Taskeen Zahra

Mid assignment
B.sc sociology 2nd semester
Social thought
Contribution of Muslim thinkers in social thought
Q 1.
a. Abuzer Ghafari
 Wealth theory
it is obligatory for every Muslim man to earn his own livelihood, there are further
obligations on the part of the entire Muslim community as well. The Muslim society, or ummah, is
required to satisfy the needs of all who are unable to help themselves due to something that is out of
their control (e.g., a disability). Abu Zar Ghaffari, a companion of the Prophet, was of the opinion that
it is not proper for a Muslim to possess wealth beyond the essential needs of his family. Interestingly,
most of the Prophet’s companions did not agree with him in this extreme view.

b. Imam Ghazali
 Causes of group life

The living ethics in society refers to ethics that need to be cultivated when
human beings are interconnected in a society. It is part of important practices in
the forty religious foundations that must be exercised by particular Muslim
individuals to seek the guidance of Allah S.W.T. For a Muslim, the best ethics in
relationship is a relation that is based on achieving the pleasure and guidance of
Allah S.W.T. The living ethics in society is to be implemented by one when
interacting with the three groups of people which is; stranger (al-majahil),
friends (al-asdiqa’), and known person but not too close (al-ma`arif). These are
the guidelines to be embraced and implemented by members of society so that
the relationship will be stronger and towards argument-free and disagreement-
free relation. The manners in the living ethics in society according to al-Ghazali's
thinking is appropriate and easy to cultivate in Malaysia. This is because al-
Ghazali's teachings have been commonly taught in musolla, mosques and
pondok-styled institution by the speakers and teachers who teach the book of
Bidayah al-Hidayah since the early of Islam. Therefore, al-Ghazali's thought
should be recommended to be officially taught at the school, university level and
programmed and organized by the government to be cultivated by the
Malaysian community for example through the Department of National Unity
and Integration (JPNIN) or the like to make it more comprehensive.

 Social justice

Justice as a concept refers to equality in giving rights and in abiding by obligations without
discriminations for any reason, either for religion, race, color
Islam has emphasized on numerous principles that organize relationships among members of the
society. One of the most important principles is social justice with all important values that it
involves like peace, love, brotherhood, and prosperity. Justice in Islam is not only practiced on
Muslims. Rather, it is practiced on every human being regardless to his/her beliefs or religion, as
a teacher of social science, he yearned for stability, the key to
which was good government based on reform (from within) and equity. His
ideal state, shaped by Platonic ideals of justice and wisdom, is built on ethics.
His masterpiece on political theory, Counsel for Kings (Bagley, 1964) constructs
a state as a system of social justice. Good government is the rule of wisdom
based on knowledge articulated by scholars advising a wise king “whose heart
is an abode of justice. Justice is the highest quality of a
wise ruler as demonstrated by Ghazzali’s citation of Aristotle’s answer to
Alexander’s question whether courage or justice is higher: “If the king has ruled
justly, he will not need courage” (Bagley, 1964, p.75). However, justice itself
requires a careful and constant balancing of qualities “that have to be linked in, pairs if they are rightly to
be used: intelligence must be coupled with
knowledge, wealth with gratitude, charity with kindness, effort with Dawlat
(good government), when Dawlat comes, all the qualities must go with it.”
The paramount duty of Dawlat is to promote ad’l, social justice, “to bring
development and prosperity to the world through justice and equitable rule”
(The duty of wise rulers is “to develop the world … because
the greater the prosperity, the longer would be their rule and the more
numerous would be their subjects. Conversely, there is
a direct correlation between injustice and under-development, for “just as the
world is made prosperous through justice, so is it made desolate through
injustice” \. Indeed, “one hour of just government is better
than sixty years of worship,Educational reforms

His educational philosophy based on his personal experience. the philosophy,

which he formulated over a period of 10 years, resembles to the Philosophy of Plato. He used his
personal experience and concluded the reasons, which he calls sixth sense, which can lead us to
truth. Divine revelation (Ilham) is superior to reason but is endowed to only selected individuals
called prophets (paighamber). The reason given to human beings also has limitations and can not
acquire the absolute truth. Hence, it is obligatory for all human beings to obey the
commandments send to us through [prophets from time to time. It is very much clear that the
educational ideas of Ghazali are deeply affected by his religious philosophy and research. He
thinks that human mind is like a clean slate and the teacher can transform it with the passage of
time. Plato and Aristotle also held similar views.
The importance of Knowledge:
according to Ghazali, knowledge can bring us closer to God as well as enhance worldly respect
and position. Knowledge, according to him is not relative but has an entity in itself. It can raise
the status of the individual, create self respect and take him to the highest position.
According to Ghazali, there are four categories of Knowledge;
Prophetic
Rulers
Philosophers/scholars
Preachers
1.    Prophetic:
Prophets convey the message of God regardless of any discrimination and help to purify the
inner self.
Ruler:
They use their authority, legislation and rules to train and guide the society.
Philosophers/scholars
Their knowledge benefits only selected individuals but for benefiting masses.
Preachers;
They are meant to fulfill the religious needs of the society and train outer and inner self. Their
job is to promote knowledge, improve the life of people, and help them to acquire desirable
ethics through education.
Ghazali divides knowledge into two types; eg
Useful or desirable knowledge
Useless or undesirable knowledge

1.  Useful knowledge:

     It is further divided into two
Farz-i-Ain:     (Compulsory)
This knowledge is obligatory for all and contains the knowledge of Islam
Farz-i-Kafaya:  (Optional)
This knowledge is optional and depends on the will of the individual. It is further divided into
two;
Worldly knowledge
Religious knowledge

2.   Useless Knowledge:

Although no knowledge is useless, it is not desirable if it can create an undesirable effect such as

If it harms somebody like magic etc

If the chance factor is involved like astrology etc
If it leads to thinking about God. Ghazali says that these matters should be left only to prophets
and saints.
Ghazali based his aims of education on Islamic ideology. According to him, the major aim of
education is that it is useful. The knowledge gained as a result of education should be useful both
for individual and the society. It means that the aim of education is character building of
individual so that it could differentiate between good and evil and avoids following the evil
path.ghazali has recommended the following teaching methods and techniques, which are based
on psychological principles. These methods and techniques are widely used and educators all
over the world agrees with their usefulness.
Teaching  lessons to be based on previous knowledge and experience of the students.

This helps to know the ability, knowledge and aptitude of the learner and helps to motivate
students towards the lesson which is very important for the educational process. Johnn Herbart
and Pestollozi recommended the same principle about 700 year after Ghazali
Simplifying th lesson:
Teachers should simplify the difficult concepts by stories, tales etc other wise his teaching will
not be effective
Move from simple to complex.
This is a very important principle. Some teachers try to teach everything in the very start. This is
very dangerous and can create very dull students.
Ghazali stresses that teachers should first teach simpler concepts and when the students are
motivated towards lesson, then he can introduce complex concepts.
Western educators have also mentioned this principle.
Proper planning
Ghazali stresses the importance of planning and advises that teachers should do his preparation
before teaching , for effective teaching.
affection:
The teachers should avoid the use of force . He should be like a father to his students and should
use love and affection instead of corporal punishment. Use of force can lead to bad habits among
students
Teacher and students should also have good social relationship
avoid double standards:
Teacher is like a guide to students. He should not be a hypocrite and should breed good qualities
like, honesty, good etiquette, good moral character etc
abilities of students:
Ghazali stresses that while teaching the abilities of students should be kept in mind. Concepts,
which are above the mental level of the students will not make the teaching effective.
Female education:
Ghazali ’s ideas about female education are different from modern day. He is only in favor of
elementary education for women so that they could play their due role in society. He is not in
favor of higher education for females. Rousseau has similar ideas.
Ghazali also stresses acquisition of home-related knowledge for women.

Physical education:
Ghazali has greatly stressed the physical education for children. He believes in old Greek axiom
“ sound mind in sound body”
He suggests proper clothing for children so that they could develop and grow properly. He
suggests avoid tight and fit clothing.
He also stresses the importance of good and simple, diet for good physical growth.

In short we can say that the contribution of Ghazali to education, what he said later reflected by
western educators. That was actually originated in the times of Ghazali.
Q2.
a. Ibn e khaldun
 Science of culture

 Culture, equated with human life, is seen as dependent upon population density, a natural
assumption in premodern times possibly confirmed for people in the fourteenth century by the
devastation of the Black Death. The innate human psychological need to belong and give
political support to a group dominated by one or more leading personalities, for which Ibn
Khaldūn chose the code word ʿaṣabīyah, translated approximately as "group feeling," is
instrumental in producing the circular ebb and flow of concentrations of political power
necessary for all civilization; religious convictions are beneficial, at times even indispensable, for
an ʿaṣabīyah to achieve its potential.  Economic factors—to a large extent controllable by proper
human management, provided that the wisdom and will for it are present—complete the picture
of human society, or societies, as based upon reason, numbers, and psychology.

What role, then, belongs to the principal religious tenets of Islam, such as God, prophecy, and
the other world? Ibn Khaldūn could not disregard this question. He takes for granted the
undeniable reality of the vast metaphysical structure set up by traditional Islam. Although he
argues that prophecy cannot be proved by logical means, and he explains prophecy, on the
human side, as depending on an extraordinary power of the soul, he accepts as a matter of course
the existence of a succession of chosen human beings who are transmitters of the divine
message, culminating in the prophet Muḥammad. Metaphysical forces are seen to have exercised
a large, and often lasting, influence in certain ages, particularly at the origin of Islam. The
potential for divine interference in human affairs at any given time continues to exist. 

In his theory, Ibn Khaldun talked about human needs. He recognized that human needs are
derived from the nature of man. Man needs to eat and drink. He also has to have clothes and find
a place to live in. So there are some natural needs due to the very nature of man. These needs
may also be termed as elementary and basic needs. The desire to fulfill these needs results in a
further use of his knowledge and intellect. Therefore secondary needs arise. Tools are used as
weapon as the intellect get the needed things. A step after this is the process of civilization. At
this stage a man would loose for luxuries. For this he would have to be more intelligent. As a
result civilization advances. It must also be kept in mind that Khaldun never meant that
civilization is solely based on material needs. So the development of needs results in the
advancement of civilization (In the current management theory, Maslow Theory of Hierarchical
Needs emphasize on similar concept).
He further talked about the nature of production and the necessity of cooperation amongst the
members of the society to fulfill the production needs. There are various production processes
that are like rings which are overlapping and compounding. Production is characterized by
interdependence and interaction in the production process. It is not possible for an individual
alone to fulfill his needs through production process.

 Rise and fall of nations

Ibn Khaldun, is a cyclical process in which sovereign powers
come to existence, get stronger, lose their strengths and are conquered
by other sovereign powers over time. More precisely, every community is
uncivilized at the beginning and tries to acquire the power around its own
territory. The power depends on the stronger asabiyya than other communities’
asabiyyat. Asabiyya is very powerful because people from the same
asabiyya tend to protect each other at all cost and due to their wild natures,
they are strong and competent fighters. Asabiyya and wild nature which trigger
the success in fighting and prevent communities from embracing the
comfortable life’s disadvantages walk arm in arm. If one of them decelerates,
the other one acts in the same way. These features which do not degenerate
are enough to invade communities which have the less asabiyyat and civilized
communities which are tired of fighting and lose their wild natures.
However, over time the less civilized communities which defeat others are
always inclined to imitate the more civilized societies. Due to that, the wild
communities lose their nature, get used to luxury and lastly are replaced by
less civilized societies having stronger asabiyyat. Ibn Khaldun defines the downfall as a usual
process and says that states,
dynasties, nations and civilizations are like humans so that they are born,
grow, die and others take over their places and they face the same results and
this process repeats itself again and again. Besides, he predicts that sovereign
powers last for about 120 years and then collapse (İbn Haldun, 2016). Kıvılcımlı
(1965:158) states that generally dynasties more or less fit into the categorization
of 120 years. For example, Abbasids (111 years)1, Umayyads (91
years), Memluks (135 years) and Ghaznavids (166 years) are the good examples
of this theory (Cairn, 1971). But this theory was not true for the Ottoman
Empire. The Ottoman Empire has been one of the supreme empires in
history and had an enormous life span which is 624 years (1299-1923). They
were the defender of faith in Islam and had the title of Caliph. This speech
of Ibn Khaldun may be a symbolic expression which is that he wanted to
say that sooner or later the sovereign powers would collapse one day by
experiencing certain periods, these periods generally would take 120 years
and only extra motivation in the right time, wise decisions, strong tradition,
extra morality and extra ordinary leaders could extend sovereign powers’ life
spans. Maybe he defined so as a result of his limited observations of his time.
Moreover, he observed mainly small states and dynasties and he acknowledged
his limited knowledge (
b. Shah WaliUllah
 Evolution of society
According to Shah Walliullah,
 “The present society did not come into existence automatically but has gained the collective
shape slowly. Adam’s family, a dwelling, a village, a town, a state and then a vast kingdom came
into existence slowly. Afterwards, kingdoms were divided into states because of differences and
their several kingdoms came into existence. This collective life concept is present in animals also
but man has the power to think, to have self-dense, to show and to have feelings and emotions
and to use natural abilities but such things are not found in animals. Therefore, there is no
evolution, no sense and no emotion in the animals. Man’s social life started from forest life
having no clear, cut difference between animal and man’s life but mutual exchange and
cooperation present in human nature gave a form of Gregration to human groups which resulted
in the form of society by increase of population.”

Motives of Collective Life :

According to Shah Waliullah, collective life came into existence on the basis of specific motives
of humans which are present in human nature. Their detail is given below :

i. Self-defense or Security :
Shah Walliullah says that there are equal motives of self-defense between animals and human
beings and because of this motive they live a collective life and move about to save themselves
from cold, thirst, heat and enemies. So in the case with human beings who also live collective
life because they had not proper
sources to seek food and save themselves from heat and coldness of weathers.

ii. Security of Race or Generation :

This motive of saving generation is also found between men and animals and has a strong motive
for collective life. The love between man and woman is source of union and love of children
makes a family.

iii. Social Interaction and Mutual Cooperation :

Shah Waliullah says that social interaction and mutual cooperation are two important motives
which distinguish men from animals that change collective life into social collective life. Man
has been endowed with sense and understanding that is not found in animals. and these qualities
are used to transfer mutual emotions, experience, and as a result of mutual cooperation, it brings
about mutual relations and groups become merged into each other and that is society.

EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY :
Shah Walliullah says about evolution, “Human society in its beginning was not much different
from animal life but sense and understanding which is present in human beings by nature
completed the stages of evolution by mutual cooperation. Human society has never been still at
one situation but has been dynamic always.” Human evolution has been a stage- wise action and
it is a journey to be completed by stages. With the passage of time, his life goes on becoming
better than before. He has divided life from evolutionary point of view into four stages because
of characteristics and structure of society.
Four Stages of Society

1. First Stage of Society : 

This has been called by Shah Walliullah as first evolution in society. This is a preliminary stage
with the following characteristics :
i. Individuals live in small groups and change their residence because of change in weather.

ii. Simple residence, dress and simple way of cooking, utensil, making art living on fruit,
vegetables and hunted animals and grain. They knew the art of domestication of animals and
executing work from these animals.

iii. Society is divided into four classes:

a. The wise who suggest for social benefits. A
b. Wealthy class; owner of cattle sheep, land, etc.
c. Brave people to defend society from attacks and dacoits.
d. Cunning people class; desirous of fame, authority and
liking business type activities.

iv. Marriage rituals are under collective customs where man’s will is kept in view. Marriage is to
satisfy natural sexual desires and is a source of survival of race.

Second Stage of Society :

Shah Walliullah says that, “The first stage of society is the state of helplessness and a man
wanders to satisfy his desires with more labour but less achievement but at the second stage the
wise class guides him to fulfil the desires with ways and means and principles are made which
get the status of collective and cultural morals and are transferred from generation to
generation.”

These approved morals have been divided into three parts at the second stage by Shah
Walliullah:
i. Guiding principles:
These are such points of the morals which are adopted in daily collective social life like eating,
drinking, dressing and living manners and rituals of festivals.

ii. Mutual cooperation :
It is that of morals where relations between families are established, which are based on respect
from relation principles are set up, principles for training of individual are set up. Customs are
abided by and stability is brought in collective

iii. Mutual exchange :
The individuals of a society transfer their emotions, experience, skills and material things
according to collective principles of life. Different professions came into existence an; mutual
dependence among individuals increases making the desires completion easy.

3. Third Stage of Society :

Shah Walliullah says that, “In the first two stages, there is no intensity of emotions and depth and
mutual cooperation and transfer is just for the sake of completion of desires only but families and
tribes do not get mutual contact.” The third stage brings intensity in mutual dependence and there
is danger of deviation from approved morals and a collective force is needed and at the stage the
dauntless class along with opportunist class set up a political system that fulfils the following
needs:

i. Safety of approved morals : 

To settle mutual quarrels, enforces the approved morals through power and reduces such
incidents.

ii. Penalties :
Political system sets up norms and sanctions to check the activities of individuals of a society
from violating approved morals to save others from this to make the life of the society free of
fear and dispersion.

iii. Jehad :
Shah Walliullah has given the policy of Jehad to prevent internal dispersion and disorder and to
check external attackers. The wealth and welfare of a society, incites the external forces to
destroy the collective life of a society, having the aim of getting wealth and occupation over the
country. The political system should prepare the dauntless and brave people of the country. for
Jehad every time.
iv. Achievement of public welfare :
According to Shah Walliullah, “To maintain the collective life in a better condition, the aim of
collective life is determined by the opinion of the wise of the first stage. The political system
maintains the approved morals and provides guidance and training.”

4. Fourth stage of society :

According to Shah Walliullah, “The world is passing through these three stages to reach the
fourth stage of complete society with the following characteristics:

i. Collective life being divided into small classes should attach itself to a larger political system
to save itself from internal disorders.

ii. Different political unities should create such conditions through mutual cooperation and
transfer it to avoid conflict with each other.

According to Shah Walliullah, societies will definitely pass these stages through evolution and
the time the society achieves the fourth stage, it will be a complete society which he calls
caliphate.

 Concept of perfect society

when culture developed in highest degree its emerged a plurality type of state, where some
confederacy taken place, some common status of life peace, security, justice are practiced by community.
Perhaps Shah influenced this major confederacy organization. Confederacy concept which encompasses
state city give the idea beside Geographical and ideological boundaries co operations chances are existed
in various cultural societies unity is necessary for this type of organized city state”. When the unity is
established the constituent groups of a society and reinforced by the mutual cooperation. This collective
body resembles a single individual having a kind of spiritual entity. This corporate individual through
phase of health and illness who care the health of this society as a physician and those who adhere to him
is called imam. Shah Wali Ulla in this it is clear that imam not mean any particular individual but imam
seems to be the equivalent of government or ruling friups. Moreover in his view the recognition seems to
be necessary on pragmatic groaned and its function. Unity is necessary for this type of organized city
state”. The unity is established between the constituent groups of a society and reinforced by their mutual
cooperation. This collective body resembles a single individual. When having a kind of spiritual entity.
This corporate individual through phase of health and illness who care the health of this society as a
physician and those who adhere to him is called imam. So this stage of social setup is third irtifaq interm of
Shah Walli Ullah in this theory of shah walliullah it is clear that imam not mean any particular individual
but imam seems to be the equiivilent of government or ruling friups. Moreover in his view the recognition
seems to be necessary on pragetic ground and its function is to prevent ethical and social accomplished of
the society.
It is also the function of the state to safeguard the individual to promote the collective economy. To control
all the activities of social members a very prestigious government is projected. Its function is to; a) a
proper and equitable distribution of economic resources. b) a fair and profitable employment on is to
prevent ethical and social accomplished of the society.
It is also the function of the state to safeguard the individual to promote the macro economy. To control all
the activities of social members a very prestigious government is projected. Its function is to introduce
equitable distribution of economic resources system.
b) a fair and profit able employment. Unity is necessary for this type of organized city state”. When the
unity is established b/w the constituent groups of a society and reinforced by their mutual cooperation.
This collective body resembles a single individual having a kind of spiritual entity. This corporate
individual through phase of health and illness who care the health of this society as a physician and those
who adhere to him is called imam. So this stage of social setup is third IRTIFAQ intern of Shah Wali Ullah
in this theory of Shah Walli Ullah it is clear that imam not mean any particular individual but imam seems
to be the equivalent of government or ruling friups. Moreover in his view the recognition seems to be
necessary on pragetic ground and its function is to prevent ethical and social accomplished of the society.
It is also the f unction of the state to safeguard the individual to promote the collective economy. To
control all the activities of social members a very prestigious government is projected. Its function is to a
proper and equitable distribution of economic resources.

Q3.
a. Molana Ubedullah sindhi
 Basic Human Ethics
It’s not well-known that how much centuries have been passed till man is breathing on
this soil. And what type of route it has passed to get on to this day. In this long expedition man
has prepared many civilizations. Gigantic philosophies were laid down. New standards of
morality and ethnicity were shaped. Every new age brought new thoughts. And every nation
proclaimed that the civilization like theirs was never there and even better than this is not
possible. However the unique place of each nation is acknowledged and every thought occupy
a vital position in its period. All human beings have the same origin irrespective of its
differences. Match up the man of ten thousand years ago and of now, they have same
provisions. The evolution has given them different shapes but still they have some common
points. But disbelieving people will never be familiar with this reality. They have alienated them
from the main stream. And this mental alienation has paralyzed the minds of nations. When the
multiplicity in nature disturbs the mind of man then he is forced to find amalgamation in
universe. When we study the history, we come to know that nations and civilizations were
struggling against each other. Every nation was considering itself the ultimate. The Christians
asserted that if a man is not Christian then he is not even human. The Jews and Iranian had
alienated themselves. And the Hindus supposed that to cross the sea is contrary to faith. The
humanity was stagnant and disintegrating. The Arabs appeared like cyclone and mixed them
into the sea of civilization. All the streams of thoughts and intellect fell into this sea . The Arabs
were illiterate and had no regular culture. They established awareness of all civilizations. And
accepted their superior features. This was the universal revolution of Islam. All the thoughts and
religions were allowed to get together in Bughdad and Qurtaba. A new shape of culture of
humanity was developed from philosophy of Hindustan and Unan, Literature of Iranians,
religious customs of Jews and Christians, Linguistics and faith of Arabs. It was the upshot of all
the philosophies of the past. This historical accomplishment of Islam will never be forgotten. The
Quran addressed to all nations and considered their cultures and religions as tributary of one
spring. And presented all the prophets as building blocks of one chain. Every Nations has got
the opportunity to lead the world of thoughts and actions. It was their climax. And they days of
devastation came at that time they were narrow minded. And had no initiative for global
integrity. They only concerned for their nation and at last for their sects. The Jews and
Christians were caught up by this malady. And now Muslims are facing the same destiny. The
lack of humanism is the first stride towards collapse. The Muslims were given a word of eternity
on the basis of love for humankind irrespective of their beliefs. A person is considered to be a
Muslim if he has a place in his heart for all human beings. In fact it is a belief in God. But when
Muslims failed to remember this lesson they were deprived of their global leadership. In any era
the pragmatic people were capable to identify the fact. Indeed their explanations poles apart
according to the period, environment and temperament. .
b. Allama Iqbal
 Concept of self
Iqbal’s philosophy is often described as the philosophy of Khudi, or the ‘Self’. For
him, the fundamental fact of human life is the absolute and irrefutable consciousness
of one’s own being. For Iqbal, the advent of humanity on earth is a great and glorious
event, not an event signifying human sinfulness and degradation. He points out that
according to the Qur’an, the earth is humanity’s ‘dwelling-place’ and ‘a source of
profit’ to it. Iqbal does not think that having been created by God, human beings were
placed in a super-sensual paradise from which they were expelled on account of an
act of disobedience to God. Pointing out that the term ‘Adam’ functions as the symbol
of self-conscious humanity rather than as the name of an individual in the Qur’an,
Iqbal describes the ‘Fall’ as a transition from: ‘a primitive state of instinctive appetite
to the conscious possession of a free self, capable of doubt and disobedience’ (Iqbal
1930: 85).
For Iqbal, Adam’s story is not the story of the ‘First Man’ but the ethical experience,
in symbolic form, of every human being. Following the Qur’anic teaching that though
human beings come from the earth, God’s spirit has been breathed into them, Iqbal
holds on the one hand that human beings are divinely created, and on the other hand
that they have evolved from matter. Unlike dualists, Iqbal sees no impassable gulf
between matter and spirit, nor does he see human beings as a mere episode or
accident in the huge evolutionary process. On the contrary, the whole cosmos is
there to serve as the basis and ground for the emergence and perfection of the ‘Ego’.
Humanity’s evolution has not come to an end, for the destiny of human beings
lies ‘beyond the stars’.
The purpose of life is the development of the Self. In order that they may achieve the
fullest possible development, it is essential for human beings to possess knowledge.
Following the Qur’an, Iqbal maintains that there are two sources of knowledge: the
inner consciousness of human beings and the outer world of nature. Starting with the
intuition of the Self, human beings become aware of the ‘Not-Self’, the
confronting ‘other’ which provides a constant challenge for them. Nature, however,
does not confront God in the same way as it confronts humanity, since it is a phase
of God’s consciousness. God is immanent since God comprehends the whole
universe, but also transcendent since God is not identical with the created world. All
life is individual. There is a gradually rising scale of self-ness running from the almost
inert to God, who is the Ultimate Ego. God is not immobile nor is the universe a fixed
product; God is constantly creative and dynamic and the process of Creation still
goes on. The Qur’anic saying, ‘Toward God is your limit’ (Surah 53: 42), gives Iqbal
an infinite worldview, and he applies it to every aspect of the life of humanity and the
universe.
Iqbal distinguishes between two aspects of the Self, the efficient and the
appreciative. The efficient self is that which is concerned with, and is itself partially
formed by, the physical world. It apprehends the succession of impressions and
discloses itself as a series of specific, and consequently numerable states. The
appreciative self is the deeper self, of which one becomes aware only in moments of
profound meditation when the efficient self is in abeyance. The unity of the
appreciative self is that in it, each experience permeates the whole. The multiplicity
of its elements is unlike that of the efficient self. There is change and movement, but
this change and movement are indivisible; their elements interpenetrate and are
wholly non-serial in character.
Corresponding to the two aspects of the Self are the two levels of time, serial time
and pure duration. Serial time is spatial or clock time, where as pure duration is a
ceaseless continuous flow in which all things live and move and have their being. As
 human beings perfect their ego-hood, they cast off the girdle of serial time and gain a
measure of eternity.
Iqbal believes ardently that human beings are the makers of their own destiny and
that the key to destiny lies in one’s character. He constantly refers to the Qur’anic
verse, ‘Verily God will not change the condition of a people till they change what is in
themselves’ (Surah 13: 12). Humanity’s mission on earth is not only to win greater
freedom but also to gain immortality, which according to Iqbal: ‘is not ours by right; it
is to be achieved by personal effort. Man is only a candidate for it’ (Iqbal 1930: 119).

Though humanity is the pivot around which Iqbal’s philosophy revolves, yet as pointed
out by Schimmel, Iqbal’s ‘revaluation of Man is not that of Man qua Man, but of Man in
relation to God’ (Schimmel 1963: 382). Iqbal’s ‘ideal person’ is the servant of God. The
relation between humanity and God is a personal one; hence the great importance of
prayer in the thought of Iqbal. The belief in the one living God gives humanity freedom
from all false deities and fortifies it against forces of disintegration. Iqbal sees his concept
of the ‘ideal person’ realised in the Prophet of Islam, whose life exemplifies all the
principles dearest to Iqbal’s heart. In his view art, religion and ethics must be judged from
the standpoint of the ‘Self’. That which strengthens the ‘Self’ is good and that which
weakens it is bad. Iqbal does not admit the absolute existence of evil but regards it as
being necessary for the actualization of moral purpose as vital activity in the world. 

 Theory of religion

Iqbal’s concern for religion permeates the totality of his writing, whether we
turn to the most lyrical of his verses or the dens systematic discussion of his
famous lectures on The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. The more I
have become familiar with his thought, the more am I convinced that h expresses a
profound understanding of Islamic orthodox) enriched by a passionate personal
piety which gives authenticity to the often-novel ways in which he restates Islamic
tradition ft the modern age. Moreover I find myself interacting with his ideas not
merely as a student of Islamic thought, but as a Christ a concerned intellectually
and spiritually with many of the same issues as he rises. His abiding significance is
that he challenges us all to think of religion not simply in terms of our own
religious confessions or traditions, important though these were for Iqbal and
rightly are for ourselves. Beyond these, however, he struggled with the meaning of
religion in its universal and cosmic sense, dealing with issues which challenge
religions and religious people everywhere, Truly he was a man of religion, and the
breadth of his thinking and the depth of his piety throws light o many of the
contemporary concerns we have as Muslims and as Christians.
I believe we should face these together, and alongside people of other religious
traditions, in the multi-religious society which we enjoy in the West Midlands and
in so many others parts of Britain today. In his own life Iqbal was, I believe, a man
of dialogue, if not in the way we have the opportunity to be in Britain today, yet in
such manner and quality to challenge us in out con temporary situation, stly, we
must recall that Iqbal’s struggle to vindicate religion’s possibility and necessity
was part of India’s historic struggle for independence from British imperial rule.
Yet Iqbal’s participation in this struggle continues to have implications fat us long
after the repossession of independence with the establishment of the modern states
of India and Pakistan. He saw religion as necessary, and urgently so, as the way of
withstanding the pervasive materialism of western culture, we must emphasize that
Iqbal saw this necessary and urgent task of religion to be possible only if religions
can transform themselves from archaic, tradition-boon and often irrational
monuments of the past into dynamic forces, of change. In place of intellectual,
social and moral inertia he called for “a principle of movement” as the necessary
accompaniment of religion in the spirit of discovery. He found this best set forth in
the teaching of the Prophets, in Jaudaism and Christianity, and ultimately in the
message of the Prophet Muhammad to whom he gave his most devout personal
allegiance, Iqbal partly explains what he meant by contrasting his hopes for the
future of the Islamic reformation against the reformation through which western
Christianity passed in 16th century Europe. In his judgment the latter lacked the
self-discipline of the universal ethics set forth in the New Testament, with the
result that the modern states of Europe − and he would no doubt wish us to add
North America − have displaced “the universal ethics of Christianity by systems of
national ethics.” In his brief but truly eloquent discussion of the psychology of
prayer in the third of the lectures to which I have already referred, entitled “The
Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer”, Iqbal confirms the view of the
American psychologist of religion, William James, that prayer is a universal
human impulse. Whether it is recognized or not, it gives reality and validity to our
humanity. “I pray, therefore I am,” Iqbal might have said, though he actually stated
that “prayer is instinctive in its origin.” Activated and disciplined under the
religious rules about methods of praying, preconditions and inner intentions,
authentic prayer surpasses intellect as the means of understanding the dynamic
movement of reality. Scientific understanding is excelled, as prayer, to quote Iqbal
in one of his most powerful passages, “rises higher than thought to capture Reality
itself with a view to becoming a conscious participator in its life.” Prayer alone is
ultimately able to fulfill our deepest individual yearnings for a response to “the
awful silence of the universe”. What wonderful, powerful language to express such
profound ideas!  Iqbal adheres as an orthodox Muslim to belief in the finality of
Muhammad as “the Seal of the Prophets” (khatim al-nabiyyin), to use the most
decisive of his Quranic appellations. The seal which he sets upon tanzil brings
humanity to age in rational adherence to true religion, and frees us to search
positively for the wahy of God’s continuing guidance within the forces of history,
scientifically discerned. The scientist, therefore, is the true and only successor of
the Prophet, a conviction which Iqbal frequently aired in interpretation of the
Prophet’s own statement that “the heirs of the prophets are those of under-
standing.” But if science is the true complement of prophecy, we must remember
that Iqbal saw prayer as the true complement of science. It is in the
interrelationship of these three that Iqbal esteemed the Prophet Muhammad as “the
Perfect Man”, and held his sunnah before the Muslim community of his own day
as both the challenge and the inspiration for a new ijtihad.