Chapter 1

Brief Review of Newtonian

Mechanics

Chapter contents:
●
Newton’s laws
●
Particle Dynamics
●
Systems of Particles
●
Polar Coordinates
1
 Newton’s laws
Newton’s three laws of motion are the results of a combination of
definitions and experimental observations:

First law: An object will remain at rest or move with uniform velocity
unless a net external force acts on it.

Second law: The rate of change of linear momentum of an object is

equal to the net external force on the object.
⃗ = d ⃗p = ⃗p˙
F (⃗p ≡m ⃗v )
dt
Third law: When an object exerts a force on a second object, the
second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the
first object.
2
Remarks:

* The essence of the first law is that it is always possible to find

reference frames (or coordinate systems) in which an isolated object
will remain at rest or move with uniform velocity. Such reference
frames are called inertial frames. Newton’s laws are valid in inertial
frames

* Any reference frame that accelerates relative to an inertial frame is

called an non-inertial frame.

3
Example: Non-inertial frame

(initial time) (a moment later)

A spaceship in empty space is accelerating “upward” relative to an

inertial observer A. Another observer B is moving upward with the
spaceship, while an object with mass m is not acted on by any force.
According to A, the object m will stay at the same level (red line) while
the spaceship is accelerating upward. However, observer B is in an
non-inertial frame and will measure a non-zero acceleration for the
object m even though there is no force acting on it. Newton’s second
law is invalid inside the spaceship.
[Question: What is the acceleration of m measured by observer B?]
4
 Particle Dynamics
The dynamics of a particle is governed by

F⃗ = d ⃗p
dt
[If the mass m of the particle is constant, we have F
⃗ =m ⃗a ]

In physics, many important conclusions can be expressed in the form of

conservation laws. For instance, if the total force acting on the particle is
zero, then we have the conservation of linear momentum:

⃗ =0= d ⃗p
F => ⃗p=constant
dt

5
Let ⃗r be the position vector of a particle about point O. The angular
momentum of the particle about O is defined by:
L≡⃗r ×⃗p
⃗
The torque on the particle about point O is defined by:
⃗τ ≡⃗r × F
⃗
Let us calculate the time derivative of the angular momentum:
d ⃗L d ⃗p d ⃗r
=⃗r × + ×⃗p
dt dt dt
=⃗r × F
⃗ +⃗v ×(m ⃗v )
=⃗τ =0

If the total torque is zero, then the angular momentum is conserved:

d ⃗L
⃗τ =0= => ⃗L=constant
dt

6
Let us define the work done by an external force F
⃗ on a particle in
going from point A to B:
B

W A → B≡∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s
A

Note: In general, the work done depends on the path taken.

Assume that the mass m is constant:

B
d ⃗v
W A →B =m ∫ ⋅d ⃗s
A dt
B B B
d ⃗s 2
=m ∫ ⋅d ⃗v =m∫ ⃗v⋅d ⃗v =m ∫ d (v )
A dt A A
1 2 1 2 Kinetic energy:
= m vB− m v A
2 2 1 2
T≡ mv
=T B −T A 2

The work done is equal to the change in kinetic energy.

7
Definition: Conservative force
If the work done by a force on a particle does not depend on the path
taken, then the force is said to be a conservative force. A force that is
not conservative is called a non-conservative force.
[Examples: Gravity is a conservative force; friction is non-conservative]

As a consequence of the path-independence, the work done on a particle

by a conservative force along a closed path is zero.
B A

W A →B +W B→ A =∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s +∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s B
A B
B B

=∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s −∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s A
A A
=0 The second equality holds only if the
integrals are path independent

Conservative force: ∮ F⃗⋅d ⃗s =0

(integrated along a closed path) 8
For a conservative force: ∮ F⃗⋅d ⃗s =0 (integrated along any closed path)

The fundamental theorem for gradients in vector analysis implies that

there exists a scalar function V so that the conservative force is given
by
F
⃗ =−∇ V (⃗r )

The scalar function V is called the potential energy.

[The minus sign is just for convention so that the force accelerates the
particle to a lower value of V.]

Another way to see the existence of V is to note that, since the work
done is path-independent, we can pick an arbitrary fixed point P so that
W A →B =W A → P +W P →B
P B

=∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s +∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s
A P

Note: WA→P depends only on point A (once P is fixed) 9

Since the work done integral does not depend on the path taken, we can
define a scalar function
⃗r

V (⃗r )≡−∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s
P

The reference point P is arbitrary and the potential energy function is

defined to be zero at P (i.e., V(P) = 0).

Remark:
For a non-conservative force, such an integral in general depends not
only on ⃗r, but also on the path taken, and hence the result is not a
function of ⃗r .

10
Using the definition of V, we have
P B

W A →B =∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s +∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s
A P
A B

=−∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s +∫ F
⃗⋅d ⃗s
P P
=V A −V B The second equality holds only if the
integrals are path independent

Recall: The work done is equal to the change of kinetic energy

W A → B=T B−T A

Combining the above results, we obtain the conservation of mechanical

energy:

T A +V A =T B +V B

11
 Systems of Particles
Let us generalize the study to a system of particles. Assume that the
i-th particle is acted upon by external force F ⃗ (ext)
i due to sources outside
the system. Assume also that the particles interact with each other via
internal forces. Let F⃗ ij be the internal force on the i-th particle due to the
j-th particle. We can state the Newton’s third law for the internal force as:
F
⃗ ij =− F
⃗ ji

Equation of motion for the i-th particle: ⃗p˙ i = F

⃗ (ext)
i +∑ F
⃗ ij
j≠i
Particle i does not
Sum over the particles: ∑ ⃗p˙ i=∑ F
⃗ (ext) interact with itself!
i +∑ ∑ F
⃗ ij
i i i j≠i
= 0 (by Newton’s 3rd law)
d
=> (∑ ⃗pi)=∑ F
⃗ (ext)
dt i i
i
12
If the total external force on the system is zero, we then have the
conservation of total linear momentum:
∑ ⃗pi=constant
i

For a system of particles with constant mass:

⃗ (ext) d ¨ ¨
∑ F i = ( ∑
dt i i
p
⃗ )= ∑ i
m r
⃗ =M R
⃗
i i

where we have defined the position vector of the center-of-mass

(Total mass)
1
R ≡ ∑ mi ⃗r i
⃗
M = ∑ mi
M i i

Hence, the center-of-mass moves like a point particle with mass M

with the total external force acting on it.

13
The total angular momentum of the system about point O is
∑ ⃗Li =∑ (⃗r i×⃗pi)
i i
d
=> (∑ ⃗Li )=∑ (⃗r˙ i ×⃗pi +⃗r i × ⃗p˙ i )=∑ ⃗τ i
dt i i i
=0

Total torque on the system:

∑ ⃗τ i=∑ ⃗r i× ⃗p˙ i =∑ ⃗r i ×( F
⃗ (ext)
i +∑ F
⃗ ij)
i i i j≠i
=∑ ⃗r i × F
⃗ (ext)
i + ∑ ∑ ⃗r i × F
⃗ ij
i i j≠i

The second term consists of combinations like

⃗r 1 ⃗r 1 −⃗r 2
⃗r 1× F
⃗ 12 +⃗r 2 × F
⃗ 21 =(⃗r 1 −⃗r 2)× F
⃗ 12

O ⃗r 2
14
Assume that the internal force lies along the line joining the particles,
then we have
⃗r i × F
⃗ ij +⃗r j × F
⃗ ji =(⃗r i −⃗r j )× F
⃗ ij =0

In this case, the total torque is equal to the total external torque:

∑ ⃗ (ext)
⃗τ i =∑ ⃗r i × F i ≡ ∑ i
⃗
τ
(ext)

i i i

The time rate of change of total angular momentum becomes

d (ext)
(∑ ⃗Li )=∑ ⃗τ i=∑ ⃗τ i
dt i i i

If the total external torque is zero, then the total angular momentum is
conserved:
∑ ⃗Li =constant
i

15
 Polar Coordinates
Besides the standard Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), it is sometimes
more useful to use non-Cartesian coordinates to solve certain problems.
Let us consider the equation of motion for a particle moving on a two
dimensional plane using polar coordinates:
x=r cos ϕ ; y=r sin ϕ

The position vector of the particle is ⃗r (t)=r r^ .

r^ and φ^ are unit vectors

16
 Newton’s 2nd law: ⃗ =m ⃗r¨
F
The force on the particle can be decomposed into r and φ components:
F⃗ =F r r^ + F φ φ^

Let us first consider how the unit vectors change as the particle moves.

In a small time interval Δt, the particle is displaced

from ⃗r to ⃗r +Δ ⃗r . As Δt→0, we have
Δ r^ ≈|r^|Δ φ φ=Δ
^ φ φ^
d r^ Δ r^ Δ φ
= = ^ φ̇ φ^
φ=
dt Δ t Δ t
Note also that
^
( φ+Δ ^ r^ +Δ r^ )=0
φ)⋅(
^ r^ + r^⋅Δ φ+
φ⋅ ^ r^ +Δ φ⋅Δ
^ φ⋅Δ ^ r^ =0
=0 can be ignored (2nd order quantity)

=> r^⋅Δ φ=−

^ ^ r^ =− φ⋅(Δ
φ⋅Δ ^ ^
φ φ)=−Δ φ 17
 Newton’s 2nd law: ⃗ =m ⃗r¨
F
The force on the particle can be decomposed into r and φ components:
F⃗ =F r r^ + F φ φ^

Let us first consider how the unit vectors change as the particle moves.
In terms of the Cartesian unit vectors, we have
r^ =cos φ ^i +sin φ ^j

φ=−sin
^ φ ^i +cos φ ^j

Taking the time derivatives:

r^˙ =−sin φ φ̇ ^i +cos φ φ̇ ^j= φ̇ φ^

^˙
φ=−cos φ φ̇ ^i −sin φ φ̇ ^j=− φ̇ r^

Note: The Cartesian unit vectors are constant vectors ^i˙ = ^˙j=0 18
 Velocity of the particle:
d
⃗r˙ = (r r^ )= ṙ r^ +r r^˙
dt
=ṙ r^ +r φ̇ φ^ r^˙ = φ̇ φ^

Acceleration of the particle:

d r^ d d φ^
⃗r¨ = r̈ r^ + ṙ + (r φ̇) φ+r ^ φ̇
dt dt dt
=r̈ r^ + ṙ ( φ̇ φ)+(
^ ṙ φ̇+r φ̈) φ+r
^ φ̇(− φ̇ r^ )
=(r̈−r φ̇ 2) r^ +(r φ̈+2 ṙ φ̇) φ^

Newton’s 2nd law => 2

m( r̈−r φ̇ )=F r
m(r φ̈+2 ṙ φ̇)=F φ

The forms of these equations are more complicated than their Cartesian
counterparts. We shall see later that one advantage of the Lagrangian
formulation of Newtonian mechanics is that we can handle different
coordinate systems in the same way. 19
Example: Central force

Consider a particle moving around a fixed point O under the influence of

a force that points toward O and is a function of r only:
F
⃗ =−F (r) r^
This is the so-called central force problem. It is
more natural and convenient to use the polar
coordinates and the Newton’s 2nd law gives
2
m( r̈−r φ̇ )=−F (r)
m(r φ̈+2 ṙ φ̇)=0
The second equation can be rewritten as d (m r 2 φ̇)=0
dt
2
=> L=m r φ̇= constant
L is the magnitude of angular momentum and we have proved that it is
conserved in the central force problem. (You should have anticipated
this result without doing calculations. Why?)
20