis

Dimensional Analysis (Unit Factor Method) is a problem-solving method that is used to convert
from one unit of measurement to another. It is also a technique based on the principle that the value
of a number does not change when multiplied by one. This type of analysis allows for a quantity
in one unit to be converted to the same quantity in another unit. This is achieved using conversion
factors which are made from two terms that have the same or equivalent amount. Dimensional
analysis is used for inter-conversions. A formula is set up that allows unit cancellation to take
place.

The conversion factor 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms can also be represented as:

6.022 x 1023 atoms 1 mol

or
1 mol 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Strategy

1. Identify the aim of the question and underline the variables.

2. Identify the equivalence between units.
3. Write the unit equivalence in fractional form.
4. Multiply the known unit of measurement by the unit conversion factor.
 Activity: How many atoms of oxygen are in 5 moles of H2O?

Solution:

1. We need to identify the aim and the variables in the question.

To determine the number of atoms of oxygen in 5 moles of water.

2. Next we can identify the equivalence between units.

1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

3. Now we can write the unit equivalence in fractional form.

6.022 x 1023 atoms 1 mol

or
1 mol 6.022 x 1023 atoms

4. Finally let us multiply the known unit of measurement by the unit equivalence/ conversion
factor. Write the formula in such a way so that the known units will cancel out each other.

6.022 x 1023 atoms

5 mol ×
1 mol
= 3.011 × 1024 atoms of O

Dimensional analysis may also be used to check if an equation is correct. Can you identify
which of the following equations is correct?

molar mass gmol−1

mol = = = mol−1 (1)
mass g

mass g
mol = = = mol (1)
molar mass gmol−1

Answer: (2)
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙: The mathematical expression, = = 𝑥.
𝑥−1 1
𝑥

6
1.2 Logic Statements

Objectives:
At the end of the exercise students should be able to:
1. define logic statement
2. identify the known and unknown variables in a logic statement
3. write logic statements using common mole concept units
4. solve mole concept calculations using logic statements

A logic statement clearly describes the relationship between variables that can be used to solve
problems involving mole concept. Fundamental principles, hypotheses or laws are generally used
in logic statements to derive a known/factual statement.

In the known statement, information is available for all the variables in that statement. For
example, 1 mole of a substance contains 6.022 x 1023 particles. Stated are the number of particles
in a specific number of moles.

Conversely, the unknown/problem statement will have information missing for at least one
variable in the question to be solved. For example, 0.2 mole of a substance contains x number of
particles. Here, the number of mole is stated, however the number of particles are unknown.

Strategy

1. Identify the aim and underline the variables under investigation.

2. Write a factual statement that depicts the relationship between variables.
3. Write the unknown statement depicting x.
4. Write equivalence statements in fractional form.
5. Solve for x by cross multiplying.

7
 Activity: How many atoms of oxygen are in 5 moles of H2O?

Solution:

1. As done for dimensional analysis identify the aim of the question and underline the
variable.
To determine how many atoms of oxygen in 5 moles of H2O.

2. When writing factual statements use ‘If’ or ‘Since’ to depict the relationship between the
variables.
Since, 1 mole of H2O contains 6.023 x 10 23 oxygen atoms.

3. When writing unknown statements use ‘Therefore’ or ‘Then’ to depict the relationship
between the variables.
Then, 5 moles of water contain X atoms of oxygen

The variables must be written in a similar manner in both the factual and unknown
statements. The logic statements therefore read:
Since, 6.023 x 10 23 oxygen atoms are in 1 mole of H2O
Then, x atoms of oxygen are in 5 moles of water

4. Let us express the logic statements in fractional form:

6.022 × 1023 atoms 𝒙

=
1 mol 5 mol

5. Solve for x by cross multiplying

6.022 × 1023 atoms × 5 mol

𝒙=
1 mol

𝒙 = 3.011 × 1024 atoms of O

8
1. Atomic and Molecular Formula

Objectives:
At the end of this exercise students should be able to calculate the average atomic weight,
molecular weight, formula weight, mole and molar mass of elements and compounds.

2.1 Relative Atomic Mass (R.A.M.)

Relative Atomic Mass (R.A.M.) is the average mass of one atom of an element compared with the
mass of one atom of carbon-12, the mass of which is taken as exactly 12.00 units. The different
isotopic masses of the same element and their % abundance must be taken into consideration when
calculating the relative atomic mass. R.A.M is determined using the following formula:

relative
atomic mass = fractional abundance x mass of
+ fractional abundance x mass of
of element of isotope 1 isotope 1 of isotope 2 isotope 2

fractional abundance x mass of

+ of isotope 3 isotope 3

Recall: Isotopes are elements with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
Isotopes have the same chemistry, since it is the number of protons that determine the
chemistry of an element.

Strategy
1. Express each abundance as a percent.
2. Then multiply the percent abundance with the relative atomic mass for each isotope of the
element.

Example 1: There are three naturally occurring stable isotopes of magnesium. Determine
the relative atomic mass of magnesium using the data below:

Naturally occurring isotope Percent abundance Mass (u)

24
Mg 78.99 23.9850
25
Mg 10.00 24.9858
26
Mg 11.01 25.9826

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Solution:

1. Let’s express the relative abundance as a percent

2. Then multiply each relative abundance with the isotopic mass for each isotope.

𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(Mg) = (78.99⁄100 × 23.9850 𝑢) + (10.00⁄100 × 24.9858 𝑢) + (11.01/100 ×

25.9826 𝑢)
= 24.31 𝑢

Practice Question 1

28 29 30
In nature, silicon exists as three isotopes, Si, Si, Si. Calculate the relative atomic mass of
silicon using the data below:

Naturally occurring isotope Percent abundance Mass (u)

28
Si 92.23 27.97693
29
Si 4.68 28.97649
30
Si 3.09 29.97377

10
 Example 2: Iron has four main isotopes; 54Fe (53.9396 u, 5.845 % abundance), 56Fe
(55.9349 u, 91.754 % abundance), 57Fe (x u, 2.119%), 58Fe (57.9333 u, 0.282
%abundance). Determine the value of x given that the relative atomic mass
of Fe is 55.845 u.

Solution:

1. Let us express the relative abundance as a percent

2. Then multiply each relative abundance with the isotopic mass for each isotope.

𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(Fe) = (5.845⁄100 × 53.9396 𝑢) + (91.754⁄100 × 55.9349 𝑢 ) + (2.119⁄100 × 𝒙 𝑢)

+ (0.282/ 100 × 57.9333 𝑢)

55.845 𝑢 = (5.845⁄100 × 53.9396 𝑢) + (91.754⁄100 × 55.9349 𝑢) + (2.119⁄100 × 𝒙 𝑢)

+ (0.282/ 100 × 57.9333 𝑢)

55.845 𝑢 − 54.639 𝑢 = 0.02119 𝒙 𝑢

56.91 𝑢 = 𝒙 𝑢
56.91 = 𝒙

Practice Question 2

Strontium consists of four isotopes namely 84Sr (83.913 u, 0.50% abundance), 86Sr (x u, 9.90%
abundance), 87Sr (86.909 u, 7.0% abundance), and 88 Sr (87.906 u, 82.6% abundance). Determine
the value of x given that the relative atomic mass of Sr is 87.6185 u.

11
2.2 Relative Molecular Mass (R.M.M.)

Relative molecular mass is the average mass of one molecule of an element or compound
compared with the mass of one atom of carbon-12, the mass of which is 12.00 units. R.M.M. is
calculated by adding together the relative atomic masses of all atoms in the molecule.

Strategy
1. Identify the elements on the periodic table and record their relative atomic masses.
2. Multiply the R.A.M for each element by the number of atoms in the formula.
3. Find the sum of the R.A.M. of all the atoms.

Example 3: Calculate the relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide (CO2).

Solution:

1. Identify carbon and oxygen on the periodic table and record their relative atomic mass.
2. Since there are two oxygen atoms in CO2, multiply the R.A.M. of oxygen by 2.
3. Find the sum of the R.A.M. of C and R.A.M. of the two oxygen atoms.

𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑀(CO2) = (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(C) ) + (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(O) × 2)

= 12.011 𝑢 + (15.999 𝑢 × 2)
= 44.009 𝑢

Practice Question 3

Calculate the relative molecular mass of ethane (C2H6).

12
 Example 4: What is the relative molecular mass of C6H6?

Solution:

1. Make a note of the R.A.M of carbon and hydrogen from the previous question.
2. Since there are six carbon atoms in C6H6, multiply the R.A.M of C by six.
3. Multiply the R.A.M. of H by 6 to account for the six hydrogens in C6H6.
4. Find the sum of (R.A.M of C× 6) and (R.A.M of H × 6)

𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑀(C6H6 ) = (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(C) × 6) + (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(H) × 6)

= (12.011 𝑢 × 6) + (1.0078 𝑢 × 6)
= 78.114 𝑢

Practice Question 4

What is the relative molecular mass of POCl3?

13
2.3 Relative Formula Mass (R.F.M)

Relative formula mass (RFM) is the average mass of one formula unit of a compound compared
with the mass of one atom of carbon-12, the mass of which is taken as exactly as 12.000 units.
RFM is the sum of the masses of all the atoms in a given formula. Relative formula mass can be
determined for ionic and covalent molecules while relative molecular mass is determined only for
covalent molecules.

Strategy

Check subsection 2.2 on page 12.

Example 5: Calculate the relative formula mass of aluminium chloride (AlCl3).

Solution:

1. Make a note of the R.A.M of chlorine from the practice question 4.

2. Identify aluminium on the periodic table and record its relative atomic mass.
3. Since there are three chlorine atoms in AlCl3 multiply the R.A.M of Cl by 3.
4. Find the sum of R.A.M of Al and (R.A.M of Cl × 3)

𝑅. 𝐹. 𝑀(AlCl3 ) = (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(Al) ) + (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(Cl) × 3)

= (26.982 𝑢) + (35.453 𝑢 × 3)
= 133.341 𝑢

Practice Question 5

What is the relative formula mass of copper (I) nitrate (CuNO3)?

14
 Example 6: Calculate the relative formula mass of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4).

Solution:

1. Make a note of the R.A.M of oxygen from the previous question.

2. Identify sodium and sulfur on the periodic table and record their relative atomic mass.
3. Since there are four oxygen atoms in Na2SO4, multiply the R.A.M of O by 4.
4. Multiply the R.A.M of sodium by 2 to account for the two sodium ions in the compound.
5. Find the sum of (R.A.M of Na ×2), R.A.M. of S and (R.A.M of O × 4)

𝑅. 𝐹. 𝑀(Na2 SO4 ) = (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(Na) × 2) + (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(S) ) + (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(O) × 4)

= (22.990 𝑢 × 2) + (32.066 𝑢) + (15.999 𝑢 × 4)
= 142.042 𝑢

Practice Question 6

What is the relative formula mass of ethene (C2H4)?

15
2.4 Unified atomic mass unit (u)

Due to the extremely small mass of atoms, unified atom mass unit (u) is used conveniently to show
1
the mass of an atom. Unified atomic mass unit is defined as 12 of the mass of carbon-12.

1 𝑢 = 1.66054 × 10−27 kg

1 g = 6.02214 × 10−26 kg

Unified atomic mass unit (u) replaces atomic mass unit (amu). Atomic mass unit was originally
associated with the oxygen-16 scale which was deemed at the time to be the experimental reference
standard. Upon the discovery of isotopes, Physicists used an atomic scale based on the pure
oxygen-16 isotope while Chemists used an atomic scale which took in account the occurrence of
oxygen-17 and oxygen-18. In 1961, both Physicists and Chemists agreed to use carbon-12 as the
new reference standard as it was already in use as a secondary standard in mass spectrometry and
the associated error was small. However, amu still appears in some textbooks and has been
1
redefined as 12 of the mass of carbon-12.

Activity: The unified atomic mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.0078 u. What is 1.0078 u in
g/mol?

Solution:

1.66054 × 10−27 kg 1000 g 1.0078 𝑢 6.023 × 1023 atoms

× × ×
1𝑢 1 kg 1 atom 1 mol

= 1.0078 g⁄mol (gmol−1 )

Therefore, molar mass (g/mol) = formula mass (u)/atomic mass (u)

The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of that substance in grams. It can be used
for atoms, ions, molecules or formula units.

16
Table 1. Formula mass and molar mass of compounds

Atom/Molecule/Compound Formula mass, u Molar mass, g/mol

H2O 18.02 18.02

CO2 44.01 44.01
Fe2O3 159.70 159.70
Mg(NO3)2 148.33 148.33

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3. Mole and Inter-conversions

Objectives:
To define mole and to show interconversion among mass, mole and number of particles (atoms,
molecules, ion).

A mole is a unit of measurement similar to grams, meter, centimeter etc. It tells the amount of a
substance and contains the same number of particles as there are in 12.00 g of carbon-12. It has a
value of 6.022 × 1023 which is called Avogadro’s number. One mole of a substance has a mass
equal to the relative atomic, molecular or formula mass expressed in grams.

The mole is another unit to count objects similar to the dozen, pair or century.
1 dozen ackees = 12 ackees
1 pair of shoes = 2 shoes
1 deck of cards = 52 cards

So,
1 mole of ackees = 6.022 × 1023 ackees
1 mole of atoms = 6.022 × 1023 atoms
1 mole of formula units = 6.022 × 1023 units
1 mole of molecules = 6.022 × 1023 molecules

18
 Example 7: The molecular formula of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), one of the most
common pain relievers, is HC9H7O4. How many moles of HC9H7O4 are in a
500 mg tablet of aspirin?

Solution:

Using Dimensional Analysis Method

1. We need to identify the aim and the variables in the question
To determine the number of moles of HC9H7O4 in a 500.0 mg tablet of aspirin?

2. Next we can identify the equivalence between units.

1 mol of HC9H7O4 = 180.16 g
1g = 1000 mg

3. Now we can write the unit equivalence in fractional form.

180.16 g 1 mol
or
1 mol 180.16
and
1g 1000 mg
or
1000 mg 1g

4. Finally let us multiply the known unit of measurement by the unit equivalence/ conversion
factor. Write the formula in such a way so that the known units will cancel out each other.

1g 1 mol
500.0 mg × ×
1000 mg 180.16 g

= 2.775 × 10−3 mol HC9 H7 O4

19
Using Logic Statement Method

1. As done for dimensional analysis identify the aim of the question and underline the
variable.
To determine how many mol of HC9H7O4 in a 500.0 mg tablet of aspirin.

2. When writing factual statements use ‘If’ or ‘Since’ to depict the relationship between the
variables.
Since, 1 mol of HC9H7O4 contains 180.16 g of aspirin tablet

3. When writing unknown statements use ‘Therefore’ or ‘Then’ to depict the relationship
between the variables.
Then, 500.0 mg of aspirin tablet are in x mol of HC9H7O4

The logic statements therefore read:

Since 180.16 g of aspirin tablet are in 1 mol of HC9H7O4
Then 500.0 mg of aspirin tablet are in x mol of HC9H7O4

4. Let us express the logic statements in fractional form:

1 mol 𝒙
=
186.16 g (500.0 × 10−3 ) g

5. Solve for x by cross multiplying

(500.0 × 10−3 )g × 1 mol

𝒙 =
186.16 g

= 2.775 × 10−3 mol HC9 H7 O4

20
Practice Question 7

Dimethylnitrosamine, (CH3)2N2O, is a carcinogenic (cancer causing) substance that may be

formed in foods, beverages, or gastric juices from the reaction of nitrite ion (used as a food
preservative) with other substances. How many moles of (CH3)2N2O molecules are present in
250.0 mg of dimethylnitrosamine?

21
 Example 8: A diamond contains 5.0 x 1021 atoms of carbon. What mass in g of carbon
are in this diamond?

Solution:

Using Dimensional Analysis Method

1. We need to identify the aim and the variables in the question
To determine the mass of carbon in diamond.

2. Next we can identify the equivalence between units.

1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

3. Now we can write the unit equivalence in fractional form.

6.022 × 1023 atoms 1 mol

or
1 mol 6.022 × 1023 atoms

4. Let us multiply the known unit of measurement by the unit equivalence/ conversion factor.
Write the formula in such a way so that the known units will cancel out each other.

1 mol
5.0 × 1021 atoms ×
6.022 × 1023 atoms

= 8.3 × 10−3 mol C

We can now find the mass of carbon.

12.011 g
8.3×10-3 mol×
1 mol

= 1.0 × 10−1 g C

22
Using Logic Statement Method

1. As done for dimensional analysis identify the aim of the question and underline the variable.
To determine the mass of carbon in diamond.

2. When writing factual statements use ‘If’ or ‘Since’ to depict the relationship between the
variables.
Since 1 mol of carbon contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms

3. When writing unknown statements use ‘Therefore’ or ‘Then’ to depict the relationship
between the variables.
Then x mol of carbon contains 5.0 x 1021 atoms

The logic statements therefore read:

Since 1 mol of carbon contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms
Then x mol of carbon contains 5.0 x 1021 atoms

4. Let us express the logic statements in fractional form:

1 mol 𝒙
=
6.022 x 1023 atoms 5.0 x 1021 atoms

5. Solve for x by cross multiplying

5.0 × 1021 atoms × 1 mol

𝒙 =
6.022 × 1023 atoms

= 8.3 × 10−3 mol

We can now find the mass of carbon.

12.011 g
8.3×10-3 mol×
1 mol

= 1.0 × 10−1 g C

23
Practice Question 8

A sample of male sex hormone testosterone, C19H28O2 has 3.08 x 1021 atoms of H. What is the
mass of this sample?

24
4. Percent Composition, Empirical and Molecular Formula

Objectives:
At the end of the exercise students should be able to:
1. Determine percent composition of elements in compounds
2. Calculate the empirical formulae of compounds
3. Deduce the molecular formula of compounds from an empirical formula
4. State the relationship between empirical and molecular formula.

4.1 Percent Composition

What is percent (%) composition?

Percent composition tells (by mass) what percent of each element is present in a compound. It is
given by the following equation:

total mass of elements

% composition = ( ) × 100
molecular mass

The total % composition is always 100.

Strategy

1. Find the molar mass of each element in the compound in grams per mole (gmol -1, g/mol).
2. Find the molecular mass of the entire compound.
3. Divide the mass of the components by the entire molecular mass.
4. Multiply by 100 to get percent composition.

Example 9: Calculate the percent composition of each element in sucrose, C12H22O11.

Solution:

1. Use the periodic table (or memory) to obtain the molar mass of each element in the
compound (Recall that the molar mass of an element is simply its atomic mass written in
grams per mole):
C – 12.011 gmol-1; H – 1.0078 gmol-1; O – 15.999 gmol-1

25
Solution Cont’d:

2. Next, to find the molecular mass of the entire compound, we must first identify the number
(or ratio) of each element/atom using the molecular formula, C12H22O11:

12 C atoms; 22 H atoms; 11 O atoms

Then, we determine the total mass of each element/atom in the compound by multiplying the
number of each atom by their corresponding molar mass. For these calculations, we could
use logic statements or dimensional analysis. Below are sample calculations.

Using Logic Statements:

If 1.0 mol of C contains 12.011 g
12.011 g × 12.0 mol
∴ 12.0 mol of C contain
1 mol
= 144.13 g

Using Dimensional Analysis:

12.011 g C Total mass of elements:
12.0 mol of C ×
1.0 mol C C in compound = 144.13 g
= 144.13 g H in compound = 22.172 g
O in compound = 175.99 g

Lastly, add the total masses of all elements/atoms in the compound:

𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑀(𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11 ) = (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(𝐶) × 12) + (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(𝐻) × 22) + (𝑅. 𝐴. 𝑀(𝑂) × 11)
= 144.13 gmol−1 + 22.172 gmol−1 + 175.99 gmol−1
= 342.29 gmol−1

3. To find the composition of each element, we divide the total mass of each element by its
molecular mass.
total mass of C
composition =
𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑀(𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11 )
144.13 gmol−1 Composition of elements:
compostion = C in compound = 4.2108 × 10−1
342.29 gmol−1
H in compound = 6.4775 × 10−2
= 4.2108 × 10−1 O in compound = 5.1415 × 10−1

4. Finally, to obtain percent composition multiply the composition by 100.

% composition = 4.2108 × 10−1 × 100 % Composition:

C in compound = 42.1
= 42.1 H in compound = 6.5
O in compound = 51.4

26
In summary:
12.011 gmol−1 × 12.0 mol
% composition of C = ( ) × 100
342.29 g
= 42.1

Practice Question 9:

Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is used in detergents, and as a flavouring agent in carbonated beverages.
Calculate the % composition by mass to 2 decimal places of each element in this compound.

27
4.2 Empirical Formula

What is the empirical formula of a compound?

The empirical formula is an approximation as to how many elements/atoms are in a compound. In

other words, it is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms within a compound. It is NOT the
exact chemical formula. The exact chemical formula is the molecular formula. However, there are
instances where the empirical formula is equal to the molecular formula.

Strategy
1. Determine the mass of each element.
2. Convert grams to number of moles
3. Divide by the smallest number of moles.
4. Write empirical formula

Example 10: Nicotine has a molar mass of 162.1 gmol–1 and composition: 74.0% of carbon,
8.7 % of hydrogen, and 17.3% of nitrogen. What is its empirical formula?

Solution

1. In determining the mass of each element, change percent (%) to grams. The assumption
made is that there are 100 g of the compound since the total percent composition of
elements within a compound is 100.

Elements C H N
% Composition 74.0 8.7 17.3
Mass, g 74.0 8.7 17.3

2. Convert from grams to number of moles using either logic statements or dimensional
analysis:

Using Logic Statements:

If, 12.011 g C is contained in 1 mol
74.0 g × 1 mol
Then, 74.0 g C is contained in
12.011 g
= 6.16 mol

28
Solution Cont’d:

Using Dimensional Analysis:

1 mol C
74.0 g C ×
12.011 g C
= 6.16 mol C

Elements C H N
% Composition 74.0 8.7 17.3
Mass, g 74.0 8.7 17.3
Molar mass, gmol–1 12.011 1.0078 14.007
No. of mol 6.16 8.63 1.23

3. When calculating the simplest whole-number ratio, divide by the smallest number of
moles.

Elements C H N

% Composition 74.0 8.7 17.3

Mass, g 74.0 8.7 17.3
Molar mass, gmol–1 12.011 1.0078 14.007
No. of mol 6.16 8.63 1.23
Whole No. Ratio 𝟔. 𝟏𝟔⁄𝟏. 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟓 𝟖. 𝟔𝟑⁄𝟏. 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟕 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑⁄𝟏. 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟏

4. When writing the empirical formula, whole number ratios are written as subscripts.

Elements C H N
% Composition 74.0 8.7 17.3
Mass, g 74.0 8.7 17.3
Molar mass, gmol–1 12.011 1.0078 14.007
No. of mol 6.16 8.63 1.23
Whole No. Ratio 6.16⁄1.23 = 5 8.63⁄1.23 = 7 1.23⁄1.23 = 1
Empirical Formula C5 H7 N

Empirical Formula: C5H7N

Note: Data are presented in tabular form for clarity of presentation

29
Practice Question 10:

A sample of mass 14.77 g contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and produces 43.26 g of carbon
and 12.40 g of hydrogen upon complete combustion. What is its empirical formula?

30
4.3 Molecular Formula

What is the molecular formula?

The molecular formula of a compound is essentially the exact amount of atoms in a molecule. It
may be derived from the empirical formula.

Strategy

1. Find the empirical formula.

2. Calculate the molar mass of the empirical formula.
3. Deduce the ratio, n.
4. Multiply the whole number ratio, n, to subscripts in the empirical formula.

Example 11: Nicotine has a molar mass of 162.1 gmol–1 and composition: 74.0% of
carbon, 8.7 % of hydrogen, and 17.3% of nitrogen. What is its molecular
formula?

Solution:

1. Empirical formula of nicotine was already determined in example 10 to be C5H7N.

2. To find the molar mass of the empirical formula we add the total masses of all the
elements in the compound:

Empirical formulamass = Total mass of C + Total mass of H + Total mass of N

= (5 × 12.011 gmol−1 ) + (7 × 1.0078 gmol−1 ) + (1 × 14.007 gmol−1 )
= 81.117 gmol−1

3. Now, divide the molecular formula molar mass by the empirical formula molar mass to
deduce the ratio, n. Based on calculations the molecular formula is two times the empirical
formula.

molecular mass
𝑛 =
empirical mass
162.1 gmol−1
𝑛 =
81.117 gmol−1
= 1.998 ~ 2

4. When writing the molecular formula multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula by n.
In this instance, n = 2.
C5(x2) H7(x2) N1(x2) Molecular Formula: C10H14N2

31
Practice Question 11:

A hydrocarbon (a compound containing carbon and hydrogen only) contains 92.3% C and has a
molar mass of 78.1 gmol–1. What is its molecular formula?

32
5. Methods for Balancing Chemical Equations

Objectives:
At the end of the exercise students should be able to write and balance chemical equations.

5.4 The need for balancing chemical equations

The need for balancing chemical equations is based on the law of conservation of energy. No new
atoms are formed during a chemical reaction; atoms merely rearrange themselves. It therefore
means, the number of and kinds of atoms before and after a chemical change remains the same.
When balancing a chemical equation, be sure to place the coefficients in front of each substance
where necessary, not within or after.

CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl …This equation is already balanced, therefore, no coefficients are
needed.

Traditional (audit) approach

In this method, one records all the different types of and number of atoms (ions) that appear on
the reactant side of the equation, as well as on the product side, then use coefficients to balance
each compound until all atoms (ions) are balanced on both sides.

Strategy
1. Write the equation in words if the unbalanced equation was not provided.
2. Write the formula for each compound/ element. Recall the valency of the atoms when writing
chemical formula.
3. Balance the atoms that appear only once on both sides of the equation first by putting a
coefficient before the element/ compound.
4. Balance all other atoms by putting a putting a coefficient before the element/ compound. All
atoms must have the same number of atoms of the LHS and the RHS of the equation.
5. Write the state symbol for each element/compound.

33
 Example 12: Write a balanced equation for the combustion of methane.

Solution:

1. Write the equation in words.

Methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

2. Write the formula for each compound. Recall that the valency of carbon is 4 and oxygen is
2.
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

3. Balance the Hs by putting 2 before H2O on RHS.

CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

4. The H and C are now balanced so we can easily balance the oxygens by putting 2 before
O2 on LHS.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

5. Be sure to include the state symbols.

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

34
Practice Question 12:

Aluminium dissolves in sulfuric acid to liberate hydrogen gas and a salt. Write a balanced
equation for the reaction.

Algebraic approach

In this method, each compound is assigned a letter (a, b, c, d, etc). Expressions are then made for
the different types of atoms in the equation using the assigned letters. The expressions are then
solved algebraically to obtain the coefficients that should represent each letter.

Strategy
1. Write the equation in words.
2. Write the formula for each compound/ element. Use letters to represent the missing
coefficients.
3. Write algebraic expressions for each element equating its atoms on the LHS and RHS.
4. Use algebra to get numeric values for a, b, c and d.
5. Write the state symbol for each element/compound.

35
 Example 13: Calcium carbonate reacts with phosphoric acid to produce carbonic acid
and a salt. Write a balanced equation of the reaction.

Solution:

1. Write the equation in words.

Calcium carbonate + Phosphoric acid → Calcium phosphate + Carbonic acid

2. Write the formula for each compound/ element. Use letters to represent the missing
coefficients.
aCaCO3 + bH3PO4 → cCa3(PO4)2 + dH2CO3

3. Let us write expressions for all atoms.

Ca: a = 3c
C: a = d
O: 3a + 4b = 8c + 3d
H: 3b = 2d
P: b = 2c

4. Use algebra to get numeric values for a, b, c and d.

Let us make c = 1.
Therefore, b = 2(c)
b = 2 (1)
b=2

Since, a = 3(c)
a = 3 (1)
a=3

Since, a=d
Then, d=3
a = 3; b = 2; c = 1; d = 3
3CaCO3 + 2H3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 3H2CO3

5. Write the state symbol for each element/compound.

3CaCO3 (s) + 2H3PO4 (aq) → Ca3(PO4)2 (aq) + 3H2CO3 (aq)

36
Practice Question 13:
Butane is a flammable hydrocarbon used as a propellant in aerosol spray. Write a balanced
equation for the combustion of butane.

37
5. Limiting Reagent

Objective:
At the end of the exercise students should be able to determine which reactant is the limiting
reactant using the stoichiometry of a reaction.

Stoichiometry refers to the relationship between the amounts of substances that react together in a
particular chemical reaction, and the amounts of products that are formed.

The general stoichiometric equation:

aA + bB → cC + dD
(reactants) (products)

What is the limiting reagent?

The limiting reagent or reactant is the reactant that is completely used up during a chemical
reaction. The limiting reagent determines how much product can be produced from the reaction.
When the limiting reactant is used up the reaction will stop.

No more product is formed when this reactant is used up.

Strategy
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction taking place.
2. Find the number of moles of each reactant
3. Use mole ratio to determine which reactant is used up.
4. Identify the limiting reagent

Example 14: If 37.0 g of propane is allowed to react with 45.0 g of oxygen, which is the
limiting reagent?

Solution:

1. First, we write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction (subsection 5.1), for steps on
balancing chemical equations):

C3H8 (l) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)

38
Solution Cont’d:

2. Then we find the number of moles of each reactant by dividing the given mass of the
reactant by its relative molecular mass (RMM).

given mass
mol =
RMM

37.0 g 45.0 g
mol(C3H3 ) = = 0.839 mol ; mol(O ) = = 1.41 mol
44.096 gmol−1 2
31.998 gmol−1

3. Now, we can determine which reactant would be used up using the mole ratio obtained
from the chemical equation.

Let us work out how much propane would be needed if all the oxygen is used up. Since the
mole ratio is:
1 C3 H3 = 5 O2
1 × 1.41
∴ 𝒙 C3 H3 = O2
5
= 0.282 mol

So, if we used all the 1.41 mole of O2 it would COMPLETELY react with 0.282 mole of
C3H8. However, we have 0.839 mole of C3H8 which is more than enough, hence C3H8 is not the
limiting reagent. In fact, it is in excess.

Now, let us work out how much oxygen would be needed if all the propane is used up. Since
the mole ratio is
5 O2 = 1 C3 H3
5 × 0.839
∴ 𝒙 O2 = C3 H3
1
= 4.20 mol

This means if we used all the 0.947 mole C3H8 it would COMPLETELY react with 4.74 mole
O2. However, we only have 1.41 mole O2 which is less than enough.

Hence, the limiting reagent is O2.

39
Practice Question 14:

Consider the reaction: NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O. In an experiment, 2.25 g of NH3 are allowed to react
with 2.50 g of O2. What is the limiting reagent?

40
6. Masses Consumed and Produced in Chemical Reactions

Objectives:
Use moles and limiting reagents to calculate the mass of reactants consumed and products formed
in chemical reactions.

7.1 What are masses in chemical reactions?

Masses in chemical reactions are essentially, how much of a certain substance is required to react
(or make) with a certain amount of another substance. An understanding of moles and limiting
reagents is critical.

Strategy

1. Write a balanced chemical equation for reaction taking place.

2. Convert from mass (gram) to number of moles.
3. Identify the limiting reagent (where applicable) and mole ratio
4. Convert from moles to grams.

Example 15: How many grams of calcium are required to react with 12.0 g of oxygen to
form CaO?

Solution:

1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction given:

2Ca (s) + O2 (g) → 2CaO (s)

Since we are dealing with typical mole calculations logic statements or dimensional analysis
may be utilized.

2. In this problem, you are given a mass and you are told to find an unknown mass. Thus,
you can use the mass given for molecular oxygen (O2) to find the number of moles of O2 that
reacted.
Using Logic Statements:

If, 31.998 g is contained in 1 mol O2

12.0 g × 1 mol
∴ 12.0 g is contained in O2
31.998 g
= 3.75 × 10−1 mol O2

41
Solution Cont’d.:

1. Having found the number of moles of O2 reacting, we can readily determine the number of
moles of Ca reacting, using mole ratios from the balanced equation. From the equation: 1
mol O2 reacts with 2 mol of Ca.

Thus,

If, 1 mol O2 reacts with 2 mol Ca

3.75 × 10−1 mol × 2 mol
∴ 3.75 × 10−1 mol O2 reacts with Ca
1 mol
= 7.50 × 10−1 mol Ca

2. Finally, we can convert moles to mass to determine the mass (g) of Ca reacting.

If, 1 mol Ca contains 40.078 g

7.50 × 10−1 mol × 40.078 g
∴ 7.50 × 10−1 mol Ca contains
1 mol
= 30.1 g Ca

Using Dimensional Analysis:

1 mol O2 2 mol Ca 40.098 g Ca

12.0 g O2 × × ×
31.998 g O2 1 mol O2 1 mol Ca
= 30.1 g Ca

Mass of Ca reacting = 30.1 g

42
Practice Question 15:

Thermite reactions are used in the welding of metals as they are high heat- producing reactions. In
the reaction below, 25.1 g of aluminium reacts with 75.6 g of iron (III) oxide. Calculate the mass
of the product form.

Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) → Al2O3 (s) + 2Fe (s + heat

43
7. Theoretical and Percent Yield

Objectives:
At the end of the exercise students should be able to compare actual and theoretical yield and
determine the percent yield in chemical reactions.

Now that we have learned how to calculate the limiting reagent of a reaction, we can use this
knowledge to calculate the expected amount of products (theoretical yield) of a chemical reaction
using the reaction stoichiometry. However, chemical reactions don’t always behave according to
plan and often result in less product than expected (actual yield) in practice. The efficiency or
success of an experimental reaction based on the amount of products can be expressed as the
percentage yield.

That is,

Theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that could possibly be formed from a
chemical reaction based on the amount of reactants used (stoichiometry of the reaction).

Actual yield is the amount of product that is actually formed after a chemical reaction is carried
out in reality.

Percentage yield is the ratio of the actual amount of products relative to the theoretical amount of
the product, expressed as a percentage.

actual yield
Percentage yield = × 100
theoretical yield

Strategy
1. Write a balanced equation for the chemical reaction.
2. Determine the limiting reagent. (See subsection 6.1)
3. Based on the limiting reagent, calculate the moles of the product using the mole ratio.
4. Convert the moles of products to the unit of measurement = theoretical yield.
5. Determine the actual yield of the product.
6. Calculate percentage yield using the equation.

44
 Example 16: If 37.0 g of propane is allowed to react with 45.0 g of oxygen, determine
the percentage yield of the reaction if 30.1 g of CO2 was collected.

Solution:

1. Write a balanced equation for the chemical reaction.

C3H8 (l) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)

2. Determine the limiting reagent.

Based on the calculations in example 16, O2 is the limiting reagent with 1.41 moles.

3. Based on the limiting reagent, calculate the moles of the product using mole ratio.
If, 5 moles of oxygen produce 3 moles of carbon dioxide
5 mol O2 = 3 mol CO2

Then, 1.41 moles of oxygen will give x moles of carbon dioxide

1.41 mol O2 = x mol CO2

Therefore,
5 × 𝒙 mol = 3 × 1.41 mol
1.41 mol × 3
𝒙 =
5 mol
𝒙 = 0.846

That is, 1.4 moles of oxygen will give 0.846 moles of carbon dioxide.

4. Convert the number of moles of products to the unit of measurement of the product.

The mass of the product was measured.

The RMM of CO2 = 44.01 gmol–1

If, 1 mole of carbon dioxide weighs 44.01 grams

1 mol CO2 = 44.01 g

Then, 0.846 moles of carbon dioxide will weigh x grams

0.846 mol CO2 = x g

45
Solution cont’d:

Therefore,
1 mol = 44.01 g
0.846 mol = 𝒙 g
0.846 mol × 44.01 g
𝒙=
1 mol
𝒙 = 37.2 g

Thus, theoretical yield = 37.2 g of CO2

That is, the theoretical yield of carbon dioxide is 37.2 grams from 45 grams of oxygen.

5. Determine the actual yield of the product.

The actual yield of carbon dioxide measured is 30.1 g. (provided in the question)

Actual yield = 30.1 g of CO2

6. Calculate percentage yield using the equation.

actual yield
Percentage yield = × 100
theoretical yield
30.1 g
= × 100
37.2 g
= 82.5

Thus, Percentage yield = 82.5 %

The percentage yield of carbon dioxide was 82.5%.

46
Practice Question 16:

Determine the percentage yield when the following reaction is performed with 2.70 grams of Al
reacts with 5.25 grams of Cl2 if of 7.5 g of product is formed. (Hint: remember to balance the
equation)
Al (s) + Cl2 (g) → AlCl3 (s)

47
8. Molarity

Objective:
At the end of the exercise students should be able to determine the molarity of a solution in mole
per cubic decimeter (moldm–3) or grams per cubic decimeter (gdm–3).

9.1 What is molarity?

Molarity is the molar concentration of a solution. That is, the number of moles of a substance in a
certain volume of solution. This volume is 1000 cm3/ 1 dm3/ 1L. If the concentration is kept fixed,
then the number of moles of a substance will change with a change in volume.

Analogy
Think of fishes swimming in a fish tank. The water (solvent) and the fishes (number of moles)
represent a specific concentration. That is, a certain number of fishes in a fixed volume of
water. If you use a small container to remove some of the water from the fish tank, then there
is a high probability that the number of fishes (moles) in the container will be less than what
is in the fish tank. That is, the number of moles is reduced with a reduction in the volume,
however the concentration will remain the same. If you add water to the fish tank, then the
number of fish (moles) present will just be a larger volume of water. That is, the number of
moles remains the same but the volume will change thus resulting in a change in the
concentration.

A lot of the questions that require the determination of molarity are from titration data.
Understanding the principles involved in this technique will make comprehension of such
questions much easier. In addition, you will need to know how to write a balanced chemical
equation and understand the principles of stoichiometry.

We will now use logic statements to solve questions involving molarity.

Strategy

1. Identify the aim and underline the variables under investigation.

2. Write a factual statement that depicts the relationship between variables
3. Write the unknown statement depicting x.
4. Write equivalence statements in fractional form.
5. Solve for x by cross multiplying

48
 Example 17: Determine the concentration of a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution that
contains 0.075 moles 25 mL.

Solution:

1. The aim of the question is to determine the concentration of a KOH solution.

2. Now we can write our factual statements using ‘If’ or ‘Since’ to depict the relationship
between the variables.
Since, 0.075 moles of KOH is contained in 25 mL

3. The unknown statements depicting the relationship between the variables reads:
Then, x moles of KOH is contained in 1000 mL

The logic statements therefore read:

Since, 0.075 moles of KOH is contained in 25 mL
Then, x moles of KOH is contained in 1000 mL

4. We can now express the logic statements in fractional form:

0.075 mol 𝒙
=
25 mL 1000 mL

5. Solve for x by cross multiplying

0.075 mol × 1000 mL

𝒙 =
25 mL
= 3.0 mol
Recall that concentration is the number of moles in a 1L, 1 dm –3 or 1000 cm3/mL. Thus, the
concentration of KOH solution is 3.0 molL–1.

Alternately, [KOH] = 3.0 molL–1.

49
Practice Question 17:

A solution of Pb(NO3)2 is prepared by adding 6.6 x 10–3 mole of solute to 16.00 cm3 of distilled
water. What is the concentration of the Pb(NO3)2 solution?

50
 Example 18: A solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) contained 0.25 moldm -3. Titration
of 25.0 cm3 of this solution required 22.5cm3 of a HCl (hydrochloric acid)
solution for complete neutralization. Calculate the concentration of the HCl
in mol/dm3 (molarity).
HCl (aq) .+ NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Solution:

1. The aim is to calculate the concentration of the HCl in mol/dm3.

2. Now we can write our factual and unknown statements to depict the relationship between
the variables.

Calculating moles of NaOH neutralized

The logic statements therefore read:

If in 1000 cm3 there are 0.25 mol NaOH

∴ in 25.0 cm3 there are 𝒙 mol NaOH

3. Solve for x by cross multiplying.

25.0 cm3 × 0.25 mol

𝑥= NaOH
1000 cm3

= 6.25 × 10−3 mol NaOH

Calculating moles of HCl neutralized

1 mole of HCl will reacts completely with 1 mole NaOH via neutralization

This implies that 6.25 x 10-3 mol of NaOH will neutralize 6.25 x 10-3 mol of HCl.

51
Solution Cont’d:

4. Now we can write our factual and unknown statements again to depict the relationship
between the variables.

Calculating the concentration of HCl

The logic statements therefore read:

If in 22.5 cm3 there is 6.25 × 10−3 mol HCl

∴ in 1000 cm3 there are 𝑥 HCl

5. Solve for x by cross multiplying.

1000 cm3 × 6.25 × 10−3 mol

𝒙= HCl
22.5 cm3
= 2.78 × 10−1 mol HCl

The [HCl] = 2.78 x 10–1moldm–3

52
Practice Question 18

A 20.0 mL sample of unknown H3PO4 solution is titrated with 0.100 M NaOH. The equivalence
is reached when 18.45 mL of NaOH solution is added. What is the concentration of the unknown
H3PO4 solution? The neutralization reaction is as follows

H3PO4 (aq) + 3NaOH (aq) → 3H2O (l) + Na3PO4 (aq)

53
9. Solution Composition

Objective:
Calculate the volume of a more concentrated solution that must be diluted to obtain a given
quantity of a more dilute solution.

Strategy
1. Determine the number of moles in volume given for the diluted solution.
2. Use the determined number of moles in 1 above, and the molarity of the concentrated solution
to calculate the required volume.

Example 19: A laboratory stock solution of NaOH has a molarity of 1.50. Calculate the
volume (in mL) of this stock that would be needed to prepare 300 mL of
0.200 M NaOH.

Solution:

1. Let us determine the number of moles in the diluted NaOH sample. Recall that M =
molL–1 and 1 L = 1000 mL

Using logic statements:

a) Now we can write our factual and unknown statements to depict the relationship between
the variables.
The logic statements therefore read:
Since, 0.200 moles of NaOH is in 1000 mL
Then, x moles are in 300 mL
b) We can now express the logic statements in fractional form and solve for x by cross
multiplying.

Since, in 0.200 mol NaOH is contained in 1000 mL

0.200 mol × 300 mL
∴ in 𝒙 mol is in NaOH
1000 mL
= 6.00 × 10−2 mol NaOH

From part 1 above we know that there are 6.00 x 10-2 moles of NaOH is in 300 mL of the
diluted solution.

54
Solution Cont’d.:

2. Now, we can calculate the volume of the concentrated stock solution that is needed to
prepare the diluted NaOH solution as follows:

a) Write our factual and unknown statements to depict the relationship between the
variables.
The logic statements therefore read:
Since, 1.50 moles of NaOH is in 1000 mL
Then, 6.00 x 10–2 mole is in x mL
b) We can now express the logic statements in fractional form and solve for x by cross
multiplying

Since, 1.50 mol NaOH is contained in 1000 mL

6.00 × 10−2 mol × 1000 mL
∴ 6.00 × 10−2 mol is contained in
1.50 mol
= 40.0 mL NaOH

Using dimensional analysis:

1. The number of moles of NaOH in the diluted solution

0.200 mol NaOH 1L

= × × 300 mL
1L 1000 mL
= 6.00 × 10−2 mol NaOH

2. We can calculate the volume of concentrated or stock solution needed using the information
obtained in part 1 above:

1L 1000 mL
= 6.00 × 10−2 mol × ×
1.50 mol 1L
= 40.0 mL

55
Practice Question 19:

What volume (in mL) of 18.4 M H2SO4 is needed to prepare 600 mL of 0.10 M H2SO4?

56
Answers to Practice Questions:

1. 28.09 𝑢

2. 85.9 𝑢

3. 30.069 𝑢

4. 150.311 𝑢

5. 125.550 𝑢

6. 28.053 𝑢

7. 3.375 × 10−3 mol

8. 5.28 × 10−1 g

9. H: 3.09%, P: 31.61%, O: 65.31%

10. C10H14O

11. C6H6

12. 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)

13. 2C4H10 (g) + 13O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2O (l)

14. O2, is the limiting reagent.

15. 51.9 g

16. 56%

17. 0.264 mol/L

18. 3.07 x 10–1 mol/L

19. 3.3 mL

57