GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE 1

CHAPTER 1: KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

1.1 States of Matter

Matter
● A substance that has mass and occupies space.
● All living and nonliving things.
● Exists as a solid, liquid or gas.
○ Three forms of matter are called the states of matter.

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape fixed not fixed not fixed

Volume fixed fixed not fixed

Compressibility Cannot be Cannot be Can be

compressed compressed compressed

Plasma
● Similar to gas
● Made up of particles that are electrically charged.

Bose-Einstein Condensate
● State of matter that has been cooled to a very low temperature.

1.2 KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

The word ‘kinetic’ refers to motion. Moving particles have kinetic energy, hence the name
‘kinetic particle theory’.

Kinetic Particle Theory

● Describes the state of matter
● Explains the differences in the properties of solids, liquids and gases;
● Explains the changes in the state of matter.
The Solid State
● Are closely packed together in an orderly manner
● Are held together by very strong forces of attraction;
● Have enough kinetic energy to only vibrate and rotate about their fixed positions;
● Cannot move about freely.
● Hence, a solid is a fixed shape.

Why does a solid have a fixed volume?

● A solid cannot be compressed since its particles are already very close to one another.

The Liquid State

● Are arranged in a disorderly manner;
● Have weaker forces of attraction than the particles of a solid;
● Have more kinetic energy than particles of the same substance in the solid state, and
are not held in fixed positions;
● Can move freely throughout the liquid.

Why does a liquid have a fixed volume?

● The particles are further away from one another.
○ However, the liquid particles are still packed quite closely together.

The Gaseous State

● Are spread apart from one another.
● Have weaker forces of attraction than the particles of a liquid;
● Have a lot of kinetic energy and are not held in fixed positions;
● Can move about rapidly in any direction.

Why does a gas not have fixed volume?

● The particles have a lot more space between them.
● The large space between the particles allows the gas to be easily compressed when
pressure is applied.
○ Therefore, the particles can be forced to move closer together.
Characteristics Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of ● Orderly ● Disorderly ● Disorderly

particles ● Closely ● Less closely ● Very far apart
packed packed than
in a solid

Attractive forces Very strong Strong Very weak

between particles

Kinetic energy of Very low Low High

particles

Motion of particles Vibrate and rotate Move freely Move about rapidly in
about fixed positions throughout the liquid any direction

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

● Matter can change from one state to another.

● When matter is heated or cooled, the heat energy taken in or out given out causes the
kinetic energy of the particles to change.
● Changes in state are reversible.

Melting
● Is the process by which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid.

Melting Point
● The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid
What happens to the particles of a solid that is heated until it melts?
1. Heat energy is absorbed by the particles of the solid.

● The heat energy is converted into kinetic energy.

● The particles start to vibrate faster about their fixed positions.

2. When the temperature is high enough, the vibrations of the particles become sufficient to
overcome the forces of attraction between them.

● The particles begin to break away from their fixed positions.

3. The particles are no longer in their fixed positions.

● The substance is now a liquid.

● The particles can move freely throughout the liquid.

How does the temperature of a solid change when it melts?

● As heat is applied to a solid, its temperature will increase until the melting point is
reached.
● More heat then will convert the solid into a liquid with no temperature change.
○ When all the solid has melted, additional heat will raise the temperature of the
liquid.

Heating Curve
● Shows how the temperature of a solid changes as it is heated to its melting point and
beyond.
 ● A-B: Solid heats up.
○ The temperature of the solid increases until it reaches its melting point.
○ At point B, the solid starts to melt.

● B-C: Solid melts.

○ During melting, the temperature of the solid does not rise even though heating
continues.
○ Heat energy taken in by the particles of the solid is used to overcome the forces
of attraction holding the particles in fixed positions.
○ A mixture of solid and liquid exists at this stage.
● C-D: Liquid heats up:
○ At point C, all the solid has melted.
○ The temperature of liquid rises as heating continues

Periodic Table
● A list of elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number
● Chemist arranged elements according to atomic masses,
○ instinctively knowing that chemical behavior somewhat relates to atomic mass

Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner

● He invented triads: families of elements with similar physical and chemical properties in
threes.

John Newland
● He proposed the idea of law of octave: Similar properties were found in every eighth
element
Dmitri Mendeleev and Julius Lothat Meyer
● They grouped the elements accurately according to their properties
● made the prediction of the properties of several elements that had not yet been
discovered

● Mendeleev predicted an element he coined Eka-Aluminum and matched with the

present day element Gallium (Ga) which was discovered 4 years later.’
● This prediction was accurate, however some inconsistencies were found in the periodic
table and the properties of some elements did not match with the increasing element of
atomic mass

Henry Moseley
● With those inconsistencies, he created the concept of atomic number

Features of Periodic Table

1. Period: Seven horizontal rows of elements (pahiga)

a. Represented as number 1-7

2. Group: Eight vertical column of elements (patayo)

a. Consists of a group of representative elements and B group or transition metals
b. Represented as Roman I-VIII for representative groups or number + letter of
group (A-B) except for Noble Gases labeled as 0
Metals
● Are shiny, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat

Non-Metals
● elements that do not conduct heat and electricity,
● are not shiny and have dull appearance. They are neither malleable nor ductile

Metalloids
● Have properties that are partly metal and non-metal
● They have metallic appearances but they are brittle
● Can conduct electricity but not as good as metals

Alkali Metals
● Reactive metals
● Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
● Soft
● Has low melting points, boiling points, and densities
● Highly reactive
● React with cold water to produce alkali and hydrogen. (sasavug daw)
● Lithium (used to make batteries)
● Sodium and Potassium (drinks to prevent dehydration)
Alkaline Earth Metals
● These elements are less reactive than alkali metals.
● Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra

Boron Group
● B, Al, Ga, In, Tl

Carbon Group
● C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb

Nitrogen Group
● N, P, As. Sb, Bi

Chalcogen Group
● O, S, Se, Te, Po

Halogens
● F, Cl, Br, I, At
● Non-metallic and diatomic
● Low melting points and boiling points
● Colored
● Reactive, however their activity decreases down a group.
● Chlorine(main component of bleach)
● Bromine & Iodine (used in solution together with silver to form images in x ray films )

Noble Gases
● He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
● Also called as inert gases
○ They dont react to other elements because they have completely filled electron
shells.
● Monoatomic
● Colorless at room temperature
● Low melting and boiling points
● Insoluble in water
● Unreactive
 ● Helium (for balloons)
● Neon (used in lights for advertising)
● Argon (for welding and for preventing oxidation in lightbulbs
● Xenon (used in vehicle headlamps/lights)

Transition metals
● Ung dilaw sa gitna
● Have high melting and boiling points
● Form colored compounds
● Serve as catalysts for reactions for the processes to speed up
● Used for coloring stained glass art
● Used for manufacturing margarine
● Iron (used for ammonia)

Lanthanide and Actinide Series

● Ung pink sa baba

Periodic Trends

Metallic and nonmetallic properties

● Metallic property increases from right to left across a period and going down in a
group
● Non metallic property decreases from right to left across a period and increases from
bottom to top

Atomic Radius
● Size of an atom
● One-half the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms
● Increasing from top to bottom
● Decreasing from left to right

Ionization energy
● Minimum energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state
● Increases from left to right
● Decreases from top to bottom
Electron Affinity
● Energy released when a neutral atom gains an extra electron to form a
negatively-charged ion
● Usually measured for atom or molecules in gaseous state
● Increasing from top to bottom
● Decreasing from left to right

Electronegativity
● A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons
● Increasing left to right
● Decreasing top to bottom

Atomic Theory

Democritus
● During the 15th century BC he stated that all matter consists of tiny, indivisible or
uncuttable particles called atomos.
John Dalton
● He stated that an atom is like a tiny, solid ball.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

He stated that:
● Elements are composed of extremely small particles, called atoms.

● All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical
properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.

● Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the
ratio of the number of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a
simple fraction.
○ This idea gave rise to the Law of definite proportions; it states that every
chemical compound contains fixed and constant proportions (by mass) of its
constituent elements.

○ This also gave rise to the Law of multiple proportions when two elements
combine with each other to form more than one compound, the weights of one
element that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in a ratio of small whole
numbers.

● A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of

atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.
○ It relates to the Law of conservation of mass which states that matter can neither
be created nor destroyed

Atom
● The basic unit of an element that can enter a chemical combination.

Joseph John Thomson

● He stated that electrons exist inside atoms and they are embedded in a
positively-charged material.
JJ. Thomson’s cathode ray experiment
● The cathode ray is attracted by the plate bearing positive charges and repelled by the
plate-bearing negative charges from this observation it was deduced that the cathode
ray consists of negatively charged particles. Basically, this experiment led Thomson to
visualize atoms as positively charged entities and embedded with negatively charged
particles.

Ernest Rutherford
● They discovered from their experiment that nucleus and protons exist inside atoms. An
atom has a dense center and consists mostly of empty space.

Rutherford Experiment
● They observed that upon the emission of alpha particles to the gold foil, some of those A
particles pass through the foil while some of them deflected, so this deflection led them
to think that something massive is found in the center of the atom and the part of that
center are positively charged particles. Through this experiment they created an atomic
model that visualizes atoms as mostly empty space but has a dense center with
positively charged particles.
James Chadwick
● He stated that Neutrons exist inside atoms

Neils Bohr
● He stated that the electrons move around the nucleus in specific orbits or shells
Mass number
● found at the center of the element of the atom
● Total number of protons and neutrons of an atom.

Atomic number
● Number of neutrons
Isotopes
● Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.
● They differ in terms of properties because the mass always changes

Uses of Isotopes

● Technetium-99
○ Used for tumor detection
● Iodine - 131
○ For treating thyroid disorders
● Californium-252
○ Detection of explosives
● Americium-241
○ Used as smoke detectors
● Carbon-14
○ For carbon dating or estimating the age of the materials\
● Uranium 238
○ Used to date the age of the earth

Isotopes
Kapag ung iba cya sa periodic table lagyan mo ung mass number
Ion
● An atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge
● Cation: Ion has positive charge; gives off electrons
○ Sa table pag positive babawasan mo ng electron

● Anion: Ion has negative; receives electrons

○ Sa table pag negative dadagdagan mo ng electron

Molecules
● Are aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical
bonds
● Diatomic: contains 2 atoms
● Polyatomic: contains more than 2 atoms
Max Planck
● Atoms and molecules emitted energy only in discrete quantities or quanta

Neils Bohr
● The electrons are just allowed to occupy certain orbits of specific energies.

Louis De Brogile
● Electrons can possess wave properties

Clinton Davisson, Lester Germer, and G.P Thomson

● X-rays and electron diffraction patterns are similar

Werner Heisenberg
● It is impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum and position of a particle
with certainty
● Also known as uncertainty principle

Erwin Schrödinger
● An equation can take into account the wave and particle properties of an electron,
Electronic Structure of Atoms
● Electron are grouped around the nucleus according to energy level, known as shells
● Electron are further grouped in the shell based on the shape of the region of space they
occupy, known as subshells and have four designation: s, p, d, and f

● Within each subshell, electrons are grouped into orbitals, which are regions of space in
an atom where the specific electrons have the highest probability of being located.

Quantum Numbers
● Principal quantum number(n)
● Angular momentum / azimuthal quantum (l)
● Magnetic quantum number (ml)
● Electron spin quantum number (ms)
Principal quantum number(n)
● Can have integral values 1,2,3 and so forth
● The value of n determines the energy of an orbital.

Angular momentum / azimuthal quantum (l)

● Tells us the “shape” of the orbitals
● Depends on the value of the principal quantum number, n
● For a given value of n, it has possible integral values from 0 to (n-1)

S orbital - sharp

P orbital - principal

D orbital - diffuse

F orbital - fundamental
Magnetic quantum number (ml)
● Describes the orientation of the orbital in space
● Within a subshell, the value of ml depends on the value of the angular momentum
quantum number.
● For a certain value of l, there are (2l+1) integral values of ml

Electron spin quantum number (ms)

● There are two possible spinning motions of an electron, one clockwise (+½) and the
other counterclockwise (+½)

Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic

● Paramagnetism:
○ attraction of a material to an external magnetic field
● Diamagnetism:
○ repulsion of a material to an external magnetic field
Electronic Configuration
● The specific arrangement of electrons in the shells and subshells of atoms
● Tells us the “address” of electrons in an atom

Guideline 1:
● Electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals available.

Aufbau Principle (“building up”)

● Dictates that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements,
electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals.

The (n+1) rule:

● The lower the sum of n and l values of an orbital, the lower the energy of the orbital
Guideline 2:
● Each orbital can hold only two electrons, which must be of opposite spin.

Pauli’s exclusion principle

● States that no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers.

Guideline 3:
● Two or more orbitals with the same energy are each half-filled by one electron before
any one orbital is completely filled by addition of the second electron.

Hund’s rule
● States that the most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with the
greatest number of parallel spins.
Shorthand notation:
● Identify the noble gas core of the element and write the remaining orbitals.

● Cations
○ have decreased electrons
● Anions
○ have increased electrons.

● Isoelectronic atoms and ions