TRUONG OAI

■ HOC
■ Y HA NOI
■

BO MON Y VAT LY

VAT LY
LY SINH Y HOC
(SACH DUNG CHO SINH VlfiN HE BAC SI DA KHOA)

^ \o U
r,; !>■'
-\K.
i& X
V IE
PKU t h o

T H U V i l N

s e :..fe * r

NHA XUAT BAN Y HOC

HA NOI - 2006
Dong chu bien:

PGS. TS. Nguyen VSn Thien

PGS. TSKH. Phan Sy An

Tham gia bien soan:

PGS. TSKH. Phan Sy An

PGS. TS. Nguyen V9n Thien
TS. Phan Thi Le Minh
ThS. Doan Thi Giang Hi/dng
CN. Nguyen Thanh Thuy

ThS. Tran Thi Ngoc Hoa

ThS. Ngo Dung Tuan

Thu ky bien soan:

ThS. Doan Thj Giang Huong

 LOI NOI DAU

Vat ly hoc la mot nganh khoa hoc tU nhien nghien ciiu nhutng dang van dong
cd ban nhat cua vat chat roi tim cach ilng dung chung phuc vu ddi song. Trong
qua trinh phat trien, cac nganh khoa hoc dan xen vao nhau lam nay sinh cac
nganh khoa hoc mcfi, thi du nhU ly sinh, hoa sinh...

Chiidng trinh Vat ly - Ly sinh difdc day tai trUdng Dai hoc Y Ha Noi tii nam
1956. M uc tieu cua chUdng trinh nay la giup sinh vien:
- Hieu dung cac dinh luat vat ly cd ban co nhieu ling dung sau nay trong
nghien ciiu y hoc va bao ve sufc khoe cong dong.
- Phan tich dUdc cac qua trinh, hien tUdng vat ly cd ban xay ra trdng cd the
song.
- Trinh bay dUdc nguyen ly cua cac ting dung ky thuat vat ly chinh trong
ch&n doan va dieu tri.
- Phan tich dUdc cac tac dung chinh cua cac yeu to" vat ly len cd the song
phuc vu muc dich bao ve moi trUdng va cd the.
Do do"i tUdng phuc vu chinh la cac sinh vien nam thii nhat trUdng Dai hoc Y
nen giao trinh dUdc viet tUdng do"i ddn gian, khong dung nhieu cong cu toan hoc,
chi yeu cau ngiidi hoc co kien thilc pho thong trung hoc ve vat ly va sinh hoc. Giao
trinh Vat ly - Ly sinh y hoc nay dUdc viet v6i thdi lildng mon hoc la 75 tiet theo
quy dinh trong khung chUdng trinh cua Bo Y te va Bo Giao due Dad tao.

3
 1.1. PhUdng trinh cd ban cua thuyet dong hoc phan tti va cac he qua 55
1.2. Stic cang mat ngoai va hien tUdng mao d&n 57
1.3. Cac hien tUdng van chuyen vat chat trong cd the 62
1.4. Van chuyen vat chat qua mang te bao 72
2. Chuyen dong cua chat long va sii van chuyen mau trong cd the 81
2.1. Cac phan tti va ion trong cd the 81
2.2. Cac dinh luat ve sU van chuyen cua chat long 82
2.3. Su van chuyen mau 86
3. Khi va sU van chuyen khi trong cd the con ngUdi 92
3.1. Hoat dong ho hap 92
3.2. Cac quy luat khuech tan khi 94
3.3. Su van chuyen khi trong cd the 96
3.4. Nhting yeu to' anh hUdng tdi sU trao doi khi trong cd the con ngUdi 96
4. Chuyen dong cd hoc tren cd the song 97
4.1. Dai cUdng ve chuyen dong cd hoc 97
4.2. Chuyen dong cd hoc tren cd the song 103
B ai 4. Dao dong va song 110
1. Dao dong cd hoc 110
1.1. Dao dong dieu hoa 111
1.2. Dao dong tat dan 113
1.3. Dao dong cUdng btic va hien tUdng c6ng hUdng 114
1.4. Tong hdp va phan tich dao dong 116
2. Song cd hoc trong moi trUdng dan hoi 118
2.1. Moi trUdng dan hoi 118
2.2. Song cd hoc 118
3. Dao dong va song dien tti 125
3.1. Mach dao dong dien tti. Dinh nghia dao dong dien tti 125
3.2. Dao dong dien tti dieu hoa (khong tat) 126
3.3. Su tUdng tU gitia dao dong dien tti khong t i t va dao dong dieu hoa
cua con lac ddn 128
3.4. Dao dong dien tti tat dan 129
3.5. Cach tao ra song dien tti 131
4. Bien doi, khuech dai va ghi giti tin hieu 139
 4.1. Bien doi tin hieu khong dien thanh dien 139
4.2. Nguyen ly khuech dai tin hieu dien 141
4.3. Ghi va bao quan tin hieu dien 145
5. Am va sieu am 148
5.1. Ban chat vat ly cua am va sieu am 148
5.2. Nguon phat am 150
5.3. Cac dac trUng cua cam giac am 152
5.4. So lUdc ve qua trinh nghe 157
5.5. Cd sd vat ly cua phUdng phap am trong ch&n doan 160
5.6. Sd lUdc ve iing dung sieu am trong nganh y 162
6 . Song va sU song 167
6.1. Sd lUdc ve tac dong cua song den sU song. Tac dong cua song den
sU song co loi hay co hai? 167
6.2. Sd lUdc ve nhip sinh hoc 168
Bai 5. D ien va svf song 170

1. Dien the sinh vat d te bao song 171

1.1. Dien the nghi 171
1.2. Dien the hoat dong 175

1.3. SU lan truyen dien the hoat dong 179

2. Dien the hoat dong cua to chiic song 181
2.1. Dien the hoat dong cua tim 181
2.2. Cac dien the hoat dong khac dUdc dung nhieu trong chan doan 187
3. Tac dung cua dong dien len cd the 189
3.1. Phan iing cua cd va than kinh doi vdi klch thich dien 189

3.2. Cac thong so' dien cua cd the 192

3.3. Nguv hiem do dien. Cac bien phap an toan dien 194
3.4. Tac dung tich cUc cua dong dien len cd the va iing dung trong y khoa 198
Bai 6. Cac dinh luat quang hinh cd ban - m at 204
1. Cac dinh luat cd ban cua quang hinh hoc va mot so" dung cu quang hinh 204
1.1. Cac dinh luat cd ban cua quang hinh hoc 204
1.2 . Mot so dung cu quang hinh 207
2 . Mat va dung cu bo trd 223

2.1. Quang hinh hoc cua mat 223

 2.2. Kha nang phan ly cua m&t 226

2 .3 . Cac tat quang hinh cua m&t va dung cu bo trd 229

Bai 7. Ban chat cua anh sang 235

1. Thuyet song dien tti ve ban chat cua anh sang 235

1.1. Thuyet song dien tti ve ban chat cua anh sang 235

1.2 . Hien tUOng giao thoa anh sang 238

1.3. Hien tUdng nhieu xa anh sang 244

1.4. Hien tUdng phan cUc anh sang 249

2. Thuyet lifdng tti ve ban chat cua anh sang 250

2.1. Hieu ting quang cy.en ngoai 250

2.2. Thuyet liidng anh sang cua Einstein va sii giai thich hien tUdng
quang dien 252

3. Cac mtic nang liidng cua tap hdp dien tti 257

3.1. Mtic nang ltfdng cua tap hdp dien tti 257

3.2. Hap thu anh sang va phat sang 258

4. Laser 262

4.1. Khai niem ve btic xa cam ting 262

4.2. Laser va may phat tia laser 263

4.3. Sd ltfdc ve ti'nh chat cua chtim tia laser 265

4.4. 0 n g dung cua laser 265

Bai 8. Tac dung cua anh sang len cof the song 267

1. Dai cUdng ve tac dung cua anh sang len cd the song 267

1.1. Cac giai doan chinh cua mot qua trinh quang sinh 267

1.2 . Phan loai cac qua trinh quang sinh 268

1.3. Mot so" dac diem cua qua trinh quang sinh 268

2. Mot so qua trinh quang sinh 272

2.1. Quang hdp 272

2 .2 . Sinh tong hdp sac to" va vitamin 274

2.3. Tac dung quang dong lUc (TDQDL) 275

2.4. Tac dung cua tia tti ngoai len cac he thong song 278

2.5. Thong tin thu cam anh sang 280

8
Bai 9. Btic xa ion hoa va cd the song 292
1. Khai niem va nguon goc cua btic xa ion hoa 292
1.1. Cau tao hat nhan nguyen tti 292
1.2. Hien tUdng phong xa 293
1.3. Dinh luat phan ra phong xa 298
2. TUdng tac cua btic xa ion hoa vdi vat chat 300
2.1. Ttidng tac cua hat vi mo tich dien vdi vat chat 300
2.2. TUdng tac cua photon nang lUdng cao (tia y va tia X) vdi vat chat 303
2.3. Ttidng tac cua neutron vdi vat chat 306
3. Su hap thu nang lUdng btic xa - Lieu lUdng btic xa 308
3.1. Su hap thu nang lUdng btic xa. Su suy giam cUdng do btic xa 308
3.2. Lieu ltfdng btic xa 310
3.3. Nguyen ly va cac thiet bi ghi do btic xa ion hoa 312
4. Tac dung cua btic xa ion hoa len vat chat song 317
4.1. Cd che tac dung 317
4.2. Cac ton thUdng d cd the sinh vat dudi tac dung cua btic xa ion hoa 321
4.3. Cac yeu to" anh hUdng den hieu ting sinh hoc cua btic xa ion hoa 327
4.4. Cac nguyen tac ve kiem soat va an toan btic xa 330
Bai 10. M ot so ting dung pho bien cua V at ly ky thuat tron g nganh Y 337
1. PhUdng phap hien vi 337
1.1. Nguyen ly phong dai anh vat. Kinh lup 337
1.2. Kinh hien vi quang hoc trUdng sang (KHVQHTS) 338
1.3. Do phong dai. Kha nang phan ly 340
1.4. Cac loai kinh hien vi khac 343
1.5. Cach do kich thudc cac vat nho bang kinh hien vi 347
2. PhUdng phap quang pho hap thu phan tti 349
2.1. Su hap thu anh sang cua moi trUdng vat chat 349
2 .2 . Ung dung cua quang pho hap thu phan tti 352
3. PhUdng phap tao anh bang tia X va cong hUdng tti hat nhan 357
3.1. Thiet bi tao tia X 357
3.3. Chup hinh bang cong hUdng tti hat nhan 366
4. PhUdng phap phong xa 376
4.1. PhUdng phap danh dau phong xa 376
4.2. PhUdng phap dting nguon chieu xa 379

9
 Bai 1

DON Vj DO LltfNG MOT SO QOY LUAT C0 BAN

M UC TIEU HOC TAP

1. Trinh bay dUOc vai tro cua vat ly doi vdi cac mon khoa hoc khac, dac biet
doi vdi nghien ciiu y hoc va bao ve siic khoe cong dong.
2. Van dung dung vdi cac ddn vi do lUdng cua nha nude trong cong tac.
3. Neu dUdc nhiing dac diem mang tinh quy luat cua cac hien tUdng ly sinh.

1. MO OAU
Nhiing phat minh ldn trong vat ly (cac dinh luat bao toan, tinh chat ltfdng
tii...), nhiing thuyet vat ly ve ban chat cua vat chat co dac tinh chung va trong
mot mile do khac nhau, co tac dung doi vdi gidi song cung nhu khong song, cho
nen co the coi vat ly la cd sd cua moi khoa hoc tu nhien.
Vat ly va ly sinh (vat ly ve sU song) quan he mat thiet vdi y hoc hien dai la do:
- Su iing dung cua nhiing quy luat vat ly de nghien ciiu nhiing qua trinh
song, de hieu va giai thich nhiing hien tUdng do xay ra tren cd the con
ngUdi, tren quan the song.
- Su iing dung nhiing phUdng phap vat ly, nhiing may moc trang thiet bi
trong viec chan doan benh, trong dieu tri benh, trong bao ve siic khoe
cong dong, trong viec bao ve moi trUdng song.
- Su iing dung nhiing phUOng phap suy nghi dUdc thira nhan trong vat ly
cho viec xay dung the gidi quan khoa hoc cua ngUdi thay thuoc.
Khi nghien ciiu cac hien tUdng vat ly xay ra tren vat the song hoac khong
song, phUdng phap pho bien la tao nen mot hoan canh thi nghiem tUdng tii nhu sU
kien da xay ra hoac tao nen mot mo hinh tUdng doi giong nhu hien tUdng dUdc
khao sat, tren cd sd d6 ma hoan chinh dan cac dieu kien (thong so) cua hien
tUdng. Thi du de nghien ciiu ve tim va he tuan hoan, ngUdi ta co the tao nen mot
he thong ong dan kin ma thanh ong co tinh dan hoi, mot may bdm vdi cong suat
xac dinh hoat dong lien tuc...
Cho den nay, cac hien tUdng vat ly xay ra dUdc giai thich bang 4 loai tUdng
tac sau:
- TUdng tac hap dan: Tiidng tac nay dUdc dien ta cd ban bang dinh luat hap
dan van vat cua Newtdn: hai vat bat ky hut nhau bang mot lUc ti le vdi
kho'i lUdng cua chung va ti le nghich vdi binh phUdng khoang cach giiia
chung.

- Tu'dng tac dien tu:: TUdng tac nay dUdc dien ta cd ban bang dinh luat
Coulomb, co dang tUdng tu dinh luat hap dan: hai dien tich hut (hoac day)

11
 nhau bang mot luc ti le vdi cac dien tich cua chung va ti le nghich binh
phUdng khoang cach gitia chung.
- TUdng tac hat nhan manh : TUdng tac nay xay ra rat dang ke trong pham
vi kich thu6c hat nhan, khoang 10 lD m, no dam bao sU ton tai cua hat
nhan nguyen tU.
- TUdng tac hat nhan yeu : Ttfdng tac nay dUdc gan lien vdi sU phat xa hat 3
cua hat nhan.
Cho den nay, tUdng tac dien tii dong vai tro chu yeu vdi hau nhu moi hien
tUdng xay ra d the gi6i song. Tuong tac dien tti g^n lien vdi trUdng dien tti. Thdi
gian gan day, nhieu ngUdi noi den sU ton tai cua trUdng sinh hoc tUdng ting vdi no
la sU tUdng tac cua trUdng sinh hdc nhUng ban chat cua trUdng sinh hoc hien nay
v&n chUa dUdc minh chting r5 ret.

2. DO Ll/ONG VA DON V| DO

2.1. He do lirdng quoc te va he do luting hdp phap cua Viet Nam

Moi mot thuoc tinh cua mot doi tUdng vat ly dac trUng bang mot hay nhieu
dai ltfdng vat ly. Mot trong nhting van de cd ban cua vat ly hoc la van de do lUdng
cac dai liidng vat ly. Do mot dai ltfdng ttic la chon mot dai ltfdng cung loai lam
mau (goi la ddn vi) roi so sanh dai liidng phai do vdi mau (ddn vi) do. Tri so^ do cua
dai lifdng do phai bang ty so:

dai lUdng phai do

dai ltfOng ddn vi

Muon dinh nghla ddn vi cua mot dai ltfdng, ngUdi ta phai chon trU6c mot so"
ddn vi lam mau goi la ddn vi cd ban. Cac ddn vi khac dUdc suy ra tti cac ddn vi cd
ban dUdc goi la ddn vi dan xuat. Tuy theo cac ddn vi cd ban chon trUdc se suy ra
dUdc nhting ddn vi dan xuat khac nhau. Tap hdp cac ddn vi da chon va cac ddn vi
dan xuat ttidng ting goi la he ddn vi. Cac he ddn vi thUdng dUdc chon sao cho thoa
man mot so yeu cau: cac ddn vi phai tien ldi khi tinh toan; cac cong thtic vat ly co
nhting he so ddn gian va hdp ly; so' lieu khoa hoc dtidc thong nhat gitia cac nude de
tien trao doi...

Trong qua khti, ngUdi ta da dung:

- He CGS: ddn vi cd ban la xangtimet (cm), gam (g) va giay (s).

- He MKS: ddn vi cd ban la met (m), kilogam (kg) va giay (s).

Nam 1960, nhieu nude tren the gidi da hop va chon mot ddn vi thong nhat
goi la he SI (Systeme international - he quoc te). Nam 1965, chinh phu Viet Xam
da ban hanh “ Bang ddn vi do ltidng hdp phap cua nude Viet N a m ” dua tren cd sd
he SI. Trong he SI 6 ddn vi cd ban la:

Ddn vi chieu dai : met (m)

Ddn vi khoi l^dng : kilogam (kg)

12
 Ddn vi do thdi gian : giay (s)
Ddn vi cUdng do dong dien : Ampe (A)
Ddn vi cUdng do sang : Candela (cd)
Ddn vi nhiet do : do Kelvin (°K)
Tti cac ddn vi cd ban do, ngUdi ta co the dinh nghia cac ddn vi dan xuat. Thi
du ddn vi SI cho cong suat, goi la oat (viet tat la W) dude dinh nghia theo cac ddn
vi cd ban cua khoi liidng, do dai va thdi gian.
1 oat = 1W - 1 kg.m 2/s 3
De dien ta cac so" do 16n hoac nho, ngUdi ta co the bo sung vao cac ddn vi do
cac tien t o cua he dem thap phan (Bang 1.1)
B ang 1.1 : Cac tien to cua he dem thap phan

Tiep dau nguf Ky hieu ThCra so Tiep dau ngur Ky hieu Thira so

De ca da 101 Dexi d 10'1

Hecto h 102 XSngti c 10'2

Kilo k 103 Mili m 10'3
Mega M 106 Micro a 10‘6
Giga G 109 Nano n 10'9
Tera T 1012 Pico 10-12
P

Do thoi quen, ngUOi ta hay dung cac don vi sau:

1 Angstrdm (1 A) = 10'10 m= 10'8 cm
1 phut = 60 s
1 gid = 3600 s = 60 phut

2.2. Thur nguyen cua mot dai lUdng vat ly

Do cac dai liidng vat ly co moi quan he v6i nhau cho nen tti nhting ddn vi cd
ban ngtfdi ta co the dinh nghia cac ddn vi dan xuat. Viec dinh nghia nay dtia vao
mot khai niem goi la thti nguyen.
Thti nguyen cua mot dai ltfdng la quy luat noi len sU phu thuoc cua ddn vi dd
dai ltfdng do vao cac ddn vi cd ban.
De cu the hdn. ta xet mot dai lildng nao do, chang han the tich cua mot vat.
Tri so' the tich cua cac vat khoi hinh chti nhat, hinh tru thang va hinh cau lan
ltidt dtidc tinh bang cong thtic:
V = a. b. c

V = nR2h
4
V= -x R 3
3

13
 Neu khong de y den cac he so, ta th&y trong moi trtidng hdp:
The tich = chieu dai x chieu dai x chieu dai

Ta noi thti nguyen cua the tich la (chieu dai) 3 va kl hieu:

[the tich] = [chieu dai] 3

Thi du khac:
[chieu dai]
Van toe
[thdi gian]

[chieu dai]
Gia toe
[thoi gian] 2

De cho cach viet dtidc ddn gian, ta ky hieu nhu sau:

[chieu dai] = L [khoi liidng] = M [thdi gian] = T

Khi do: [the tich] = L3

[van toe] = L/T = L.T 1

[gia toe] = L . T '2

Ket qua do co the viet:

Ddn vi the tich m

Ddn vi van toe ms

Ddn vi gia toe ms -2
Ddn vi khoi ltfdng rieng kg.m'
Nhd khai niem thti nguyen, ta co the co mot each de kiem nghiem lai su
dung dan cua mot cong thtic vat ly, vi hai ve cua mot cong thtic vat ly bao gid
cung phai co thti nguyen giong nhau. Thi du cong thtic tinh chu ki cua mot con
lac toan hoc:

V 6i £ la chieu dai con lac, g la gia toe trong trUdng. Ve dau co thti nguyen la
thdi gian T, ve sau co thti nguyen la:

L
g LT~

Nhu vay, ve phUdng dien thti nguyen. cong thtic tren hop ly.

14
2.3. Dai li/dng vo hi/dng va dai lUdng vectd
Mot so” dai liidng v&t ly ngo&i cac
don vi do ra co the dSc trUng bfing mot
so" lieu mot cach ddn tri, do la dai liidng
vo hudng. Thi du: khoang thdi gian,
nang liidng, nhiet do, the tich....
Cac dai liidng khac, chfing han toe
do, gia toe, life, ciidng do dien trUdng,
cUdng do tu! trUdng... khong nhiing dac
trUng bang mot tri so nao do ma con
can chi ro hudng cua chung trong
khong gian, do la cac dai liidng vectd.
Vectd diidc minh hda bang mot mui ten:
diidng thang bay tdi mui ten chi hudng,
do dai cua mui ten chi do ldn (modun)
cua dai liidng. Trong he true toa do
Hinh 1.1.
vuong goc Oxyz, vectd OM cho trU6c
dUdc xac dinh bang cac hinh chieu cua
no tren cac true toa do: M x, My, M z_.
Nhu vay vectd OM hoan toan dUdc xac
dinh do 16n cung jih u hudng trong
khong gian ba chieu: htidng va do 16n
dUdc dac trUng bdi cac dai liidng v6
hudng M x, M y, M z dai so” (hinh 1.1)
- Phep cong vectd dUdc trinh bay
tren hinh 1.2 , do la quy t i c cong theo
hinh binh hanh; ngtidc lai, vectd OC co Hinh 1.2.
the phan tich ra hai thanh phan la
vectd OA va vectd OB.
De ddn gian ngUdi ta viet:

OA + OB = OC
► B
Phan m odun dUdc ky hieu OA

Vdi vectd OM ta de dang tinh dUdc:

OM = + M) + M)

- Tich vo hudng cua 2 vectd cho ket

qua la mot dai liidng vo hiidng (hinh 1.3).

O A .O B = OA OB cos a ►A

Hinh 1.4.

15
 - Tich vectd cua 2 vectd OA, OB cho ket qua la mot vectd OC.

OC = O A m

+ O C = OA O B .sin a

+ Chieu cua vectd OC vuong goc vdi mat ph&ng AOB, theo chieu tien cua
cai van nut chai quay tii OA den OB (hinh 1.4)

2.4. Do I6n cua khoi luttng, chieu dai, thdi gian cua mot so doi tUdng

Bang 1.2. Do I6n cua khoi li/dng mot so doi ti/gng vat ly

Ooi ttfdng Khoi li/d ng (kg)

Dien tif 0,9 . 10-30

Proton 1,67. 1 0 27
Phan tCr ADN 10 15
1 lit nUdc 1
Con ngtfdi trUdng thanh 102
O to 103
Tau thuy 107
Trai dat 6. 1024
Mat trdi 2 . 1030

Bang 1.3. Do I6n cua chieu dai mot so doi ti/ong vat ly

Ooi ti/Ong C hieu dai (m)

Gidi han vu tru (khoang dadng anh sang di diroc tCr Big Bang
tdi nay - khoang 15 ty nam) - 1 0 26
Mot nam anh sang - 1 0 15
Khoang cach Trai dat - M at trdi - 1 0 12
Khoang cach Trai dat - Mat trang ~1 0 9
C hieu cao con ngi/di -1 .8
Mot so virut -1 0 6
Phan tCr ldn - 1 0 '9 - 10 '8
Kfch thudc nguyen tif -10'°
Kich thudc hat nhan nguyen tCr
1 0 '15
Can tren ban kinh dien tif
10 18

16
 Bang 1.4. Khoang thdi gian mot so qua trinh vat ly

Qua trinh K hoang thdi gian (s)

Thai gian anh sang di qua mot nucleon 10'24

Chu ky dao dong hat nhan 10-21
Chu ky dao dong nguyen tCr 10’ 14
Chu ky dao dong song vo tuyen truyen hinh 10'8
Chu ky dao dong song am 10-3
Nhip tim 1
1 nSm 108
Odi ngudi 1010
X uat hien ngi/di tren trai dat 1014
Tuoi cua vu tru 10’ 8

Bang 1.5. Cac hang so vat ly thong dung

Ten hSng so Ky hieu So do

Toe do anh sang trong chan khong c 3 .10 s ms ’

So A vogadro na 6 ,0 2 3 .1023phan tCf.mol1
Hang so Boltzm ann k 1,381.10 23 J .K '1
Hang so hap dan vu tru G 6,672.10 ” m 3kg V 2
Gia toe trong trUdng g 9,81 m s'2
Hang sd C oulom b K 9 .10 9 N .m 2C '2
Khoi lUdng electron me 9 ,1 0 9 .1 0 31 kg
D ien tich nguyen to e 1,602.10 19 C
Khoi lUdng proton mP 1,673.10 27 kg
Khoi lUdng notron mn 1 ,6 7 5 .1 0 27 kg
H ang so R ydberg Rb 1,097.10 7 m '1
Ban kinh Bohr ao 5,29.10 " m
Hang so Planck h 6 ,6 3 .1 0 '34J.s

3. MOT SO DAC DIEM CUA CAC HIEN Tl/ONG LY SINH

Cac hien tUdng ly sinh tuan theo quy luat vat ly, hoa hoc, sinh hoc... nhu
moi hien tUdng song va khong song khac. Tuy nhien ngUdi ta thudng hay nh&c
den mot so” dac diem cd vai tro to ldn nhu sau:

3.1. Tinh thong ke

3.1.1. Dac trung thong ke
Doi ttidng khao sat cua ly sinh gom nhieu phan tu, thong thudng la he vi
mo. Cac hien tUdng ly sinh xay ra cung khong phai la duy nhat chi xav ra mot
lan. Hien ttidng ly sinh xay ra cd the lg p di-JS^T^i nhieu lan, kha la giong nhau
nhUng khong phai y het nhu nhau. TI i d irt a de. ci: iieu cao cac nam sinh vien trong
mot ldp hoc, di nhien ket qua khong y het nhau, m;a nhan cac gia tri hj. h2....... h n
Ket qua ta cd chieu cao trung binh cua na^rn -sinh vien ldp hoc do la:

f h U ViK N !
17
So6
 -h = h ± h ± ..... t h - 1v /,
n n tt

Nhti v&y, co tinh thong ke trong cac hien tudng ly sinh la do:
- Doi tUdng khao sat la he gom nhieu p h l n tti tao thanh, hien ttfdng khao
sat khong phai chi xay ra mot l&n duy nhat.
- Thdi gian troi qua, tu than doi tUdng khong phai giti nguyen tinh chat
nhu cu ma co nhting thay doi.
- Cac phep do dac gap cac sai so' do thang giang n g lu nhien, cac sai so he
thong.
- Tac dong cua moi trUdng len doi tudng khao sat moi ltic co khac nhau,
thUc hien nhting dao dong ldn nho nao do.

3.1.2. Mot so d$c trung thong ke don gian

a. Tan suat va xac suat
Gia sti ta thUc hien N thUc nghiem nhu nhau (phep thti), ta thu dUdc doi vdi
sti kien A mot so l i n xay ra la NA trong so N. DI nhien 0 < N A < N

T i n suat cua siJ kien A la:

r - Na
v d l 0 - f * ~ 1

Thi du: ta tung con sue sac 6 mat tat ca 36 lan, vdi sU kien xuat hien mat 1
cham do la 5 lln , thi tan suat cua sU kien nay la:

/ = —
36

Khi thUc hien so lan tung con sue sac cang nhieu thi tan suat xuat hien mat
1 cham do se dan dan tien tdi 1/6 (trong dieu kien con sue sac hoan toan can doi).

NgUdi ta dinh nghia xac suat cua no khi so lan thUc nghiem N tang den vo
cung:

P ( A ) = lim f —rj- \= lim /^

D\ nhien 0 < P (/j)< l

Nhu vay xac suat cua m ot siC kien (bien co) cho ta biet kha nang xay ra sl(
kien do trong mot ph ep thti nao do. Mot hien tudng xay ra vdi xac suat ldn nghia
la no de xay ra. Mot hien tudng khac xay ra vdi xac suat nho nghia la no kho xay
ra. Xac suat cang nho bao nhieu thi cang kho xay ra bay nhieu nhung khong cd
nghia la no khong the xay ra.

18
 b. Gia tri trung binh
- Gia sti ta do dai liidng vat ly A t^Lt ca N lan, trong do ta thu dUdc cac gia
tri A, la Nj l&n, A 2 la N2 lan, ... A n la Nn lan. Gia tri trung binh cua dai
liidng A thUc nghiem la:

- A..N. + A 2N 2 + .... + AnN n , N. , N2 N„

A= -±— ---------- 2— 2-------------------- = ' + + .... + An.— = A.,f , +.... + A J .
N 1 N 2 N N '

Khi N -> co ta co: a = £ a ,. p ( a ,)

i =I

A la gia tri trung binh hay ky vong toan hoc cua dai lu:dng A.

- Sai so" cua mot lan do Aj la: AA, = A, - A

Gia tri trung binh cua sai so” la: AA = A, - A = 0

- Sai so” toan phUdng trung binh la:

S2 = £ ( A , - A ) 2. P ( A )
1=1

Khi N —> oo thi s 2 —> a 2 va. goi o2la phUdng sai.

c. Phan p h oi cua cac dai liidng

Cac so” do cua mot dai ltidng vat ly, ly sinh thong thudng dUdc phan phoi
theo mot quy tac nao day:
+ Phan phoi nhi thtic.
+ Phan phoi Gauss (Thi du hinh 1.5).
+ Phan phoi Poisson...
Cac thong so” cua phan phoi cho ta cac dac
trUng dinh ltidng, xac sua”t cua mot dai liidng
vat ly (xin xem giao trinh Thong ke xac sua”t cua
bo mon Toan-Tin trtidng Dai hoc Y Ha Noi)

3.2. Tinh quy luat ham mu

Ham mu la ham co dang y = a* vdi a > 0
- TrUdng hdp ham mu tang : y = ax
vdi a > 1
Thi du xet mot quan the te” bao nao do dang phan bao tu do ma X la tan sua”t
phan bao (hay xac sua”t phan bao) sau mot ddn vi thdi gian, dP la xac sua”t phan
bao sau thdi gian dt:

dP_
A=
~dt

19
 Tong so te bao cua quan the co kha nang phan bao 6 thdi diem t la N(t); nhu
vay so te bao thUc hien phan bao sau thdi gian dt la dN(t), cung chi'nh la so cac te
bao tang them:
dN(t) = N (t).d P = /LN (t).d t

-d ^ l = A.dt
m

dN (t) _
Lay tich phan hai ve ta co: j = JAdt

InN(t) = A.t + C

& .
N (t) = e . ec
Tai t = 0 co N(o) te bao nen N (o) = e°.ec = e c

Xi
Vay: N (t) = N (o).e
- TrUdng hdp ham mu giam : y = a* vdi a < 1
Thi du: Xet mot qu&n the te bao N(t) bi chieu xa ma xac suat de mot te bao
bi chet trong mot ddn vi thdi gian chieu la ly luan tUdng tu phan tren ta cd:

- At
N (t) = N (o).e
Ta can chu y rang vdi quy luat ham mu thi:

dt V7

dN(t)
hoac: ---------= -A N it)
dt V’

tlic la toe do xay ra hien tUdng luon ty le vdi do ldn (klch thudc) cua doi tudng.
Khi ta khong xet tdi cac qua trinh bi kh ong che bdi mot yeu to' nao do cua
chinh qua trinh, cac hien tUdng xay ra theo quy luat ham mu rat pho bien trong
tu nhien, chSng han sU tang trUdng kien thtic (cac phat minh khoa hoc) cua
nhan loai, sU tang trUdng bach cau trong benh mau trang, sU chet cua cac te bao
sau khi bi chieu xa, sU phong dien cua tu dien... Cac hien tUdng g^n vdi quy luat
ham mu ma dan tdi trang thai dting cung kha pho bien: sU nap dien vao tu. sU
nap vao va thao chat long ra khoi mot binh chtia, sU klch thich dien te bao. sU
tham cua dung dich vao cd the, sU rdi tu do cua mot vat trong moi trUdng cd gay
lUc can...

3.3. Tinh quy luat lien he ngtidc

Cac qua trinh trong tu nhien neu cti tu do dien bien theo mot quy luat hoac
mot dac diem nao day thi rat kho tien tdi mot trang thai on dinh. Quy luat lien he

20
ngtidc cua cac qua trinh tien trien trong cac hien ttidng tti nhien cd tac dung lam
cho cac qua trinh cd the tien tdi mot trang thai can bang (hay dting) nao day lam
cho trang thai cua he cd the on dinh. Ta cd the bieu dien qua trinh lien he ngtidc
nhu sd do dudi day:

Ta hieu ddn gian nhu sau: he d trang thai A, mot so" phan tti tien trien sang
trang thai B roi trang thai C... NhUng ket qua cac trang thai sau (B,C, ...) lai cd
tac dung ngtidc lai vao trang thai A lam cho cac phan tti d trang thai A kho bien
doi sang trang thai B,C (thi du nhu giam toe do bien doi).
Thi du:
- Xet qua cau kim loai A tich dien am rat nhieu. Noi A vdi qua cau B cung
la kim loai bang mot day dan kim loai. Cac dien tich am (chang han d day
la dien titytti A chuyen sang B lam cho hieu dien the gitia A va B ngay
cang thap di dieu do gay ra hieu qua la cac dien tu chuyen sang B ngay
cang it di. He thong se tien tdi trang thai dien the 2 qua cau nhu nhau.

- Xet sti khuech tan cua ion dUdng va am qua mot mang. Luc dau cac ion de
dang khuech tan sang lan nhau gitia 2 phia cua mang vdi riia dinh ban
dau mot ben rat nhieu ion dtidng, mot ben rat nhieu ion am. Trang thai
khuech tan se dan tdi ve sau cang kho khuech tan qua mang.
- Cd mot so" benh nhiem trung ma he qua nhiem trung lam cho nhiet do cd
the cua benh nhan cao len (>37°C). NhUng ban than nhiet do cd the luc ay
(>37°) lai khong tao dieu kien thuan ldi cho sti phat trien cua vi khuan
trong cd the, nhiet do cd the khi do kho tang them len.

3.4. Sir chi phi nang lirdng toi thieu

M uon cho hoat dong song xay ra, cd the phai chi phi nang liidng. Nang ltidng
nay dtidc tich tu lai trong cd the nhd thtic an, do uong, anh sang, nhiet do moi
trUdng... dtidi dang md, dtidng, ATP...
Hoat dong song cua cd the chi phi nang ltidng tuan theo quy tac chi phi to"i
thieu tUdng ting vdi hoan canh, dieu kien vat ly, hoa hoc cua moi trUdng.
Chang han khi chung ta ngu ma thdi tiet dot nhien chuyen tti nong sang
lanh, ta khong can suy nghi, tti nhien cd the se phan ting va cd the chung ta se tu
dong thu lai sao cho sti tiep xuc cua cd the vdi moi trtidng it di. toa nhiet it di, cd
the nhanh chong dieu hoa nhiet do.

Trong hoat dong chan tay, cac bo phan cua cd the se dUdc dieu khien de
tUdng ting tao nen sU nhip nhang dong bo sao cho nang ltidng chi phi it nhat vdi
mot hoan canh lao dong xac dinh.

21
 Nhting dong vat ngu dong (gau, ech nhai...) hang nam thtic hien ngu dong
nh&m muc dlch ha thap chi phi nang ltidng cho sti ton tai cua chung: nhiet do cd the
ha thap, nhip dap cua tim cham lai, tuan hoan va ho hap giam di, sti toa nhiet ra moi
trtidng it di.
Hoat dong song cua con ngtidi nhieu mat gay nen sti o nhiem moi trtidng. 0
nhiem moi trtidng lam cho sti chi phi nang ltidng cua cd the cho hoat dong song
tang len, cd the se kho khan hdn trong viec thich ting vdi moi trtidng. Chinh vi the
ma chung ta phai chong lai nhting nhting hoat dong lam o nhiem moi trtidng,
chon phtidng phap ky thuat va vat lieu san xuat bao dam cang It gay hai cho moi
trtidng cang tot.

3.5. Ngtidng
Bat cti mot tac dong nao cua moi trtidng (trtidng noi chung) cung tao nen
phan ting cua doi ttidng bi tac dong. Van de chung ta can quan tarn la do ldn cua
dai ltidng vat ly dac trting cho tac dong ldn den mtic do nao thi gay cho doi ttidng
phan ting. Chang han khi tac dong mot ltic cd hoc len cd the ta can phai biet doi
ttidng cd cam giac gi: dau hay khong dau, ton thtidng nhti the nao, mang lai thong
tin gi (dong tinh hay phan doi)... Muon cd phan ting cho doi ttidng tao mot thong
tin dang ke thi do ldn cua dai ltidng vat ly dac trting cho tac dong phai cd mot tac
dung dang ke nao day, vtidt qua mot gidi han xac dinh.

- Dinh nghia: Ngtidng cua mot tac dong la dai ltidng vat ly dac trting cho
tac dong cd mot gia tri toi thieu de neu do ldn cua dai ltidng vat ly dac
trting chinh cho tac dong ldn hdn hoac bang dai ltidng ay mdi tao nen mot
tin dap ting cua doi tticJng bi tac dong.

Thi du 1: Vo si quyen anh dam khong du manh thi khong tao cam giac dau
cho doi thu; anh sang yeu khong cho phep ta nhin ro vat; dien the qua thap khong
gay cho ngtidi bi dien truyen qua cam giac gi; am thanh cd ctidng do nho khong
gay cam giac am;...

- Neu nhti do ldn cua dai ltidng vat ly dac trting cho tac dong lai qua ldn.
vtidt qua mot gia tri nao day thi cd the tac dong lai khong gay nen dap ting
ntia; trang thai cua doi ttidng bi tac dong chuyen sang trang thai khac.

Thi du 2: anh sang qua manh lam ta choi mat khong nhin ro do'i ttidng. am
thanh manh qua gay dau tai...

- Nhti vay ngtidng cd It nhat hai gidi han: du ldn de gay dap ting va du nho
de khong pha trang thai nhan thtic, phan ting.

Thi du 3: Trong quan he gitia ctidng do am thanh va cam giac am cd ton tai
ngtidng nghe va ngtidng dau (choi tai). Trong quan he gitia ctidng do anh sang va
cam giac sang cd ton tai ngtidng nhin va ngtidng choi mat.

- Khi tac dong cd bien thien. ban than doi ttidng bi tac dong cung cd nhting
bien doi de cho tac dong khong gay nhting cam giac, dap ting qua manh cd
the dan den qua ngtidng tren, de d i thich ting hoan canh.

22
 Thi du 4 : Khi ctidng do anh sang manh thi dong tti thu nho lai de anh sang
vao day m it It di; Khi ctidng do am thanh thay doi ludng Al, ta chi nhan thay thay
AI
doi do to khi — > 0,1
/

3.6. Tinh quy luat doi xumg

Vat vo sinh cung nhti vat htiu sinh, hinh the cd the cd tinh doi xting. Vdi vat
htiu sinh, sti doi xting hinh thanh trong qua trinh tien hoa cua sinh vat, lam cho
sinh vat ton tai va phat trien de dang hdn.
Thi du doi vdi dong vat, tti con sen den con voi, con ho va den ca con ngtidi
deu mang nhting yeu to" cau true cd tinh doi xting gtidng: tay trai va tay phai; tai
trai va tai phai; hai con mat... Mot dac diem cua doi xting gtidng la hai bo phan
doi xting cd the tich bang nhau nhting khong the long hai bo phan do khit vao
nhau. Tinh doi xting gtidng trong cau true vat chat song cd tti mtic do sd cap la cac
phan tii cho tdi cac bo phan, cd quan cua sinh vat.
Tinh doi xting con the hien b rat nhieu mat: doi xting true, doi xting diem
(doi xting cau). Thi du ta cd the quay mot bong hoa quanh mot true xuyen qua
tam hoa mot goc nao do thi bong hoa lai trung vdi chinh no... Tren doi ttidng la
con ngtidi ta cd the tim thay nhieu mat, nhieu true va diem doi xting.

23
 Bai 2

SIT
■
BIEN DOI NANG LU0NG
■
0 CO THE SONG

MUC
• TIEU HOC TAP • •

rj 't * 1
1. Neu dtidc cac dang nang ltidng d cd the song va phat bieu dung dinh
nghia ve: nhiet ltidng, noi nang, entropi, nang ltidng tti do va cac nguyen
ly nhiet dong ltic hoc.
2. Giai thich dtidc sti bien doi nang ltidng d cd the, nhu cau nang ltidng cua cd
the.
3. Trinh bay dtidc tam quan trong cua trang thai dting va sti can thiet phai
bao ve moi trtidng.
Cac he thong song trong qua trinh ton tai cung nhti duy tri moi hoat dong
nhat dinh phai thtic hien trao doi vat chat va nang ltidng vdi moi trtidng xung
quanh. Nhti vay trong cd the luon ton tai hai qua trinh quan trong khong the tach
rdi nhau ma bo xung, tao dieu kien cho nhau, dong thdi ta cung thay dtidc moi
quan he dac biet cua chung vdi moi trtidng. Viec khao sat cac qua trinh trao doi
vat chat va nang ltidng cua cd the song lam sang to y nghia vat ly cua sti song,
lam ro dieu kien ton tai, duy tri va phat trien cua sti song, tti do cho ta thay ro
tam quan trong cua moi trtidng song.
Doi vdi Ly sinh va dac biet la Ly sinh y hoc thi van de quan tam la cac dang
nang ltidng va sti bien doi cua chung tren cd the song.

1. CAC DANG NANG LUONG CO THE TON TAI TRONG CO THE SONG
Khai niem nang ltidng la khai niem quan trong nhat cua vat ly hoc. Tat ca
cac dang cu the cua vat chat chuyen dong deu cd nang ltidng. Nang ltidng la so do
chung cua chuyen dong vat chat trong cac hinh thtic chuyen dong khac nhau. Moi
hinh thtic van dong cu the ttidng ting vdi mot dang nang ltidng. Cd the dtidc cau
tao tti cac nguyen tii, phan tti vat chat luon van dong va bien doi vi vay tren cd
the cung cd day du cac dang cua nang ltidng.

1.1. Cd nang

Cd nang la nang ltidng cua chuyen dong cd hoc va ttidng tac cd hoc gitia cac
vat hoac cac phan cua vat. Cd nang cua he vat bang tong cua dong nang va the nang
cua he ay.

- Dong nang la so do phan cd nang do van toe cua no quyet dinh.

Trong cd the dong nang dtidc gap d nhting ndi dang cd sti chuyen dong -
chuyen dong cua ca cd the, cua mau trong he tuan hoan, cua khi trong ho hap, cua
thtic an trong ong tieu hoa, cua vat chat qua mang te bao...

24
 - The nang la phan cd nang cua he quy dinh bdi tUdng tac gitia cac phan cua
he vdi nhau va vdi trUdng ltic ngoai. The nang bang cong ma cac ltic the thtic hien
dUdc khi chuyen he tti vi tri (cau hinh) dang xet tdi vi tri (cau hinh) cd the nang
quy tide bang 0.
Doi vdi cd the, xet ve toan bo, do ton tai trong trtidng hap dan cua trai dat no
cd mot the nang. Gitia tting cd quan, bo phan trong cd the cung ton tai the nang
do chung di chuyen vi tri ttidng doi doi vdi nhau, hoac thay doi cau hinh trong qua
trinh thtic hien cac chtic nang cua cd the song.

1.2. Dien nang

Dien nang la nang ltidng lien quan tdi sti ton tai cua dien trtidng va sti
chuyen dong cua cac phan tii mang dien.
Trong cd the, dien nang cd trong sti van chuyen thanh dong cua cac ion qua
mang te bao, trong sti phat cac loai song dien tti vao khong gian xung quanh. Dien
nang lam cho hting phan dtidc dan truyen den te bao, dam bao cho sti hoat dong
cua te bao. Khong cd no cd the khong the ton tai dtidc.

1.3. Hoa nang

Hoa nang la nang ltidng giti cho cac nguyen tti, cac nhom hoa chtic cd vi tri
khong gian nhat dinh doi vdi nhau trong mot phan tti. Nang ltidng se dtidc giai
phong khi phan tti bi pha vd. Do ldn cua nang ltidng dtidc giai phong tuy thuoc
tting lien ket.
Hoa nang cd d khap cd the. Hoa nang cua cd the ton tai dtidi nhieu hinh
thtic: hoa nang cua cac chat tao hinh, hoa nang cua cac chat dti trti (nhti glycogen,
lipid, protid), hoa nang cua cac chat dam bao cac hoat dong chtic nang, hoa nang
cua cac hdp chat giau nang ltidng...

1.4. Quang nang

Quang nang la dang nang ltidng lien quan den anh sang.
Cd the tiep nhan nang ltidng tti cac ltidng tii sang, sii dung no trong cac
phan ting quang hoa nham tao nang ltidng cho cd the, tiep nhan va xii ly thong
tin, thtic hien qua trinh sinh tong hdp...

1.5. Nhiet nang

Nhiet nang la dang nang ltidng gan vdi chuyen dong nhiet hdn loan cua cac
phan tii cau tao nen vat chat. Vi vay nhiet nang con cd ten goi la nang ltidng
chuyen dong nhiet.
Sti bien doi tti cac dang nang ltidng khac sang nhiet nang va ngtidc lai dong
mot vai tro quan trong trong tti nhien.
Nhiet nang ton tai trong toan bo cd the, dam bao cho cd the cd mot nhiet do
ben trong can thiet cho cac phan ting chuyen hoa dien ra binh thtidng. De duy tri
hoat dong va giti cho cd the d trang thai can bang, trong cd the luon dong thdi ton

‘25
tai hai qua trinh: tao ra nhiet nang c&n thiet va loai mot ph&n nhiet nang ra khoi
cd the.

1.6. Nang ludng hat nhan

Nang ltidng hat nhan dtidc dti trti trong hat nhan nguyen tti, khi bj pha vd
nang ltidng nay dtidc giai phong.
d cd the, cd the ke den nang ltidng nay khi xet ttidng tac cua btic xa hat
nhan, tia vu tru vdi cd the.

2. S I/ BIEN OOI CUA CAC DANG NANG LlTQNG TRONG CO THE SONG
Cac cd the song khong phai la nhting may nhiet ma la nhting may chuyen
hoa, chung bien doi nang ltidng tti moi trtidng (thi du nhti thtic an) thanh nhiet
nang, cd nang, nang ltidng tham thau hoac mot dang nang ltidng khac nao do ma
sinh vat cd the svi dung dtidc.

2.1. Sir bien doi nang li/dng 0 cd the song

Xet theo sti bien doi nang ltidng trong cd the ta cd the chia thanh 3 phan:
nang ltidng vao cd the - nang ltidng chuyen hoa trong cd the - nang ltidng rdi cd the.
- Nang ltidng vao cd the:
Chu yeu la hoa nang cua thtic an, cd 3 chat chinh cung cap nang ltidng cho
cd the la protid, lipid, gluxid. Ngoai ra con cd nang ltidng nhiet, nang ltidng cua
song dien tti...
- Chuyen hoa nang ltidng trong cd the:
Khong giong vdi cac chtic nang khac, cd the khong cd rieng bo may chuyen hoa
nang ltidng chung cho ca cd the. Cac chat hap thu dtidc van chuyen tdi cac te bao. d
day chung tham gia vao cac phan ting chuyen hoa phtic tap. Khi ay, hoa nang cua
cua chat hap thu chuyen thanh cac dang nang ltidng can thiet cho cd the.
Chuyen hoa nang ltidng, di kem vdi chuyen hoa cac chat hap thu d iin ra theo
ba btidc, d ba khu vtic cua te bao: d bao ttidng, d ty lap the va d cac bao quan khac.
Trong tat ca cac phan ting chuyen hoa bao gid cung cd mot phan nang ltidng
cua cac chat tham gia bien doi thanh nhiet nang.
- Nang ltidng rdi cd the:

Nang ltidng rdi cd the dtidi cac dang hoa nang cua cac chat bai tiet, dong
nang, dien nang va nhiet nang. Ngtidi ta thtidng chia cac nguyen nhan tieu hao
nang ltidng cd the thanh 3 loai ldn:

+ Tieu hao nang ltidng de duy tri sti song: chuyen hoa cd sd, van cd, dieu nhiet.
tieu hoa.

+ Tieu hao nang ltidng cho phat trien cd the.

+ Tieu hao nang ltidng cho sinh san.

26
2.2. Nguyen ly thuf nhat nhiet dong life hc>c
Nhiet dong ltic hoc la mot bo phan cua vat ly hoc nghien ctiu cac qua trinh
bien doi nang ltidng trong tti nhien. Nhiet dong ltic hoc khao sat cac qua trinh,
chieu tien trien cua qua trinh vdi mot tap hdp ldn cac phan tti tao thanh mot he
thong vat. Ta khong the nao ttidng ttidng dtidc khai niem nhiet do hay ap suat cua
mot phan tti rieng le nao do ma chi cd the cd khai niem ve nhiet do va ap suat cua
mot kho"i khi gom rat nhieu phan tii. Nhiet dong ltic hoc khong tra ldi cho ta biet
cd che cua hien ttidng nay hay khac ma chi cd the cho ta ro qua trinh do xay ra
that hay khong, chieu htidng tien trien cua qua trinh nhti the nao tren quan diem
nang ltidng.
He nhiet dong (sau day goi tfit la he) la mot tap hdp gom rat nhieu cac phan
tii. Nhti vay klch thtidc cua mot he ldn hdn dang ke so vdi klch thtidc cua ph&n tti
nam trong he. Tuy theo dac tinh ttidng tac vdi moi trtidng xung quanh, nhiet dong
ltic hoc xet 3 loai he: cd lap, kin va met.
He dtidc dtidc goi la cd lap khi no khong trao doi vat chat va nang ltidng vdi
moi trtidng xung quanh.
He dtidc goi la kin khi no chi trao doi nang ltidng vdi moi trtidng xung quanh.
O day khong xay ra trao doi vat chat qua bien gidi cua he, do do khoi ltidng cua he
khong thay doi. Mot he kin cd the sinh cong do lay nang ltidng tti moi trtidng xung
quanh hoac sif dung nang ltidng dti trti cua ban than.
He dtidc goi la md khi no trao doi vat chat va nang ltidng vdi moi trtidng
xung quanh. Cd the sinh vat la he mci vi no luon trao doi vat chat va nang ltidng
vdi moi trtidng xung quanh. Tuy nhien cd the sinh vat khac vdi cac he md khac d
cac diem:
- la mot dang ton tai dac biet cua cac protid va cac chat khac tao thanh.
- cd kha nang tti tai tao.
- cd kha nang tti phat trien.
C) moi thdi diem he mang nhting tinh chat vat ly va hoa hoc xac dinh. Tap
hdp cac tinh chat nay quyet dinh trang thai cua he. Thong thtidng, cac trang thai
cua he dtidc md ta nhd cac thong so" trang thai: nhiet do T, ap suat p, the tich V,
noi nang U, entropi S, nong do C... Khi he chiu mot qua trinh bien doi thi It nhat
cung cd mot thong so trang thai thay doi, khi ay ta noi he da thtic hien mot qua
trinh nhiet dong.
Qua trinh nhiet dong cd the la qua trinh kin hay chu trinh, ttic la qua trinh
nhiet dong trong do he sau hang loat bien doi lai quay ve trang thai ban dau.
Nhting qua trinh nang ltidng xay ra trong cd the song cung nhti trong cac he
thong khong song deu tuan theo cac nguyen ly cua nhiet dong ltic hoc. Nhting
nguyen ly nay thiet lap dtia tren sti tong quat hoa cac dti kien thtic nghiem. chung
cd vai tro to ldn trong ly thuyet cung nhti trong thtic hanh, ky thuat.

Nang ltidng la do do dang chuyen dong xac dinh cua vat chat, no phan anh
kha nang sinh cong cua mot he. Nang ltidng cd the bien doi tti dang nay sang
dang khac. Tren cd sd cua moi nghien ctiu tti nhien. vat ly da thiet lap dtidc dinh

27
luat tong quat nhat la djnh luat bao toan va bien doi nang ltidng: "Nang ltidng
khong tu nhien xuat hien va khong the bien mat, no chi bien doi tti dang nay sang
dang khac". Cac qua trinh xay ra trong cd the song cung tuan theo dinh luat tren.
Nguyen ly thti nhat nhiet dong ltic hoc la cach bieu dien dinh luat bao toan
va bien doi nang ltidng ting dung vao cac he va cac qua trinh nhiet dong, trong do
khao sat sti cd mat cua nhiet ltidng, noi nang cua he va cong ma he thtic hien.

2.2.1. Nhiet luang - Nhiet dung rieng

Cho hai vat cd kho'i ltidng m,, m2 co nhiet do khac nhau tiep xuc nhau dong
thdi cd lap vdi moi trtidng xung quanh. Ta gia thiet la trong he nay khong xay ra
cac phan ting hoa hoc, do do ket qua cua sti can bang nhiet la chung cd cung nhiet
do t. Gia sii nhiet do ban dau cua chung la t2 va t,, vdi t2 > t,. Ket qua thu dtidc:
t2 > t > t,
Ta thay d day vat thti nhat m x da nong len, con vat thti hai m2 thi nguoi di,
ttic la da cd mot qua trinh truyen phan nang ltidng cd lien quan den nhiet do tti
vat thti hai sang vat thti nhat. Nhting ket qua thtic nghiem cho phep thiet lap
dtidc he thtic:

Cjtritd - t,) = c2m2(t2 - t) (2 . 1)

c,, c2 la cac he sd" ti le ttidng ting phu thuoc vao ban chat vat thti nhat va ban
chat vat thti hai.
He thtic (2.1) cd the viet ddn gian hdn neu ta dtia vao mot dai ltidng mdi ky
hieu la Q va dtidc xac dinh bang dang sau:

AQ = mcAt = mcAT (2.2)

AQ goi la nhiet ltidng. Neu nhiet do cua vat nao do tang thi ta noi vat do
nhan dtidc nhiet ltidng. Nhiet ltidng cd mat d ca hai ve cua bieu thtic (2.1): d ve
trai nhiet ltidng bi thu bdi vat lanh hdn, con d ve' phai nhiet ltidng bi trao bdi vat
nong hdn, ttic la nhiet ltidng trao bang nhiet ltidng nhan. Ban chat cua bieu thtic
(2 . 1) la dinh luat bao toan nang ltidng: nhiet nang khong dtidc tao ra va khong bi
mat di ma chi trao doi.

Ddn vi do nhiet ltidng la calo (cal). do la nhiet ltidng lam nong lg a m ntidc tti
14,5°C den 15,5° C.

He so c cd mat trong bieu thtic (2.1) hay (2.2) dac trting cho ban chat cua vat
chat thu hay trao nhiet, goi la ty nhiet hay nhiet dung rieng:

c = ~ f- (2.3)
mAt

Ddn vi do nhiet dung rieng la cal/ gam .do

Sd tri nhiet dung rieng cua vat chat da cho bang nhiet ltidng can truyen cho
mot ddn vi kho'i ltidng vat chat do de no tang them 1° C.

28
 Nhiet dung rieng thay doi theo nhiet do, nhUng tai nhiet do phong thi sti
phu thuoc nay co the bo qua.
Nhiet dung cua mot vat nao do la tich so cua khoi ltidng va nhiet dung rieng
cua no. Ddn vi do nhiet dung la cal/do.
Nhiet dung rieng trung binh cua cd the ngtidi la 0,8 cal/g.do ttic la gan bang
nhiet dung rieng cua ntidc. Dieu nay phu hdp vdi dti kien la ntidc chiem tdi 70%
trong ltidng cua cd the. Tuy nhien, nhiet dung rieng cua cac md va cd quan cua cd
the rat khac nhau, gia tri cang gan nhiet dung rieng cua ntidc khi ty le ntidc trong
md cang ldn. Thi du nhiet dung rieng cua mau la 0,93 cal/g.do, con cua xtidng dac
khoang 0,3 - 0,4 cal/g.do
Cac dung cu dung de do nhiet ltidng goi la nhiet ltidng ke. Nhiet ltidng ke
ntidc la nhiet ltidng ke ddn gian nhat.

2.2.2. Cong - Lien he giua cong va nhiet lutong

2.2.2.1. Cong
Trong cd hoc, ttidng tac cua vat dtidc do bang ltic ttidng tac gitia chung. Cong
cd hoc A dac trting cho ttidng tac ve phtidng dien nang ltidng.

Tac dung len vat mot ltic F trong khoang thdi gian dt, vat dich chuyen
quang dtidng ds (hinh 2 .1), cong thtic hien
dtidc la:

dA = F .d s

dA = F ds cos a (2.4)
Hinh 2.1

trong do a la goc tao gitia hai vec td: ltic

F va quang dtidng dich chuyen ds .

C5 mot chuyen dong cd htidng cu the cua vat ma gap ltic can (chang han ltic
ma sat), vat phai sinh cong chong lai sti can trd do. Nhti vay cong la mot dai ltidng
dac trting cho mtic do trao doi nang ltidng cua he trong chuyen dong cd htidng.

Xet he la mot khoi khi'd ben trong mot binh dtidc nen gian bang pittong bdi
ltic ben ngoai (Hinh 2.2). Do ltic song song vdi chieu dich chuyen cua pittong, ta

dA = F ngoai .dx
Khi he bi nen. he nhan nang ltidng: dA>0
Khi he gian. he mat nang ltidng: dA<0
Tai moi thdi diem, khi ap suat khoi khi p
can bSng (bang ve do ldn nhting ngtidc chieu) Hinh 2. 2
vdi ap suat nen d ben ngoai ta cd:
dA = F ngliai dx = -pS dx = -pdV

29
 Gia thiet r in g khi nhiet do T khong doi,
he chuyen tif trang thai co the tich Vj sang
trang thai co the tich V 2 thi:

2
A = - \pdV (2.5)
v,i

Hinh 2.3 dien ta mot qua trinh dang nhiet

(T khong doi) cong dtidc tinh bang phan dien
tich ke soc cheo.

2.2 2.2. Lien he giCra nhiet luong va cong Hinh 2.3

Nhti vtia xet 6 tren, ta thay cong va nhiet ltidng deu la cac dai ltidng dac
trting cho mtic do trao doi nang ltidng gitia cac he (la phan nang ltidng dtidc
truyen). Vay sti truyen nang ltidng noi chung dtidc thtic hien dtidi hai hinh thtic
khac nhau. Do la sti truyen nhiet ltidng va sti thtic hien cong cd hoc. Sti truyen
nhiet ltidng la hinh thtic truyen nang ltidng xay ra trtic tiep gitia cac phan tu
chuyen dong hdn loan cau tao nen cac vat dang ttidng tac; con sti thtic hien cong
la hinh thtic truyen nang ltidng gitia cac vat vi md ttidng tac vdi nhau va bao gid
cung g in lien vdi sti chuyen rdi dinh htidng cua vat vi md xet toan bo (hay mot
phan cua vat).
Cong va nhiet ltidng cd moi lien he chat che vdi nhau va cd the chuyen hoa
lan nhau: cong cd the bien thanh nhiet ltidng va ngtidc lai. Vi du:
- Trong chuyen dong cua mot vat gap ltic ma sat can, vat phai sinh cong
chong lai sti can do, hien ttidng nhiet thong thtidng keo theo la cd sti nong len cua
vat chuyen dong hoac cua vat can. Nhti vay cd mot sti lien he mat thiet gitia nhiet
ltidng va cong. Dieu nay cd nghia la cong cd the lam vat tang nhiet do, hay noi
khac di, cong cd the bien thanh nhiet ltidng.
- Khi dot nong mot vat, vat nhan nhiet ltidng, nhiet do cua vat tang dong
thdi he gian nd nghia la mot phan nhiet da bien thanh cong.

Ve mat dinh ltidng, khoang gitia the ky 19, bang thtic nghiem Joule da thiet
lap dtidc sti ttidng dtidng gitia nhiet va cong:

A J
+ Dtidng ltidng cong cua nhiet la: J = — = 4.18-----
Q cal

+ Dtidng ltidng nhiet cua cong la: J = — = 0 , 2 4 ^ -

A J
Cong va nhiet ltidng la nhting dai ltidng dung de do mtic do trao doi nang
ltidng chti ban than chung khong phai la mot dang nang ltidng. 0 moi trang thai.
nang ltidng cua he cd gia tri xac dinh (nang ltidng la ham ddn tri cua trang thai)
chti d moi trang thai khong the cd cong va nhiet, nang ltidng cua he khong phu
thuoc vao qua trinh dtia he den trang thai do. Chi khi he bien doi tti trang thai

30
nay sang trang thai khac theo nhiing con dtidng khac nhau thi cong va nhiet
trong nhiing qua trinh bien doi do mdi co nhiing gia tri khac nhau. Vay cong va
nhiet khong phai la nhiing ham trang thai ma la ham cua qua trinh.

2.2.3. Noi n&ng

N oi nang cua he la nang litCng diC trie toan phan cua tat cd cac dang chuyen
dong va tiidng tac cua tat cd cac phan tii nam trong he.
Noi nang dtidc ky hieu la U.
Nang ltidng chuyen dong nhiet, nang ltidng dao dong cua cac phan tii,
nguyen tii, nang ltidng cua dien tii quy dao, nang ltidng hat nhan,... la cac thanh
phan khac nhau cua noi nang. Dong nang cua chuyen dong tap the cua he, the
nang ttidng tac cua he vdi moi trtidng xung quanh khong dtidc ke la thanh phan
cua noi nang.
Moi he deu cd noi nang U xac dinh, ta chtia the xac dinh tri so" tuyet doi U
nhting hoan toan xac dinh ltidng thay doi cua no la dU. Noi nang cua he chi phu
thuoc vao trang thai cua he nen no la ham trang thai. Neu he thay doi qua cac
trang thai khac nhau roi lai tret ve trang thai ban dau (he thtic hien chu trinh)
thi: AU - 0
Neu he tti trang thai 1 bien doi sang trang thai 2 ta cd:

U2
AU = jd U = U ~ - U . (2 .6)
u
1

2.2.4. Nguyen ly thurnhat nhiet dong life hoc

- P hat bieu nguyen ly
Gia sut cd mot he nao do nhan nhiet ltidng 5Q, neu nhti he khong thtic hien
cong doi vdi moi trtidng ngoai thi phan nhiet nay hoan toan dung lam tang noi
nang U cua he vat them mot ltidng dU. Ta cd:

SQ = dU

Neu nhti he vat thtic hien cong len moi trtidng ngoai 5A thi cong nay lay d
phan nhiet ltidng ma vat thu dtidc, do do:

SA= S Q - d U

Hay SQ = d U + S A (2.7)

Do la bieu thtic toan hoc cua nguyen ly thti nhat nhiet dong ltic hoc. Trong do:
dU de chi bien thien noi nang U la mot ham cua trang thai.

5Q la nhiet ltidng ma he nhan dtidc va la ham cua qua trinh.

5A la cong ma he sinh ra va la ham cua qua trinh.

31
 Nguyen ly dtidc phat bieu nhti sau:
“N hiet liidng truyen cho he dung lam tang noi nang cua he va bien ra cong
thiic hien bdi liic cua he dat len moi triidng ngoai".

- He qua cua nguyen ly

+ Tti bieu thtic (2 .7) ta thay 5Q = 0 thi 5A = - dU, nghia la neu khong cung
cap nhiet ltidng cho he. he muon sinh cong 6A thi buoc phai giam noi nang mot
ltidng dU.
Cung trong trtidng hdp 5Q = 0 (khong nhan nang ltidng tti ngoai), lai cd dU =
0 (gia sii khi ay he thtic hien mot chu trinh) thi buoc phai cd 5A = 0, dieu do nghia
la he khong the sinh cong, noi khac di la khong the ton tai nhting dong cd \inh
ctiu loai mot, la nhting dong cd khong can cung cap nang ltidng 5Q cung sinh cong
8A ma noi nang lai khong thay doi.
Khi he cd lap ttic la he khong trao doi ca cong va nhiet vdi moi trtidng ben
ngoai §Q = 5A = 0, thi theo nguyen ly thti nhat nhiet dong ltic hoc ta cd:
cLU = U2 - U ,= 0 hay U2 = U,
Nghia la: noi nang cua mot he cd lap dtidc bao toan.
+ Dinh luat Hess: "Nang
ltidng sinh ra bdi qua trinh hoa
hoc phtic tap khong phu thuoc
vao cac giai doan trung gian
ma chi phu thuoc vao cac trang
thai ban dau va cuoi cting cua
he hoa hoc".
Hinh 2.4 minh hoa dinh
luat Hess:
E = E, + E2 = E3 + E, + E5
A,, A 2, A :s,... la cac chat d
trang thai ban d&u.
B,, B2, B3,... la cac san
pham d trang thai cuoi cung. Hinh 2.4
C „ C2,...; N 1% N2,...; M „
M 2,... la cac san pham d trang thai trung gian.

Dinh luat Hess dtidc ting dung rong rai trong y hoc de xac dinh kha nang
sinh nhiet cua thtic an cho cd the. Kha nang sinh nhiet nav, theo dinh luat Hess,
cung b in g nhiet ltidng sinh ra trong qua trinh oxv hoa thtic an trong cd the.

Nguyen ly thti nhat nhiet dong ltic hoc dtidc rut ra tti thtic nghiem, no khong
cho biet dang nang ltidng nay cd the bien doi hoan toan thanh dang nang ltidng
khac hay khong ma chi cho biet sti ttidng dtidng ve ltidng gitia chung ma thdi.
Nguyen ly nay dtidc ap dung cho the gidi vat chat noi chung bao gom ca he sinh vat.
2.3. Ap dung nguyen ly thur nhat nhiet dong life hoc cho he thong song
De co the sii dung nguyen ly nay trong cd the song, ta can tim hieu cac dang
cong va nhiet ltidng ttidng ting.

2.3.1. Cac dang cong trong c o th e

Cd bon dang cong cd ban trong cd the song: cong hoa hoc, cong cd hoc, cong
tham thau, cong dien.
Cong hoa hoc la cong sinh ra khi to’ng hdp cac chat cd trong ltidng phan tti cao
tti cac chat cd trong ltidng phan tii thap va khi thtic hien cac phan ting hoa hoc xac
dinh. Viec to’ng hdp cac chat cd trong ltidng phan tti cao (protid, acid nucleic, da
dtidng...) thtidng doi hoi tieu phi nang ltidng va vi vay qua trinh nay dtidc xem la qua
trinh thtic hien cong.
Cong cd hoc la cong sinh ra khi dich chuyen cac bo phan cua cd the, cac cd
quan trong cd the hay toan bo cd the nhd cac ltic cd hoc. Cong cd hoc dtidc thtic
hien bdi cd khi chung co lai.
Cong tham thau la cong van chuyen cac chat khac nhau qua mang hay qua
he da m ang tti vung cd nong do thap sang vting cd nong do cao hdn. Sti van
chuyen nay thtic hien dtidc nhd mot cd che dac biet dtidc goi la van chuyen tich ctic
chorig lai ltic khuech tan va doi hoi phai tieu phi nang ltidng.
Cong dien la cong van chuyen cac hat mang dien (cac ion) trong dien trtidng,
tao nen hieu dien the va cac dong dien. Trong cd the cong dien dtidc thtic hien khi
sinh ra dien the sinh vat va dan truyen kich thich trong te bao.

Hinh 2.5: Sd do sir dung ATP trong cd the song

Doi vdi cd the, nguon nang ltidng de cd the thtic hien tat ca cac dang cong ke
tren la nang ltidng hoa hoc cua thtic an (protid, glucid, lipid) toa ra khi bi oxy hoa.
Doi vdi thtic vat. nguon nang ltiOng ttidng ting la nang ltidng mat trdi dti trti trong
qua trinh quang hdp. Nang ltidng nay cung dtidc dong vat sti dung khi an thtic
vat. Tuy nhien, nhting dang nang ltidng do khong dtidc sti dung trtic tiep de" thtic

33
hien tat ca cac dang cong trong cd the. Dau tien, nang ltidng cua mat trdi vk thtic
an dtidc chuyen hoa thanh lien ket giau nang ltidng cua nhting chat nao do
chu yeu 1k adenosin tn phosphat (ATP). Sau do ATP phan huy trong nhting to
chtic ttidng ting cua te bao va giai phong tai day nguon n&ng^ ltidng c i n thiet de
sinh cong. Tren hinh 2.5 chi ra sd do sti dung ATP trong cd the song.
Nhti v&y, tat ca cac qua trinh sinh cong trong te bao chi xay ra khi sti dung
nang ltidng ATP va do vay ngtidi ta goi no la nhien lieu van nang cua te bao. C&n
chu y rin g, nang ltidng cua lien ket giau nang ltidng ATP dtidc giai phong ra
khong phai khi dtit lien ket gitia hai phan tii photpho ma la khi chuyen nhora
H P 0 3 tdi phan tii ntidc:
ATP + H20 -+ ADP + H 3P O 4 + (7,0 - 8,5) Kcal

2.3.2. Hai loai nhiet li/ong cua c o th e

Ta x6t tiep vai tro cua Qj va Q 2 trong sd do tren. Sti song luon g i n lien vdi
qua trinh trao doi nhiet. Hien nay ngtidi ta quy tide chia nhiet ltidng sinh ra trong
cd the d thdi diem cho trtidc ra hai loai: nhiet ltidng sd cap Q! (hay nhiet ltidng cd
ban) va nhiet ltidng thti cap Q2 (hay nhiet ltidng tich ctic).
N hiet liidng sd cap xuat hien do ket qua phan tan nang liidng nhiet tat nhien
trong qua trinh trao doi vat chat vi nhiing p han iing hod sinh xay ra khong thuan
nghich. Khi thtic hien mot cong co dang bat ky, khong phai tat ca cac nang ltidng
dtidc giai phong trong qua trinh deu dtidc sti dung de sinh cong htiu l'ch ma mot
phan cua no luon tan xa bat thuan nghich dtidi dang nhiet. Do vay, viec tao ra
nhiet ltidng sd cap la ket qua tat yeu cua mot nhan dinh cho rang tat ca cac qua
trinh trong cd the xay ra vdi hieu suat nho hdn 100%. Nhti the khong phai tat ca
nang ltidng hap thu tti thtic an va mat trdi deu dung de tong hdp ATP, mot phin
nang ltidng ay da tan xa dtidi dang nhiet. Va dieu nay dung vdi moi qua trinh sinh
cong khac. Vi vay trong sd do chuyen hoa nang ltidng trong cd the, song song vdi
bat ky qua trinh sinh cong nao cung co qua trinh tao nen mot nhiet ltidng sd cap
Q, nao do. Nhiet ltidng nay phat ra ngay lap ttic sau khi cd the hap thu oxy va
thtic an. Hien nhien rang, viec tao nen nhiet ltidng sd cap ty le vdi ctidng do qua
trinh trao doi chat va ty le nghich vdi hieu suat cua chung.

G i n 50% nang ltidng xuat hien trong qua trinh oxy hoa thtic an dtidc dti trti
trong cac lien ket giau nang ltidng (ATP). Khi cac lien ket nay dtit, chung giai
phong nang ltidng de thtic hien mot cong nao day, roi cuoi cung cung bien thanh
nhiet. N hiet liidng tod ra khi diit cac lien ket giau nang liidng dii trii san trong cd
the va de dieu hoa cac hoat dong chu dong c i a cd the diidc quy lidc la nhiet liidng
thii cap.

0 nhting dieu kien binh thudng, trong cd the co sti can bang gitia cac loai
nhiet ltidng nay, ttic la sti giam nhiet ltidng sd cap dan tdi tang nhiet ltidng thti
cap va ngtidc lai. Ty le gitia hai loai nhiet ltidng nay co the thay doi va do nhting
nguyen nhan:

\ di cac qua trinh hoat dong song binh thtidng cua cd the, ltidng nang ltidng
dti titi \ ao cac lien ket giau nang ltidng chiem khoang 50%. Vdi cac qua trinh

34
benh ly thi phan nang liidng do cd the toa ra d dang nhiet liidng sd cap se chiem
ph^n ldn vi khi a'y ctidng do tao cac lien ket giau nang ltidng giam xuong.

Ty le tren luon phu thuoc vao ty le ctidng do toa nhiet va ctidng do sinh
nhiet. Khi tang sti toa nhiet thi xay ra tang sinh nhiet, dieu do dan tdi bao toan
gia tri khong doi cua nhiet do cd the. Trong rat nhieu trUdng hdp thi nguon goc
cua viec tang ctidng sinh nhiet la sti dung nhiet liidng loai hai thong qua viec tang
ctidng phan iing dong ltic cua cd the, chang han phan iing men. Khi ay nang liidng
du trti cua he se giam di. Thi du dong vat mau nong khi gap moi trUdng lanh hdn
nhiet do cd the, nhiet thtidng xuyen toa ra moi trUdng. Nhiet liidng nay, nhu tren
da noi, la nhiet liidng loai hai, sinh ra do co cd (men). Cung co the nhiet liidng toa
ra lay mot phan b viec tang ctidng sinh nhiet cua cd the khong can phan iing men,
thi du ngtidi ta quan sat thay nhieu dong vat trong qua trinh ngu dong da duy tri
nhiet do cd the bang cach tieu dan liidng md dti truf trong cd the.

2.3.3. S i/c a n b&ng nang lirong cua c o th § ’

Tinh chat sinh nhiet la tinh chat tong quat nhat cua vat chat song, no cung
dac trUng cho te bao dang co chuyen hoa cd ban. Moi chtic nang sinh ly deu keo
theo sti sinh nhiet. Doi vdi dong vat va con ngtidi, nguon goc cua nhiet liidng la
thtic an. Thtic an dtidc cd the sti dung thong qua qua trinh dong hoa de cai tao cac
to chtic, tao thanh chat du trti vat chat va nang liidng trong cd the, chong lai sti
mat nhiet vao moi trUdng xung quanh, dung de sinh cong trong cac qua trinh hoat
dong cd hoc cua cd the co sinh cong.

Nhieu thi nghiem tren dong vat va ngtidi chting to rang khi khong sinh cong
d moi trUdng ngoai, nhiet liidng tong cong do cd the sinh ra gan bang nhiet liidng
sinh ra do dot cac vat chat htiu cd nam trong thanh phan thtic an cho tdi khi
thanh C 0 2va H 20 .

Neu ta goi AQ la nhiet liidng sinh ra do qua trinh dong hoa thtic an, AE la
phan nang liidng mat vao moi trUdng xung quanh, AA la cong ma cd the thtic hien
de chong lai ltic cua moi trUdng ngoai, AM la nang liidng du trti dudi dang hoa
nang thi nguyen ly thti nhat cua nhiet dong ltic hoc ap dung cho he thong song
dtidc viet diidi dang:

JQ = AE + AA + AM (2.8)

Day cung phUdng trinh cd ban cua can bang nhiet doi vdi cd the ngtidi.

Dtidi day la mot ket qua do ve can bang nhiet mot ngtidi sau mot ngay dem.
- Thtic an dtia vao cd the:

Protein 56,8g tao 237 kcal

Lipid 140,Og tao 1307 kcal
Gluxid 79,98g tao 335 kcal
Cong: 1879 kcal

35
 - Nang ltidng toa ra :
Nang ltidng toa ra xung quanh 1374 kcal

Nhiet ltidng toa qua khi thai 43 kcal

Phan va ntidc tieu 23 kcal

Nhiet ltidng boc hdi qua ho hap 181 kcal

Nhiet ltidng boc hdi qua da 227 kcal

Cac dang khac: 31 kcal

Cong 1879 kcal

Hien nhien la khi ta cung cap nang ltidng cho cd the thong qua an uong la
chu yeu ma khong du thi cd the gay yeu, khong du stic khoe de lao dong, luon cam
thay ret lanh... Neu an uong cung cap nang ltidng cho cd the thtia thai co the din
den beo phi khong c&n thiet. Viec dieu chinh an-uong rat quan trong nhat la doi
vdi tre em. Can tranh cho tre em benh coi xtidng suy dinh dtidng do thieu an,
nhting cung can tranh cho an qua nhieu dan tdi beo phi, qua trong ltidng so v6i
ltia tuoi.

2.3.4. Qua trinh bien doi nang luong 6 he tim mach

Tim hoat dong thtidng xuyen nhti mot cai bdm lien tuc de tao dtidc ap suat
day mau vao mach. Do cac van d tim va d mach ma mau trong he tu&n hoan
chuyen dong theo mot chieu xac dinh.
Cong suat cd hoc cua tim vao khoang 1,3-1,4W. Gia tri nay rat nho so vdi gia
tri chuyen hoa cd ban cua toan cd the la 100W. Thtic ra tim khong phai chi thuc
hien cong cd hoc. Cd tim cung nhti cac cd khac cua cd the con luon luon lam viec
de giti mot do cang nhat dinh ta goi la trtidng ltic. Giong nhti ltic ta chong tay len
thanh ghe, tuy ta khong di chuyen nghia la cd khong thtic hien mot cong cd hoc
nhting do cang doi hoi hoat dong tich ctic cua cd va cuoi cung ta cung moi tay.
Ngtidi ta tinh dtidc cong suat tong cong cua cd vao khoang 13W nghia la 13%
chuyen hoa cd ban toan cd the. Cong cd hoc cua tim tao ra ap suat day mau. phan
con lai tao ra do cang cua cd ttic la trtidng ltic cd.

Cung nhti cac cd khac, hoat dong cua cac cd tim doi hoi cung cap nang
ltidng. Trong cd the, nang ltidng nay lay tti cac lien ket hoa hoc giau nang ltidng
ATP. ATP dtidc san xuat tti sti phan ly cac dtidng ddn glucose va oxy hoa
phospholipid. Dac diem cua cd tim khac v 6i cac cd khac la no sti dung nang
ltidng chu yeu tti oxy hoa phospholipid chti khong phai tti phan ly dtidng ddn
glucose. Ta biet rang oxy hoa mot phan tti lipid cung cap nhieu nang ltidng hdn
la oxy hoa mot phan tti glucose. Tuy nhien trong nhting trtidng hdp ma ltidng
ATP trong cd tim bi giam nhieu thi qua trinh phan ly glucose tang len. Do vay
xuat hien nhting san pham mdi co hai nhti acid lactic. Sti suy giam chuyen hoa
phospholipid va khi oxy cung cap cho cd tim co the gay nen tinh trang thieu ATP
d do va lam yeu hoat dong cua tim. Cung phai nhan m anh them rang hieu suat
sti dung nang ltidng de bien doi thanh cong cd hoc d cd tim co khi len den 20%-
30' o (luc lao dong nang). Do la mot hieu suat rat ldn neu so vdi cac mav moc

36
nhan tao (hieu suat may hdi nUdc chi 3,5% va may no la 7,5%). Phan nang ltidng
con lai dtidc bien thanh dang nhiet nang.
Mau dtidc tim day vao mach, co nang ltidng xac dinh the hien bdi toe do chay
va ap suat mau. Thanh mach mau dtidc cau tao bdi nhieu ldp, co kha nang dan
hoi ldn. Khi mau bi day den mot doan nao do cua mach, thanh mach gian ra, mot
phan dong nang cua mau bien thanh the nang gian cua thanh mach. Mach bi gian
cang rong thi the nang dti trti cang ldn. O thdi ky tam trtidng, ap suat dong chay
giam xuong, mach co lai va the nang d thanh mach se cung cap nang ltidng cho
dong chay. Dieu nay tao mot he qua ldn la tuy tim co bop cd nhip nhting mau chay
lien tuc va dieu hoa.

Kem theo sti lan truyen ap suat doc theo thanh mach la song mach ma ta cd
the quan sat hoac sd thay. Toe do song mach d dong mach chu la 4 - 5 m/s. Toe do
lan truyen cua song mach khong lien quan den toe do chay cua mau trong long
mach. O ngtidi ldn tuoi, do cac thay doi ve thanh ph§n va cau tao cua thanh mach,
tinh dan hoi bi giam di do do toe do lan truyen cua song mach tang len.
M au la chat long thtic nen khi chay se xuat hien ltic ma sat d trong long chat
long va ma sat vdi thanh mach lam can trd chuyen dong cua mau. Nang ltidng dti
trti trong mau se dtidc tieu ton dan de thang ltic ma sat nay nen ap suat mau va
toe do chay giam dan. Di nhien klch thtidc hinh hoc, sti phan nhanh... anh htidng
rat ldn den sti thay doi ap suat va toe do chay cua mau.

2.4. Nguyen ly thur hai nhiet dong lire hoc

2.4.1. Mot vai thong so nhiet dong quan trong

Trong cac thong so" nhiet dong lien quan den nguyen ly thti hai, ta thay co:
gradien, entropi, nang ltidng tti do.

2.4.1.1. Gradien
Gia sti f la ham vo htidng cua cac toa do khong gian x, y, z, ngtidi ta dinh nghia:

Gradien cua f ky hieu la g ra d flh mot vectd ma ba thanh phan tren ba true
toa do la cac dao ham rieng cua f lan ltidt theo x, y, z.

dx
df (2.9)
g ra d f =
dy
df
8z

Ta cd:

,, df df df ,
df = — dx + — dy + — dz
dx dy dz

37
 Hoac d dang tich vo htidng: d f = gradf.dl

Trong do dl la vectd cd cac thanh ph&n dx, dy, dz.

Neu f la ham mot bien (bien x), thi:

gra d f = — (2.9)
dx

Nhu vay gradien f la dai liidng vectd cho ta biet mtic do thay doi cua dai
liidng f trong khong gian (do ldn va hiidng).
Khi so sanh te bao song vdi he khong song thi diem khac nhau dau tien de
dang nhan thay la d te bao so'ng cd rat nhieu gradien. Thi du: gradien tham thau
cd trong moi te bao song va dong vai tro quan trong trong hoat dong song cua te
bao thtic vat; gradien nong do gay bdi sti phan phoi khong deu cac vat chat khac
nhau gitia moi trtidng trong va ngoai te bao; sti phan pho'i khong dong deu cac ion
lam xuat hien gradien dien 6 mang te bao. Nhti vay sti co mat cua cac gradien tao
ra kha nang cd ban thuc hien cong 6 cac te bao 6ohg. Thi du sti phat sinh xung
dong than kinh lien he mat thiet vdi sti phan phoi khong dong deu cac ion va
gradien dien; sti trtidng bao lien quan vdi gradien th&m thau v.v... 0 cac te bao
chet khong con cac gradien noi tren ntia.

2.4.1.2. Entropi
Thi du: Mot he la binh kin chia lam hai phan bang nhau A va B bang mot
vach ngan.
Trong binh cd 6 phan tti khac nhau danh so" tti 1 den 6 . Ban dau ca 6 phan
tti tap trung d phan A. Bo vach ngan, cac phan tti khuech tan va so" phan tu 6
phan A cd the thay doi tti 6 den 0.

A B

o o o
o o o

A B

o o o o o o
o o o o o o

A B A B
o o o o o o
o o o o o o

Hinh 2.6

38
 - Neu ca 6 phan tu d phan A thi ta chi cd duy nhat 1 cach phan phoi nhti hinh
2.6 a.
- Neu 5 phan tti d phan A, 1 phan tti d phan B thi cd 6 cach phan phoi khac
nhau (hinh 2.6 b). Vdi so" phan tti d phdn A khac nhau, ta cd bang 2.1.
Xac suat nhiet dong cho ta thay so" cach co the thtic hien phan phoi cac phan
tti. Dai ltidng nay luon luon ldn hdn hoac bang ddn vi; no khac vdi xac suat toan
hoc d cho xac suat toan hoc nam trong khoang tti 0 den 1 va cho biet kha nang xay
ra mot cach phan phoi nao do.
Qua bang 2.1 ta thay: ban dau so" phan tti d phan A la 6 thi sau do da so" kha
nang quan sat dtidc la phan A cd 4, 3 hoac 2 phan tti. Noi khac di la he chuyen tti
trang thai cd xac suat xuat hien nho sang trang thai cd xac suat xuat hien ldn hoac
he chuyen tti trang thai cd it cach phan phoi sang trang thai cd nhieu cach phan
phoi (xac suat nhiet dong W ldn). Vi InW la ham dong bien vdi W nen cd the dung
InW de xac dinh chieu htidng dien bien cua cac qua trinh tti nhien.

Bang 2.1

So phan tuf d phan So cach phan phoi (xac suat

Xac suat toan hoc p
A B nhiet dong W)

6 0 1 1/64
5 1 6 6/64
4 2 15 15/64
3 3 20 20/64
2 4 15 15/64
1 5 6 6/64
0 6 1 1/64

Tong cong 64 64/64

D inh nghia 1\
Dai ltidng S = k ln W (2.10)

S goi la entropi cua he. Trong do k la hfing so" Boltzmann.

C) thi du tren, chieu htidng cua qua trinh la tien tdi trang thai cd xac suat
nhiet dong W 16n hay la cd entropi S ldn; chieu htidng nay cd tinh cach mot chieu
khi ta de he tti dien bien. Noi cach khac, trang thai cd entropi S ldn la trang thai
de xay ra.
D inh nghia 2:

Goi T la nhiet do tuyet doi cua he; Q la nhiet ltidng ma he trao doi; S la entropi
cua he thi:

<>Q
dS ~ ~ r (2 -11)

39
 Trong trtidng hdp T khac nhau, thi:

dS= Y ^ - (2 .12)
rr
i=l I
Tti dinh nghia entropi ta cd cac nhan xet:
- Entropi la ham trang thai, nghia la ham chi phu thuoc trang thai dau va
trang thai cuoi ma khong phu thuoc vao qua trinh thay doi trang thai.
- Entropi la dai ltidng cd the cong dtidc ttidng tti nhti noi nang. Entropi cua
mot he phtic tap b i n g tong entropi cua tting ph&n rieng.
- Entropi dtidc xac dinh sai khac nhau mot hang so' cong:

*S = S , - S A = (S t + S ' ) - ( S A + S ,)

- Khi he nhan nhiet, 5Q>0, ta cd dS>0 hay entropi cua he tang len. Khi he
trao nhiet, 5Q<0, ta cd dS<0 hay entropi cua he giam di.
- He nhan nhiet ltidng, chuyen dong hon loan cua cac phan tti, nguyen tti
tang len, ttidng ting vdi tang entropi. He trao bdt nhiet ltidng, chuyen dong hon
loan cua cac phan tti, nguyen tti giam xuong, ttidng ting giam entropi. Nhti vay
entropi S cho ta khai niem ve mtic do hon loan cua he.

- Gia sti he co lap gom hai phan nhiet do T, va T 2 (Tj < T 2). Hai ph&n nay
trao nhau nhiet ltidng:

SQ, = - SQ2 = SQ >0

Ta cd thay doi entropi cua ca he:

jo #Qi $Qi SQ
0 (2.13)
i, i2 *2

Nhti vay d qua trinh truyen nhiet trong noi bo mot he co lap entropi cua he
tang hay mtic do hon loan cua he tang len.

2.4.1.3. Nang li/png tu do

Tti (2 . 11) ta cd: SQ = TdS
Ket hdp vdi (2.7), nhan dtidc:

SA = TdS - dU

5A = - [dU - TdS ]

SA = -[d U -d (T S )]

SA = -d [ U - TS ]

Dat: U - TS = F va goi la nang ltidng tti do cua he, ta cd: SA = - d F

U = F+TS (2 14)

40
 Nang ltidng tti dd khong phai la mot dang dac biet cua nang ltidng, day chi
la quy tide goi ten phan noi nang cua he dtidc dung de thtic hien cong nao day, noi
khac di no dac trting cho kha nang sinh cong cua he.
Trong bieu thtic (2.14) phan TS goi la nang ltidng lien ket khong cd kha
nang bien thanh cong.

2.4.1.4. Trang thai can b&ng

— Trang thai can bang nhiet dong cua he la trang thai ma cac thong so dac
trting cho he cd gia tri xac dinh va khong doi khi khong cd nhting nguyen nhan
ben ngoai lam thay doi chting.
Khi he nhiet dong d trang thai can bang di nhien la khong xay ra hien ttidng
truyen nhiet, phan ting hoa hoc...
- Trang thai can bang cua mot he co lap:
Xet bieu thtic: U = F + TS
Ta thay: vi S cua he co lap chi giti nguyen hoac tang nen phan nang ltidng
lien ket TS cung giti nguyen hoac tang, no la phan noi nang khong cd kha nang
bien thanh cong. Khi he tien tdi trang thai can b&ng, S dat ctic dai nghia la TS
dat ctic dai (nang ltidng lien ket dat ctic dai), vi U cd gia tri khong doi (he co lap)
nen nang ltidng tti do F dat ctic tieu.
Do dd trang thdi can bang nhiet dong cua he co lap dtfdc dac trting bang
entropi dat ctfc dai hay nang liCdng ti( do dat ctic tieu.

2.4.2. Qua trinh khong thuan nghjch

2.4.2.1. Qua trinh thuan nghjch

Mot he gom ntidc va hdi ntidc bad hoa khi cd cung nhiet do T se can b&ng vi
doi vdi moi thti cd the tich V xac dinh. Neu nhiet do T thay doi, ta thay the tich V
cua moi thti thay doi theo, ta noi he d trang thai khong can bang.

Mot qua trinh bien doi tti trang thai nay sang trang thai khac dtidc goi la
thuan nghich khi no cd the tien hanh theo chieu ngtidc lai va trong qua trinh
ngtidc dd, he trai qua cac trang thai trung gian nhti trong qua trinh thuan.

Qua trinh thuan nghich chi cd the la tap hdp cac trang thai can b ang nen no
la mot qua trinh can bang.

Do qua trinh ngtidc trai qua cac trang thai trung gian nhti qua trinh thuan
nen he nhan cong trong qua trinh thuan bao nhieu thi cung cung cap cho moi
trtidng ngoai bay nhieu trong qua trinh ngtidc. Noi khac di, vdi qua trinh thuan
nghich thi sau bien doi nghich de ve trang thai ban dau, moi trtidng xung quanh
khong bi bien doi.

Thi du: dao dong khong ma sat cua con lac toan hoc: con lac chuyen dong tti
trai qua phai roi tti phai qua trai, khong ma sat nen moi trtidng kh ong nong len,
dong thdi cong thtic hien do trong ltic cung bang khong; do vay moi trtidng xung
quanh khong bi bien doi.

41
2.4.2.2. Qua trinh khong thuan nghich
— Trong thtic te ddi song hang ngay ta thay hang loat cac qua trinh ma ta
chi quan sat thay no tien trien theo mot chieu, khong quan sat thay qua trinh xay
ra ngtidc lai: ngtidi ldn len roi chet, qua trting rOi bi vd nat, ntidc hoa khuech tan
ra moi trtidng xung quanh, tii con ldn song co the san xuat ra lap stidn, tti mu cao
su lay tu1 cay cao su song co the lam thanh lop xe... do la cac qua trinh khong
thuan nghich.
> Qua trinh khong thuan nghich la qua trinh khi ta tien hanh theo chieu
ngtidc lai, he khong trai qua cac trang thai trung gian nhu trong qua trinh thuan.
Cac trang thai ma he trai qua trong qua trinh khong thuan nghich la cac
trang thai khong can bang, do do khi trang thai da bien doi thi no khong trd ve
trang thai cu.
Trong qua trinh khong thuan nghich, cong va nhiet liidng ma he nhan vao
khong bang cong va nhiet liidng do he cung cap cho ben ngoai, do do doi vdi qua
trinh khong thuan nghich, sau khi tien hanh theo chieu thuan va theo chieu
ngUdc de trd ve trang thai ban dau thi moi trtidng xung quanh bi bien doi.
- Thi du ve cac qua trinh khong thuan nghich.
Thi du 1: Gia sti co mot he nhiet dong la mot binh co lap vdi moi trtidng
xung quanh, gom hai phan A va B chtia cung mot loai khi vdi mat do nA> n B .
Nhiet do cua binh d moi diem nhti nhau. Ta bo vach ngan, cac phan tti d hai phan
khuech tan lan sang nhau cho tdi khi mat do dong deu theo toan bo the tich binh.
Trang thai cua he ton tai ngay sau khi bo vach ngan la trang thai khong can
bang nhiet dong, la trang thai khong the duy tri mai mai theo thdi gian. Trong
qua trinh tti chuyen ve trang thai mdi (phan phoi deu cac phan tti theo toan bo
the tich), mot khoi ltidng khi di tti phan A sang phan B. He da thtic hien mot cong
nao do. Co the chting minh rang cong A thtic hien dtidc tinh theo cong thtic:
n
A = R T \n— (2 . 15)
nB

Trong do R la hang so khi li ttidng; T la nhiet do tuyet doi cua he.

Ta thay khi nA* nB thi A * 0 (he co kha nang sinh cong), con khi nA = n B thi
A=0 (he mat kha nang sinh cong). Trang thai on dinh dtidc thiet lap sau khi he
san bang mat do la trang thai can bang nhiet dong.

Tti thi du nay ta nhan thay: de tti nhien, he tien trien theo mot chieu xac
dinh lam gradien mat do suy giam. tdi trang thai it kha nang sinh cong. Sti tien
trien cua he theo chieu ngtidc lai rat kho xay ra.

Thi du 2. Cho hai vat co nhiet do T khac nhau tiep xuc nhau va co lap vdi
moi trtidng ngoai. Ta thay nhiet do d vat co nhiet do cao se ha xuong , con nhiet do
d \at co nhiet do thap tang len. Ta khong quan sat thay dieu ngtidc lai. Qua trinh
truyen nhiet nhti vay la qua trinh mot chieu, xay ra theo xu htidng truyen nang
ltidng tti ndi co nhiet do cao tdi ndi co nhiet do thap.

AO
 T hi du 3: Gia sti ta co hai binh dting nude dtidc day b&ng n&p giong het
nhau. Binh A chtia liidng nude rat ldn nhting d nhiet do TA gan bang nhiet do moi
trUdng xung quanh. Binh B chtia liidng niidc nho nhting d nhiet do T B cao hdn moi
trUdng xung quanh. Ro rang r&ng (so vdi moi trtidng xung quanh), nhiet liidng dii
trti trong binh A rat ldn con nhiet liidng du trti trong binh B rat nho nhUng hdi
nude trong binh A khong co kha nang day bat nap (khong co kha nang sinh cong),
con hdi nude trong binh B lai co kha nang day bat nap (co kha nang sinh cong).
Thi du nay cho ta thay:
+ Su chenh lech nhiet do gitia he va moi trtidng xung quanh cang ldn thi
kha nang sti dung htiu hieu nhiet nang chtia trong no cang cao.

+ Khong phai bat ky phan nhiet nang nao du trti trong he vat cung co the de
dang bien doi thanh cong cd hoc, dong thdi ta thay khong the bien doi hoan toan
nhiet ra thanh cong.
Do do viec danh gia mot he nhiet dong khong chi dtia vao phan nang liidng
du trti ma con phai dUa vao kha nang sinh cong ctia no.
Cac dang nang liidng khac co the hoan toan bien doi thanh nhiet nang,
trong khi nhiet nang khong the bien doi hoan toan thanh dang nang liidng khac.
Tinh chat nay cung la mot the hien cua cac qua trinh tu bien doi trong tu nhien
chi dien bien theo mot chieu.
NgUdi ta goi tat ca cac qua trinh bien doi trong tti nhien chi dien bien theo
mot chieu la cac qua trinh khong thuan nghich.
Loai trti cac qua trinh ly tUdng thuan nghich, tat ca cac qua trinh xay ra
trong tu nhien (nhiet truyen tti nong sang lanh, ma sat bien doi cong thanh nhiet,
cac phan tti khuech tan tti ndi co ap suat cao (hay mat do cao) sang ndi co ap suat
thap (hay mat do thap) nhieu hdn chieu ngUdc...) la cac qua trinh khong thuan
nghich.
- Tti cac vi du tren ta rut ra nhan xet:

+ Cac qua trinh tu nhien khong thuan nghich dien bien luon lien quan den
sU suy giam gradien (gradien nong do trong khuech tan khi, gradien nhiet do
trong truyen nhiet...).

+ Tinh trat tu cua he giti nguyen hoac giam dan theo dien bien cua qua
trinh khong thuan nghich trong he co lap.

That vay, d thi du khuech tan khi, trat tu ban dau la sU sap xep mat do ndi
thap, ndi cao ro rang phan biet, ltic cuoi trat tu nay mat di de thay bang sU san
bang. C) nhan xet “cong de dang bien doi thanh nhiet” ta thay cong (chuyen dong co
hudng, cd trat tu) dUdc thay bang nhiet (chuyen dong nhiet la chuyen dong hon
loan, vo trat tu cua cac phan tti).

- Trong cac thi du tren, muon cho he trd ve trang thai ban dau (nA> n B; T t>
T 2) ta phai ton cong tti ngoai tac dung vao, ttic la moi trUdng phai co thay doi.
Bdm chan khong. may lam lanh la cac qua trinh ngUdc cua cac qua trinh tren.

43
2.4.3. Nguyen ly thu"hai nhiet dong li/c hoc

2.4.3.1. Phat bieu nguyen ly

Ta khong the giai thich dUdc vi sao cac qua trinh trong tu nhien lai co
nhiing qua trinh chi xay ra theo mot chieu hudng xac dinh, ta buoc phai thtia
nhan do la mot quy luat rut ra tii quan sat thuc nghiem mot so ldn hien tiidng. Do
do quy luat nay co tinh chat thong ke, dung vdi so dong va cung cd nghia la khong
loai trii kha nang xay ra hien tUdng vdi chieu hiidng ngUdc lai. Quy luat dUdc phat
bieu bang nguyen ly thii hai nhiet dong luc hoc theo nhieu cach khac nhau ma
tUdng diidng nhau.
- Tinh trat tu cua mot he co lap chi co the giii nguyen hoac giam dan.
- Khong the ton tai trong tii nhien mot chu trinh ma ket qua duy nhat la
bien nhiet thanh cong va khong de lai dau vet gi d moi trUdng xung quanh.
- Khong the thuc hien dUdc dong cO vinh ctiu loai hai ttic la dong cd chuyen
dong tuan hoan, cho ta cong bang cach nhan nhiet liidng va lam lanh tii cung mot
nguon.

6 phan dinh nghia entropi, ta da liiu y den hien tiidng: Neu de cho he tu
dien bien, no se tien tdi trang thai co entropi ldn, noi khac di, d cac qua trinh bien
doi nang liidng trong he co lap de tu dien bien (qua trinh khong thuan nghich),
entropi luon luon khong giam:

AS>0
C) trang thai can bang nhiet dong cua he co lap, ttic la d trang thai khong
thay doi theo thdi gian, entropi khong con tang hdn dUdc ntia, ndi khac di la no
dat cUc dai:

" = 0
dt

■S= Smax
- Nhu vay dUa vao khai niem entropi, nguyen ly thti hai cua nhiet dong ltic
hoc cd the dUdc phat bieu mot cach khac nhu sau:

Trong cac he cd lap, chi nhiing qua trinh nao keo theo viec tang entropi m&i
co the tii dien bien; gidi han tii dien bien cua chung la trang thdi co g ia tri ciic dai
cua en trop i".

2.4.3.2. Y nghia va gidi han ap dung cua nguyen ly thu1hai

Can chu y rfing noi chung trang thai cd xac suat cao hay xay ra hdn trang
thai cd xac suat thap, dieu dd cung cd nghia la cung cd luc ta quan "sat dUdc trang
thai cd xac suat thap. Noi khac di. cac qua trinh tu nhien xay ra trong he co lap
dien bien theo chieu tang entropi va ca biet cd the cd trUdng hdp he chuyen tti
trang thai cd entropi cao sang trang thai cd entropi thap. Dd la tinh chat thong ke
cua nguyen ly thti hai nhiet dong luc hoc.

44
 Cung nhu cac dinh luat thuc nghiem khac, cd sd cua nguyen ly thCf hai nhiet
dong luc hoc la nhiing quan sat the gidi xung quanh con ngtidi. Linh vtic con ngtidi
quan sat thay trUc tiep la mot tap hdp rat ldn cac phan tti, da kha la to ldn nhUng
chi la mot phan vo cung nho cua vu tru. Vi the' nguyen ly thti hai nay khong the
dem ap dung cho toan the vu tru (khi xem vu tru nhu he co lap), cung nhu cho the
gidi cac hat cd ban vi tai do vat chat chuyen dong trong khong gian, thdi gian cd
nhiing tinh chat, quy luat mdi.

2.4.3.3. Nang lupng tu do va trang thai can bang nhiet dong

- Xet bieu thtic noi nang U= F + TS, ta thay:
Doi vdi he co lap, S chi giuf nguyen hoac tang len do dd nang ltidng lien ket
TS cung giut nguyen hoac tang (TS la phan noi nang khong cd kha nang bien
thanh cong). Khi he thong tien den can bang, S dat cUc dai nghia la TS dat cUc
dai (nang liidng lien ket dat cUc dai). Vi U cd gia tri khong doi (he co lap) nen
nang liidng tu do dat ctic tieu.
Do dd trang thai can bang nhiet dong dUdc dac trUng bang entropi dat cUc
dai hay nang liidng tu do dat ctic tieu.
- Trang thdi can bang cua he hod hoc
N eu ta quan sat m ot qua trinh dat can bang hoa hoc nao day thi su! thay doi
nang liidng tii do khi cac chat tham g ia ph an iing tao thanh cac san p h a m cua
p h an iing p h u thuoc vao hang so can bang nhti sau:
F = - R T InK (2.16)
Trong do T la nhiet do tuyet doi, R la hang so khi, K la hang so can bang.
Tuy theo miic do thay doi cua nang liidng tii do, co the danh g ia do ldn ciic
dai cua cong hiiu ich nhan diidc khi thiic hien qua trinh cho triidc. Ta cung suy ra
rang nang liidng tii do cua he tang len khi ta nap cong cho he. C hang han, m ot
khoi k h i khi bi nen la dd nap cong, ro rang khi khoi k h i ddn nd, no co kha nang
sinh cong.
Ngiidi ta dinh nghia entanpi H bang bieu thiic:
H = U + pV (2.17)

U la noi nang khoi khi, p la dp su a t,V la the tich. Ta co:

AH = AU + p A V + VAp

Vdi cac qua trinh dang dp thi:

AH = AU + p A V = AQ

E ntanpi g o i la ham chiia nhiet, nhd no ta de dang tinh diidc nang liidng
trong cac qua trinh hoa hoc.

T rong cd the song, nang liidng hoa hoc diidc sii du ng khong hoan toan, dieu
do cho thay cd che cua cac qua trinh sinh vat khong diidc hoan thien. T rong nhiing
triibng hdp khac nhau, hieu qua cua cac cd che nay khong nhii nhau. B e dac triing
cho hieu qua nay ngiidi ta dung ty so gitia cong san sinh trong qua trinh va p h a n

45
nang liidng chi p h i de sinh cong do. Vi cac cd the song chi sii dung nang liidng til
do cua cac phan iing de sinh co n g nen hieu qua cua cac cd che cho triidc co thi
danh gia bang hieu suat rj:

rj=— (2.18)
AF
Trong do AA la cong san sinh, AF la phan nang liidng tii do giam di de sinh
cong nay. Diia cac chat vao trong cd the va oxy hoa chung la dd tao nen nhiet do cd
the va cac lien ket giau nang liidng, tiic la dit trti nang liidng tii do. N a n g liidng tu
do nay co the bien chuyen thanh nang liidng tap trung trong cac gra d ien khac
nhau, ttic la chung dd lam giau nang liidng cho cd the. N hii vay nang liidng ti( do
cua he diidc quyet dinh bang do ldn gradien. Tii nguyen ly thu! hai nhiet dong Itfc
hoc ta suy ra rang nhiing qua trinh tii nhien trong he co lap tien trien theo phiicfng
hii&ng lam suy giam gradien, tiic la lam giam nang liidng tii do hay lam tang
entropi.

2.4.3.4. Nang li/png trong cac phan ting hoa sinh

- Trong qua trinh chuyen hoa cd ban co xay ra cac ph an ting hoa sinh. O
nhting giai doan dac biet cua qua trinh, cac phan ting nay co the coi la thuan
nghich va doi vdi chung, co the tinh cac thong so nhiet dong nhu! nang liidng tii do,
ham chtia nhiet (entanpi) va entropi. Biet ro cac dai liidng nay ta co the d u doan
triidc phiidng hiidng cua phan ting nay hay khac tren cd sd nguyen ly thti hai nhiet
dong Ilie hoc.

Neu nhti phan ting la thuan nghich thi nang liidng tii do bang cong ciic dai,
neu phan ting khong thuan nghich thi mot phan nang liidng p h a n tan d dang
nhiet va cong thiic hien se tiidng iing nho hdn. Thong thiidng cac p h an ting hoa
sinh xay ra trong nhting dieu kien khong doi ve dp suat va nhiet do, bdi vay
phiidng trinh:

A F = AU - TAS
co the viet tiidng tii:

AZ = AH - TAS (2. 19)

trong do AZ la sii thay doi nang liidng tii do khi dp suat vd nhiet do khong
doi, ta goi no la the nhiet dong, AH la bien thien entanpi. Liidng A7, khac vdi AF la
phan thay doi nang liidng tii do c i a he khi the tich vd nhiet do khong doi.

Do ldn cua the nhiet dong lien he vdi hdng so can bang cua p h an ting hoa
sinh thuan nghich bang he thtic:

AZ = AZ„ + R T .ln K (2.20)

K la hdng so can bang c ia phan ting.

Dai liidng JZ bang nang liidng tii do chuan cua phan ting (AZ,) neu moi chat
ban dau vd cac san pham cua phan ting chiia trong dung dich d 25"C vd vdi do
linh dong cua cdc phan tii trong dung dich bdng ddn vi. Co the xdc dinh AZ bang
nhiing phiidng phap khac nhau, thong thudng hdn cd Id theo cong thtic (2.20).

•46
 Sti thay doi ltidng chtia nhiet AH co the xac dinh bang cach do hieu ting
nhiet cua p h an ting khi dot chay vat chat trong binh do nhiet ltidng. Trong trtidng
hdp nay:
AH = - AQ
M ot cach khac la xac dinh sti phu thuoc cua p h an ting vao nhiet do. K hi ay
theo phiidng trinh dang dp cua p h an ting:
d\nK _ - Q
dT ~ RT2
Co the xac dinh AH = - AQ. K hi dat cac dti kien ve dai ltidng AZt„ AH, de
dang xa c dinh AS theo phtidng trinh (2.19) trong do nhting bien thien cua cac dai
ltidng ttidng ting co the thay bang nhting g ia tri, sau cung cua cac dai ltidng nay.
Thong thtidng nhting g ia tri chuan cua nhting dai ltidng nay dtidc ddn ra trong
cac so tay hoa sinh.
- Sti thay doi nang ltidng tti do khi tao nen lien ket hoa sinh nao day lien
quan chat che vdi sti thay doi nang liidng cua lien ket hoa hoc gitia cac nguyen tti
cua cac ph an tti tham gia p h an ting. B ang cach p h an tich cong thtic p h an tti vd
cac dti kien ve nhiet ltidng cua cac phan ting co the xac dinh nang liidng lien ket.
Ngtidi ta tim thay rang nang ltidng dinh khu trong cac lien ket hoa tri, dong thdi
moi dang lien ket co nang ltidng goi la nang ltidng lien ket trung binh. D e tinh
toan nang ltidng lien ket trung binh ngtidi ta sti dung nhting dti kien ve nhiet
ltidng dot vd ve nhiet ltidng p han ly ph an tti thanh nguyen tti. N hiet ltidng p h an ly
thong thtidng dtidc xa c dinh bang phep quang p h o khi nghien ctiu cac mtic do dao
dong cua p h an tti vd nguyen tti.
Bang 2.2 cho biet nang liidng cua cac dang lien ket khac nhau. Tif cac so lieu
cua bang nay ta thay lien ket hydro la yeu nhat.

Bang 2.2: Nang liidng lien ket trung binh cua cac dang lien ket khac nhau

Nang lUdng trung binh Nang li/d ng tru ng binh

Dang lien ket Dang lien ket
(f)dn vj tinh: kcal) (Ddn vj tinh: kcal)

C - C 58,6 S - H 87,5
N - N 20,0 C - N 48,6
0 - 0 34,9 C - O 70,0
P - 0 50,0 C - S 57,5
S - S 63,8 C = C 100,0
C - H 87,3 C = C 123,0
N - H 82,0 C = O 142,0
O - H 110,2 H - H 4 -8

Trong sinh hoc. rat pho bien cac tif: "lien ket giau nang liidng" hay "lien ket
nang lifdng ldn". A denosin triphosphat (ATP) la chat quan trong nhat trong cac
cha't cd lien ket giau nang liidng.
 Ta hieu nang liidng cua lien ket giau nang liidng la nang liidng tii do giai
phong ra trong qua trinh phan iing hoa sinh cd sii tham gia cua lien ket giau
nang liidng.
Can lUu y rang d day khong phai ndi ve viec xac dinh nhiet hoa cua nang
liidng lien ket ma noi ve nang liidng tii do cua phan iing thuy phan phan tii ATP:
ATP + H20 = ADP + H 3P 0 4
Khi nhom phosphat chuyen vao nude thi lam tach ra 7,0 -r-8,5 kcal/m ol nang
liidng tii do. Do dd doi vdi phan tti ATP (hay lien ket tiidng tii khac). van de khong
phai la lam dtit lien ket P nam phia cuoi trong ATP, chang han nhii A - P - P - P
chuyen thanh A - P - P va P. De lam dtit lien ket nay can phai chi nang liidng ldn
vao khoang 50 -^100 kcal/mol (xem bang 2.2). Vdi y nghia nay thi ATP khong cd
dti trti nang liidng tUdng tii nhu nang liidng toa ra tti cac chat no, ngiidc lai ATP
la lien ket kha ben. Qua trinh thiic ra la: viec chuyen nhom phosphat vao niidc cd
lam tach ra nang liidng tii do ldn. Gluco - 6 - phosphat cd nang liidng lien ket
phosphat cd 50 -r 100 kcal/mol, nhUng khi chuyen nhom phosphat vao niidc no chi
giai phong gan 3 kcal/mol nang liidng tii do, nhu vay Gluco - 6 - phosphat khong
phai la lien ket giau nang liidng.
Mot cach nhiet dong hoc, cd the coi phan tti ATP trong te bao nhii phan tti
giau nang liidng van nang, hay dang mang nang liidng da diidc "nap” , con A D P la
phan tti ngheo nang liidng hay dang da "phong" nang liidng.
Nguyen ly thti nhat nhiet dong liic hoc ndi ve sii bien doi tiidng ho gitia noi
nang U, cong A, nhiet liidng Q, cho phep xac dinh he thtic bieu dien sii lien quan
ve ltidng gitia chung khi chung tham gia vao mot qua trinh cho triidc, nhiing
khong neu len kha nang xay ra va chieu hiidng phat trien cua qua trinh dd. Mat
khac qua thtic nghiem ta thay cong cd the bien hoan toan thanh nhiet, nhiing qua
trinh ngUdc lai la nhiet liidng bien doi thanh ra cong thi khong bao gid xay ra
hoan toan. Dieu dd chi cd the giai thich bang nguyen ly thti hai nhiet dong liic
hoc. Nguyen ly thti hai doc lap vdi nguyen ly thti nhat, no xac dinh chieu hudng
dien bien cua mot qua trinh vi md va cho phep danh gia kha nang sinh cong cua
cac he nhiet dong khac nhau.

2.5. Ap dung nguyen ly thur hai nhiet dong lire hoc cho he thong song
2.5.1. Trang thai dung cua he thong song
- Md hinh vd dinh nghia trang thdi ditng
Xet mot he kin (hinh 2.8) gom hai binh I
va II chtia chat long, noi vdi nhau qua khoa K.
Md khoa K chat long se chay tti binh cd mtic
chat long cao hdn sang binh cd mtic chat long
thap hdn. Sau mot thdi gian. do khong cd chat
long chay vao va thao ra khoi he, mtic chat long
d hai binh se bang nhau: sti can bang diidc thiet
lap. He thong nay cho ta hinh anh cua sti can
bang nhiet dong: mtic chat long khong thay doi
nua va dong chat long khong con cd kha nang
sinh cong.
Hinh 2.8. M d h in h h e cd lap

48
 Bay gid ta xet mot he md b&ng sd
do (hinh 2.9) khoa K, dieu chinh dong Ki
chat long chay vao he, khoa K2 dieu
chinh chat long chay tu! binh I sang
binh II, khoa K 3 dieu chinh dong chat
long chay ra khoi he. Mtic chat long d
moi binh se dong thdi diidc dieu khien
bdi khoa K 1; K2, K3. Sau mot thdi gian
ca ba khoa d mtic do nao day, mtic chat
long d binh I va binh II se khdng thay
doi trong khi van cd dong chat long
chay vao va dong chat long chay ra. Chi _
can thay doi trang thai cua mot trong \ I K,
K, II
ba khoa, mtic chat long d binh I va binh
II se thay doi, dong thdi se thay doi ca
toe do chay tti I sang II va chay ra.
Trang thai on dinh se diidc tai thiet lap: Hinh 2.9. Md hinh trang thai di/ng
mtic chat long d binh I va II se giti co
dinh, toe do chay vao ra khong thay doi ntia. Trang thai can bang nay cho ta hinh
anh ve trang thai dting.

Dinh nghia: “Trang thdi dting la trang thdi xay ra d he md, trong do cac
thong so trang thdi khong thay doi theo thdi gia n md van co dong vat chat vd
nang liidng vao ra h e”.

- So sanh trang thdi dting vdi trang thdi can bang nhiet dong

Ta hay so sanh trang thai dting xay ra d he md vdi trang thai can b i n g hoa
hoc xay ra d he kin.

Trang thai can bang hoa hoc Trang thai dim g

He kin, khong co dong vat chat ra vao he. He md, co dong vat chat khong doi vao he va thai ra cac san
1
pham cua phan ung.
Toe do phan ung thuan b ln g toe do Toe do phan ung thuan luon luon ldn hdn toe do phan ung
phan Crng nghich: nghich do vat chat dude dua vao va ra: v, >v2
v, = v2 v,
2 v, A + B < --------^ C + D
A + B < --------^ C + D
v2
V2
Toe do phu thuoc vao nong do ban dau Toe do phan irng hoa hoc khong phu thuoc vao nong do ban
3 cua cac chat tham gia phan ung dau, nhurig dang ke la cac nong do dC/ng lien tuc difdc giur
nguyen do dong vat chat mdi di vao.
Nang ludng tu do trong he bang khong. NSng ludng ti/d o trong he khac khong va bao toan gia tri.
4
F=0 F = const * 0
Chat xue tac khong lam thay doi ty le Chat xue tac lam thay doi nong do dutig, anh hudng tdi toe
5
chat phan ung do cua qua trinh.

49
 Nhii ta da nhan thay, neu trong he, moi thong so" thay doi theo thdi gian
khong co mot dong diing nao ca do tac dung cua cac dong ben ngoai n&o day thi
trang thai cua he dUdc goi la can bang nhiet dong. Nhiing n6t giong nhau va khac
nhau cd ban cua can bang diing va can bang nhiet dong nam trong ba thong so:
entropi, nang liidng tu do va thdi gian. Nhii ta da xac dinh: can bang nhiet dong
khong phu thuoc vao thdi gian, entropi cua no dat ciic dai, con n&ng liidng tii do
bang khong, tiic la he bi giam pham ch&'t va khong the d trang thai sinh cong diidc.
Sii giong nhau cua trang thai can bang nhiet dong vdi trang thai diing d cho
khong phu thuoc vao thdi gian, tiic la tiidng tii trang thai can bang nhiet dong, he
diing se giii nhiing thong sd cd ban khong doi theo thdi gian. Entropi cua trang
thai diing co do ldn khong doi nao do, khong bang gia tri ciic dai. Nang liidng tii
do cua he diing khac khong, va dUdc dac triing bang do ldn khong doi nao do. Dieu
nay co nghia la trang thai diing khong nam d trang thai k 6m pham chat, con
ngUdc lai, khi no di ra khoi trang thai can bang diing, no co kha nang sinh cong
triidc khi dat trang thai can bang nhiet dong.
Trang thai diing khac cd ban vdi trang thai can bang nhiet dong d cho he
trong trang thai diing van luon trao doi vat chat va nang liidng vdi moi triidng
ben ngoai
- Si£ chuyen trang thdi dting

6 hinh 2.9, khoa 1 va 3 cho ta mo hinh cac hang so" van chuyen gidi han toe
do vat chat vao va ra khoi he; khoa 2 cho mo hinh toe do phan iing hoa hoc, no gdi
cho ta hinh anh chat xue tac lam anh hudng tdi toe do phan iing hoa hoc trong he
md. Khi thay doi nong do chat xue tac (khi van khoa K2), nhiing miic mdi cua chat
long diidc thiet lap, tao nen trang thai diing mdi: sii chuyen trang thai diing.
Miic cua trang thai diing de dang bi dao dong ldn, phu thuoc vao nhiing dieu
kien ben ngoai va ben trong. He md bat ky (trong do ke ca cd the ngiidi) co the
chuyen sang cac miic khac nhau cua trang thai diing (trang thai nghi ngdi, cong
tac, qua trinh ldn len...). Neu con ngUdi thay doi dieu kien lao dong, ndi cf thi
trong moi trUdng hdp deu co sii dieu
chinh lai trang thai diing tii miic nay
sang miic khac. Co the quan sat thay sii
dieu chinh trong thi du thay doi toe do
cac qua trinh oxy hoa.
Khi chuyen tii trang thai diing
nay sang trang thai diing khac, miic
mdi trong he khong dUdc thiet lap ngay
tiic khac. Thong thiidng ban dau quan
sat thay su tang hoac giam miic d trang
thai diing cua he so vdi doi hoi tudng
iing vdi nhiing dieu kien thay doi bdi
moi trUdng ngoai va trong. Thi du sii
dao dong dong liic cua miic ap sua't mau
o' dong mach luc bat dau va sau khi
trang thai di/ng
hoat dong chan tay.

50
 Biidc chuyen tti mot trang thai dting nay sang trang thai dting khac xay ra
kha khac nhau. Co the chia ra ba dang chuyen cd ban minh hoa tren hinh (2.10).
Dang I : Bitdc chuyen vdi lech thtia.
Bade chuyen nay thiidng quan sat th&'y d nhting ngiidi tre tuoi. Qua trinh
hiing phan d day thiidng co dang “dinh song” . Dinh song nay co the diidc tao
thanh do sii vtidt khoi mtic tti dieu chinh cua mot phan ting nao do. He tti dieu
chinh len mtic cao hdn va toe do cac qua trinh tang cao mot chut.
Dang II: Bitdc chuyen theo dang gan ham mu
Day la biidc chuyen tiet kiem nh&'t. He co xu hudng hoat dong vdi nang
liidng tieu thu ft nhat. Quan sat thay dang chuyen nav d nhting ngUdi dting tuoi.
Cd the ngiidi dting tuoi khong the tao nhting biidc nhay vot nhii ngUdi tre tuoi.
Dang III: Bitdc chuyen vdi “mtic xuat p h a t gia tao”
Btidc chuyen nay khac biet d cho cung vdi sii tang toe do phan ting trong
tiidng lai, co quan sat thay ca sii giam toe do phan ting roi sau do mdi tang. O
biidc chuyen nay nang ltidng dtidc sti dung htiu hieu nhat.
Trong cac he phtic tap ngiidi ta thay cd nhting biidc chuyen ting vdi nhting
diidng cong phtic tap, chung cd nhieu diem ciic tri.
Becton quan sat thay trong thi du co bop cua tim ech co lap cung cd ba dang.
Neu nhii trong moi triidng 'thich dang, tim ech co bop vdi toe do hau nhu khong
doi thi vdi nhting thay doi khac nhau ve thanh phan hoa hoc va nhiet do cua moi
triidng, sii thay doi nhip co bop tim chuyen sang trang thai dting mdi theo nhting
diidng khac nhau cd dang I, II hay III.

C) cd the song, cac diidng cong dang I la nhting diidng cong dien hinh cua
nhting phan ting cua cd the hay te bao khi cd hung phan, con nhting dudng cong
dang III ting vdi khi cd thiidng ton. NgUdi ta da chting minh dUdc r&ng nhting
budc chuyen gitia cac dang khac nhau cua cac dudng cong phu thuoc vao ciidng do
tac dung ctia tac nhan kich thich va can phai dUdc xem xet ve thiic chat vdi quan
diem chung. Sii dong nhat ve dang cua cac diidng cong the hien budc chuyen doi
doi vdi nhting sinh vat cao cap, vi sinh vat va thiic vat la mot chting minh cho sii
kien la toan the chting thuoc vao loai he md.
Sti tien hoa cua trang thai dting xay ra theo phUdng hudng tien tdi nhting
qua trinh xay ra vdi toe do cao hdn nhUng bao toan sii on dinh cua he. Chinh
nhting toe do cao hdn cua cac qua trinh da giup ta phan biet cac sinh vat bac cao
vdi sinh vat bac thap.
Tod do phan ting hoa hoc trong he cang ldn thi he cang kem on dinh. di nhien
he d trang thai dting. Bdi vay trong qua trinh tien hoa, sii nang cao toe do phan ting
dat dUdc la nhd cac men tac dung d nhiet do thap. con sii on dinh cua he thong dUdc
dam bao bdi sii duy tri can bang noi moi nhd cd cac lien he ngiidc. Sii khong doi cua
moi trudng ben trong la yeu to" hang dau anh hiidng den toe do cac phan ting hoa
hoc. O sinh vat mau nong cd mot he dieu chinh nhiet do tii dong luon luon hoat
dong vi khoang nhiet do hoat dong ctia cac men trong cd the kha hep.

51
 Cac nha bac hoc da thti giai thich sii phat trien cua cac mo u ac tinh bang
quan diem xuat hien trang thai dting mdi khac, v6i mtic thap kha nhieu. nhiing
lai on dinh hdn. Trang thai dting mdi dat dtidc bang ti le cac chat xue tac va cac
chat tic che. Cac te bao ung thii tich luy nhting chat oxy hoa, nhting chat nay giup
te bao ung thu chuyen sang trang thai co toe do cac qua trinh oxy hoa thap. Chinh
vi vay, nhting te bao nay tang them diidc do ben vting va co toe do sinh san ldn so
vdi te bao binh thtidng cua cd the.

2.5.2. Ap dung nguyen ly thCrhai nhiet dong lu t hoc cho he thong song
- Khi ap dung nguyen ly thti hai nhiet dong liic hoc vao he thong song, thoat
tien ta thay co ve co nhting mau thuan. Theo nguyen ly thti hai nhiet dong liic hoc
thi tinh trat tii cua he co lap can phai giam tiidng ting vdi sii tang cua entropi.
Trong khi do cd the lai tao ra lien tuc nhting to chtic co trat tii cao trong qua trinh
phat trien, tinh trat tii cua to chtic cd the ngay mot hoan thien. Tti nhting phan tti
nho trat tii thap ma cd the nhan dtidc trong qua trinh an uong va ho hap, nhting
dai phan tti phtic tap co trat tii cao nhii polyme sinh hoc diidc tao ra va xay diing
nen nhting cau true hoan thien. Cd the ldn len va phat trien tuy thiic hien mot
qua trinh khong thuan nghich nhUng tinh trat tii khong nhting dtidc bao toan ma
con tang len, entropi nhu vay phai giam di tUdng doi.
Phai chang nguyen ly thti hai nhiet dong hoc khong the ap dung cho he
thong song? Thiic ra dieu nay khong phai nhu vay. Nhu ta biet, cd the song la mot
he md, ttic la co trao doi vat chat va nang liidng v6i moi trtidng ngoai, chu ng khac
vdi he co lap. Trong he co lap, qua trinh phan ting hoa hoc, bien doi trang thai... bi
gidi han bdi so liidng vat chat tham gia phan ting. Trang thai can bang dtidc thiet
lap sau khi phan ting hay qua trinh bien doi ket thuc va he se khong thay doi theo
thdi gian.
Trong khi do d he thong song, do vat chat va nang ltidng ra vao khong ngting
nen qua trinh bien doi nang liidng luCn xay ra. Chinh do sii di§n bien ctia cac qua
trinh nay nen buoc he thong song (he md) khong the nam d trang thai can bang
nhiet dong. Noi mot cach khac, sii ton tai trang thai khong can bang la dieu kien
song ctia cd the. Tuy nhien doi vdi cd the khong phai diidc dac trUng bang trang
thai khong can bang ba't ky ma chi bang trang thai tai do cac tinh cha't cua he
khong thay doi, cac thong so hoa ly nhii gradien, cac dac trting dong hoc... dtidc
bao toan (khong thay doi theo thdi gian). Thi du, d te bao song thi do pH va
gradien nong do ion luon luon giti trong khoang khong doi. Do la trang thai dting
cua he thong song.

— Hoat dong sinh cong cua cd the song co diem khac v6i qua trinh sinh cong
ctia may nhiet thong thtidng. 6 he thong song, du la cd the toan ven hay d cac cd
quan rieng biet, cong sinh ra khong phai do dong nhiet ltidng tti ben ngoai di vao
cd the. Ta lay thi du ddn gian sau de minh hoa. Ta biet rang hieu suat cua mot
may nhiet dtidc xac dinh theo bieu thtic:

T - T
n= ( 2 . 21 )
l

52
 trong do T, la nhiet do tuyet doi cua nguon nhiet, T 2 la nhiet do tuyet doi
cua nguon lam lanh. Gia sti hoat dong cua cd co sinh cong, cd hoat dong nhu mot
may nhiet vdi hieu suat 33%, nhiet do ndi lam lanh (khong khi) la 25°C hay 298°
K. Ap dung cong thtic (2.21) ta co:

1 _ T, - 298
3 " Tx

Vay Tj = 447°K hay 174° C

Do vay, neu cd hoat dong nhu mot may nhiet thong thtidng thi de sinh cong
no phai dtidc dun nong den 174° C, dieu do ro rang la khong thtic te bdi vi cac
phan tti protein cau tao nen bap cd da bi phan huy ngay tti nhiet do 40° - 60° C
Nhti vay d cd the song, cong dtidc sinh ra la do sti thay doi noi nang cua he
thong nhd cac qua trinh sinh hoa hoac nhd sti thay doi yeu to entropi.

2.5.2.1. Bien doi entropi d he thong song

He md trao doi vat chat va nang ltidng vdi moi trtidng xung quanh, bdi vay
sti thay doi entropi d he chia ra hai phan. Ta ky hieu dSe la phan thay doi entropi
gay ra bdi sti ttidng tac vdi moi trtidng xung quanh (do trao doi bang cac dong vat
chat va nang ltidng ra vao he), ky hieu dS, la ph^n thay doi entropi gay bdi nhting
thay doi ben trong he. Co the bieu dien sti thay doi chung d he nhti sau:

dS = dSe + dSi ( 2 .22 )

Gia sti nhti ta co lap he, khong con phan thay doi dSe ntia (khong co trao doi
vat chat va nang ltidng vdi moi trtidng xung quanh), khi ay dS = dSr Theo nguyen
ly hai nhiet dong ltic hoc, dS; chi co the nhan gia tri dtidng hoac bang 0. Dai ltidng
dSj = 0 khi he thay doi thuan nghich, no luon luon dtidng neu trong he xay ra cac
qua trinh khong thuan nghich. Nhti vay dSj = 0 doi vdi nhting qua trinh thuan
nghich, dSj >0 doi vcfi qua trinh khong thuan nghich. Doi vdi cd the song, nhting
qua trinh bien doi ben trong cd the (qua trinh oxy hoa, phan huy hiem khi cac
thtic an dtia vao cd the va sti tong hdp cac qua trinh nang ltidng cao) xay ra khong
thuan nghich nen chung gan lien vdi viec tang entropi hay d S ,> 0 .

Dai ltidng dSe co the nhan gia tri bat ky: dtidng, am hoac bang khong. Vdi cd
the song, do qua trinh ttidng tac vdi moi trtidng xung quanh (sti dung thtic an cao
phan tti, tach ra khoi cd the cac san pham thoai hoa trong qua trinh tieu hoa,
truyen nhiet trtic tiep vdi moi trtidng xung quanh...) ma tao thanh mot dong vat
chat co nang ltidng tti do cao, di vao cd the (S be) va mot dong vat chat co nang
ltidng tti do thap (S ldn) di ra khoi cd the.

Khi dSe = 0 (trtidng hdp rieng la he co lap, noi chung he md van co the xay ra
trtidng hdp nay) thi dS = dS„ ttic la phan thay doi entropi cua toan bo he thong
dtidc xac dinh bang sti tang entropi ben trong he.

Khi dSe > 0 thi dS chac chan ldn hdn khong.

53
 Khi dSe< 0 ta thay co ba trtidng hdp:
- Neu |dSe I < I d S ,! thi dS > 0 : entropi cua he tang.

- Neu |dSe I > 1dS, I thi dS < 0 : Do ttidng tac vdi moi trtidng xung quanh m^
entropi cua toan he giam xuo'ng, tinh trat tti cua toan he ngay cang tang. Den day
ta de dang hieu dtiOc vi sao ma co giai doan phat trien, he tho'ng co tinh trat tti
ngay cang cao.
- Neu |dSe | = I dS, I thi dS = 0 : sti thay doi entropi cua he bang khong,
dieu do ttidng ting vdi trang thai dting.
Sti khac nhau ve nguyen tac cua can bang nhiet dong so vdi can bang dting
la d cho xuat hien nhting thong so dong hoc cua can bang dting.
Phtidng trinh (2.22) co the viet:

— = ^ i - + ^JL (2.23)
dt dt dt
Do la cong thtic d iin ta toe do bien thien entropi d he tho'ng song.

2.5.2.2. S if can thiet phai cd moi trudng sach vdi entropi thap
Xet bieu thtic noi nang U = F + TS, ta thay:

- 6 he co lap, vi entropi S chi giti nguyen hoac tang, nen phan nang ltidng
lien ket TS cung giti nguyen hoac tang. Noi nang khong doi, phan nang ltidng lien
ket khong co kha nang bien thanh cong tang len, phan nang ltidng tti do F co kha
nang bien thanh cong giam. Khi Smax thi (TS)max, con Fmin: kha nang sinh cong cua
he it nhat. He tho'ng song ma co lap vdi moi trtidng xung quanh, hay noi khac di
la neu khong co moi trtidng xung quanh de trao doi vat cha't va nang ltidng. thi he
tho'ng se suy giam kha nang sinh cong va tien tdi trang thai can bang nhiet dong.
Nhti vay, moi trtidng xung quanh la can thiet do'i vdi he tho'ng song.
- Mat khac, ta xet bieu thtic (2.23) d trang thai dting :

^ =^L +^L = 0
dt dt dt
hay

dS,_ dSe
* 0 (2.24)
dt dt

Bieu thtic nay cho ta thay d trang thai dting toe do tang entropi trong cd the
bang toe do trao doi entropi vdi moi trtidng xung quanh: dong vat chat va nang
ltidng di vao cd the co entropi thap. con dong vat cha't va nang ltidng di ra moi
trtidng co entropi cao thi ket qua mdi gay mot dSe co gia tri am. Noi khac di moi
trtidng phai sach mdi co dong vat chat va nang ltidng co entropi thap di vao cd the
va cd the thai ra moi trtidng dong vat chat va nang ItiOng co entropi cao. Viec giti
cho moi trtidng song sach vdi entropi thap la dieu kien can thiet de cho cd the
song d trang thai dung ton tai. phat trien. co kha nang sinh cong.

54
 Bai 3

CHUYEN DONG TRONG CO THE

M UC TIE U HOC TAP

1. Giai thich diidc cac hien tiidng lien quan den liic va chuyen dong cua cac
phan tii.
2. Phan biet diidc cac hien ttidng van chuyen vat chat trong cd the song va
cac cd che van chuyen vat chat qua mang te bao.
3. Giai thich dtidc chuyen dong cua mau va sti trao doi khi cua cd the dtia
vao cac qui luat vat ly.
4. Phan tich dtidc qua trinh sinh cong cd hoc do cd.
Qua trinh trao doi va van chuyen vat chat dien ra khong ngting trong cd the
cac sinh vat. Chung ta co the quan sat dtidc qua trinh van chuyen do d dang vi mo
nhti chuyen dong cua mau trong he tuan hoan, chuyen dong cua khong khi d he ho
hap. Thtic chat co cac dang chuyen dong vi mo phtic tap tao nen cac chuyen dong vi
mo do. No xay ra theo nhieu cd che va phu thuoc vao nhieu yeu to". Ly sinh hoc gop
phan giai thich cac cd che do bang cac quy luat va khai niem cua vat ly hoc.

1. CHUYEN DONG PHAN TIT

Vat the dticfc cau tao tti cac nguyen tti, phan tti. Trang thai ran long khi
dtidc quyet dinh bdi mat do phan tti va ltic ttiOng tac gitia cac phan tti vdi nhau.
Quan sat hai vat ran de ap sat vao nhau, hai chat long hoac hai chat khi de tiep
xue vdi nhau ta thay co hien ttiOng tron lan chung vdi nhau. Dieu nay chting to la
cac phan tti luon luon chuyen dong hon loan. Brown la ngtidi dau tien phat hien
ra chuyen dong hon loan cua cac phan tti nho be, nen chuyen dong hon loan cua
phan tti goi la chuyen dong Brown. Tuy cac phan tti chuyen dong hon loan, nhting
gitia chting co nhting ltic ttidng tac xac dinh. Ltic ttidng tac nay chi tac dung trong
pham vi kich thtidc phan tti (khoang 1 0 8 cm), la ltic hut khi cac phan tti d xa
nhau, la ltic day khi phan tti qua gan nhau.
Trong chat khi, ltic ttidng tac gitia cac phan tti yeu nen phan tti chuyen dong
hoan toan hon loan. Trong chat long, ltic ttidng tac gitia cac phan tti manh hdn,
cac phan tti dao dong quanh vi tri can bang dong thdi vi tri can bang nay lai co
the dich chuyen. Chat khi va chat long dtidc goi chung la chat ltiu. 6 chat ran do
ltic ttidng tac gitia cac phan tti chat ran la kha manh nen phan tti chi dao dong
quanh vi tri can bang ma thoi, vi the chat ran de co hinh dang xac dinh.

1.1. Phtidng trinh cd ban cua thuyet dong hoc phan turva cac he qua
1.1.1 Chat khi ly tudng va dinh luat ve chat khi ly tudng
Chat khi ly ttidng la mot tap hdp cac phan tti luon luon chuyen dong hon
loan, khong phiiOng nao tiu tien hdn phtidng nao. ttic la so phan tu trung binh
chuyen dong theo moi phtidng thi bang nhau.

oo
 Khoang cach gitia cac phan tii rat ldn so vdi kich thtidc cua phan tii nen the
tich rieng cua tat ca cac phan tti khong dang ke so vdi the tich cua binh dung va
ltic tUdng tac gitia cac phan tii rat yeu, coi nhti bang khong.
Phtidng trinh trang thai khi ly ttidng la phtidng trinh mo ta moi lien he gitia
ba thong so ap suat p, the tich V va nhiet do T cua mot khoi khi co dang

p V = a p 0V0T (3.1)

trong do p0, V0la ap suat va the tich cua chat khi d 0°C.
Vdi mot phan tii gam khi (1 moi khi) co the tich V Mthi
p Vfl = R T (3.2)
khi ay R goi la hang so" khi ly ttidng va R =(8,3170+ 0,0003) 103 J /K m ol.K
Vdi mot khoi khi bat ky co khoi ItiOng m, the tich V m cung d nhiet do T va ap
suat p nhti cua mot moi khi ay thi

pV m = - R T (3.3)

Do la phtidng trinh Clapeyron-Mendeleep cho khoi khi bat ky.

Phiidng trinh cd ban cua thuyet dong hoc chat kh i vd cac he qua
Cac phan tii dtidc coi nhti nhting qua c&u ran chac, khi va cham vao nhau thi
hoan toan dan hoi, do do nang ltidng toan phan cua chung khong giam di do sti va
cham. Chinh sti va cham nay da gay nen ap suat cua chat khi tren thanh binh.
Xet sti bien thien dong ltidng cua phan tii khi trong mot ddn vj thdi gian
ngtidi ta da chting minh dtidc rang ap suat cua mot chat khi phu thuoc vao so
phan tti co trong mot ddn vi the tich (mat do phan tti n) va vao dong nang trung
binh cua phan tti.

F = p = ^nEd (3.4)

trong dd Ed goi la dong nang trung binh ctia phan tti khi.

Bieu thtic nay goi la phtidng trinh cd ban ctia thuyet dong hoc chat khi.
Tti phtidng trinh nay ta cd the suy ra mot so" he qua quan trong:

1.1.2.1. Nhiet do va dong nang phan tif

o
Tti bieu thtic p . VfJ= R T va p = —nEd ta cd the chting minh dtidc rang:

E d = \ kT (3-5)
ft
trong dd k = —- = (1.38044 ± 0.00007) 10 23 J/do. la hang so" Boltzm ann Bieu
N
thtic (3.5) cho ta thay dong nang trung binh cua phan tti khong phu thuoc vao ban

56
chat cua chat khi ma chi ty le thuan vdi nhiet do tuyet doi T cua khi va ta co the
noi r i n g nhiet do tuyet doi cua v&t la so do mtic do chuyen dong hon loan cua cac
phan tti cua vat. Chuyen dong phan tti cang manh thi nhiet do cua vat cang cao.
Do do ta con goi chuyen dong hon loan cua phan tti la chuyen dong nhiet.
Mat khac, vdi gia thiet la cac phan tti luon luon chuyen dong hon loan, nghia
la Ed khac khong, noi cach khac di la khong the thuc hien dtidc do khong tuyet
doi (0 K).

1.1.2.2. Dinh luat Dalton

Neu nhu ta co mot hon hop gom nhieu loai khi d cting nhiet do T (cung dong
nang trung binh Ed ), n la mat do phan tti cua hon hop, nL, P, la mat do phan tti
va ap suat cua loai khi thti i thi ap suat cua hon hdp khi la:

P =\ r tt = lE & n ,-± \ ,T t .± p ,
J J I I D

Bieu thtic nay cho phep ta phat bieu dinh luat Dalton: ap suat cua mot hon
hop khi ly tUdng bang tong tat ca cac ap suat rieng ctia tting loai khi:

P = P i + P 2+ ........ + p k (3.6)

1.1.2.3. Mat do phan tCr khi

Tti bieu thtic (3.4) va (3.5) ta rut ra:

«= — (3.7)
kT

Bieu thtic tren cho ta thay: Moi chat khi se cd cung mat do phan tti khi ap
suat va nhiet do ctia chting giong nhau.

CJ dieu kien tieu chuan (p0 = 1 atm = 1,013.10° N /m 2, t°C = 0°C = 273 K = T°)
thi l m 3 khi chtia:
1 013 10s
n = ----------- :-------- = 2,687.1025 phan tti/ m 3
0 1,38.10_23.273

1.2. Sure cang mat ngoai va hien tirong mao dan

1.2.1. Cac hien twgng mat ngoai cua chat long

1.2.1.1. Dac diem cua cac phan tCf chat long

Trong chat long, khoang cach gitia cac ph an tti nho so vdi trong chat khi, vi
vay ltic hut ph an tti dong m ot vai trd dang ke. Tuy nhien, ltic hut phan tti giam
nhanh khi tang khoang cach, do do ch i nhting ph an tti cach nhau m ot khoang nho
hdn r„ vao cd 10 9 m mdi tac dung len nhau. Tti m ot p h an tti lam tam, ve m ot mat
cau ban kinh r„ thi phan tti tren chi tiidng tac v&i cac ph an tti nam phia trong mat
cau do. H inh cau nay dtidc goi la hinh cau tac dung ph an tti.

bl
 Doi vdi cac phan tti nam sau trong chat long, hinh cau tac dung phan tii
nam hoan toan trong chat long vd ltic tac dung len moi p han tii do ve moi phia bii
trit nhau. Doi vdi cac phan tii nam d ldp mat ngoai (co be day nho hem 1 0 9 m) thi
hinh cau tac dung phan tii khong nam hoan toan trong chat long, liic tac dung len
mdi phan tii khong bii tru! nhau vd phan tii chiu mot liic tac dung tong hdp hWdng
vao trong chat long. D ieu do cung cd nghia la
phan tii nao nam tren mat thodng cung ph ai cd
mot liic nao do chong lai liic keo vao de khong
bi di vao trong long chat long.
AF
Doi vdi cac phan tii nam sat thanh binh
vd mat thodng, hinh cau tac dung phan tii cd
mot phan nam trong chat ran, mot ph an chat
khi vd mot phan chat long. Tuy theo liic tac
dung cua phan tii chat ran hut manh hay yeu
Hinh 3.2. Luc AF hudng ve ben phai tac
so vdi phan tii chat long md phan tii chat long dung len difdn g ranh gidi khi ldp mat
nay cd dinh vao thanh binh hay khong. ngoai d phia ben phai khong con nira

1.2.1.2. Stic cdng m$t ngoai

X et cac phan tii d ldp mat ngoai cua chat long (be day vao cd 1 0 9 m). Cac liic
tac dung len phan tii dd cd the phan tich lam hai thanh p h an vuong g oc vd tiep
tuyen vdi mat thodng. Cac thanh phan vuong goc ep len ph an chat long ph ia trong
vd gay nen dp suat phan tii (noi dp suat), con cac thanh p h an tiep tuyen vdi mat
thodng thi khii lan nhau. Neu ta tiidng tiidng ldp m at ngoai d p h ia ben p h a i khong
con niia (hinh 3.2) thi cac thanh ph an tiep tuyen khong khii lan nhau vd mat
ngoai bi co lai ve ben trdi. De g iii mat ngoai d tinh trang nhii cu ta p h a i tac dung
len diidng ranh gidi liic AF hiidng ve ben phai. AF goi la siic cang m at ngoai. Thiic
nghiem chting to siic cang mat ngoai vuong goc vdi diidng ranh gidi vd tiep tuyen
vdi mat ngoai, v i gia tri F ty le vdi do dai diidng ranh gidi m at ngoai:

AF = cr A t (3.8)
a id mot he so ty le goi la he so cang m at ngoai. Gia tri cua no bang site cang
mat ngoai tac dung len mot ddn vi dai cua diidng ranh gidi m at ngoai. Ddn vi a
la N/m.

N hieu hien tiidng cua trang thdi long vi du sii tao thanh ldp bot kh i tren mat
chat long, sii tao thanh giot khi chat long chay qua m ot Id nho... la do tac dung
cua siic cang m at ngoai.

1.2.1.3. Nang lupng mat ngoai

Ta biet rang cac phan tii ldp mat ngoai bi cac p h an tii d ph ia trong hut, vi
vay nang liidng cua chung, ngoai dong nang chuyen dong nhiet, con cd the nang
quy dinh bdi cac liic hut do. Khi dem phan tii tii trong long chat long ra ldp ngoai
can thiic hien cong chong lai liic hut ph an tii. N h ii vay cac p han tii ldp m at ngoai
cd the nang ldn hdn so vdi cac phan tii phia trong. Phan nang liidng ldn hdn nay
dtidc goi la nang liidng m at ngoai cua chat long.

58
 So ph an tii ldp ngoai cang nhieu thi nang liidng m at ngoai cang ldn, vi vay
nang liidng do phu thuoc vao dien tich mat ngoai.
N ang liidng m at ngoai AW cua dien tich AS chinh bang cong thiic hien de
lam tang dien tich mat ngoai len zlS
AW = a AS (3.9)
Ta biet rang m ot he d trang thdi can bang ben khi the nang ciic tieu, vi vay
chat long se d trang thdi can bang ben khi dien tich m at ngoai nho nhat. Thong
thiidng do tac dung cua trong liic nen chat long choan ph an diidi cua binh chiia vd
mat ngoai la m at thodng nam ngang. N hiing neu ta khii diidc tac dung cua trong
liic thi khoi chat long se co dang hinh cau tiic la hinh co dien tich mat ngoai nho
nhat trong cac hinh cung the tich. Bo it g iot dau vao trong chat long cung ty trong,
dung dich niidc + riidu chang han, trong liidng cac giot dau bi triet tieu bdi liic
day A csim et vd cac giot dau co dang nhiing qua cau Id liing trong chat long.

1.2.1.4. Hien tuong lam ifdt va khdng lam i/dt

Thiic nghiem cho thay
mat thodng chat long d canh
thanh binh diing co dang nhii
hinh 3.3
Goi 0 la diem mat thodng
cham thanh binh, 9 la g oc hdp
giiia tiep tuyen mat thodng ve
tii 0 vd phan thanh binh phia
diidi chat long.

Neu 9 < 90“ ta co chat long

lam lidt binh. Neu 9 > 90° ta co
chat long khong lam lidt binh.
Sd di m at thodng canh Hinh 3.3. Minh hoa chat long lam ir6t binh va chat
thanh binh cong nhii vay la vi long khong lam ifdt binh
tai day khong nhiing ton tai
liic hut p han tii cua chat long md con co liic hut ph an tii cua chat ran doi vdi chat
long. Goi F, la tong cong liic cac ph an tii niidc tac dung len ph an tii niidc A nam
sat thanh binh, F 2 la tong cong liic cac ph an tii thanh binh tac dung len A.
Triidng hdp liic F 2 co tri so ldn hdn F h tong hdp liic R hiidng vao thanh binh,
chinh liic nay dd day cac phan tii chat long xo vao phia thanh binh tao mat cong
lom : chat long lam lidt binh, vi du niidc diing trong binh thuy tinh.
Triidng hdp F 2 co tri so be hdn F „ tong hdp liic R hiidng vao long chat long,
liic nay day cac phan tii xo vao long chat long tao m at cong loi: chat long khong
lam lidt binh, vi du thuy ngan trong ong thuy tinh.
Hien tiidng lam lidt vd khong lam lidt cung quan sat diidc luc nho cac giot
chat long len vat ran. Nhd cac giot niidc len paraphin hoac thuy ngan len thuy
tinh thi vat ran khdng bi lam lidt con neu nho niidc hoac dau hod len thuy tinh thi
thuy tinh se bi Idm lidt.

59
1.2.2. Hien twang mao dan

1.2.2.1. Ap suat phu tac dung len mdt thoang

cong cua chat long
Do hien tiidng lam Udt va khong lam lidt
mat ngoai chat long thiidng co dang loi hoac
15m. Xet mot chu vi C cua mat thoang cong,
luc chat long 0 trang thai can bang, xung
quanh C cd cac siic cang tac dung. Do tac
dung cua siic cang nay nen phan chat long d
phia dudi chiu tac dung mot ap suat phu
hiidng xuong phia dudi (neu mat thoang loi),
hay hiidng len tren (neu mat thoang lom). Hinh 3.4..M6 hinh tfnh ap su£t phu
tac dung I6n mat thoang cong.
Xet mat cong dang chom cau ban kinh
cong R va ban kinh chom cau r (hinh 3.4).
Tren mot don vi chieu dai chu vi cua chom c£u co litc cang mat ngoai o tac dung,
crcd the phan tich ra thanh phan nam ngang cr„ va thanh ph£n thang diing a,. Ta
co: crt = osin 6
Tren toan chu vi se co liic tac dung theo phiidng thang dctng la:
F, = crt . 2 nr = 2 nr c sin 6

Liic nay phan phoi deu tren dien tich thiet dien chom c i u la nr2 tao ra ap
sua't phu. Do do ap suS't phu la:
2nrcrsin& 2a s i n 0
Ap = F'
nr nr'
nhiing do r = R sin 0 nen

a
Ap 2 (7
=— (3.10)
R
Trong triidng hdp mat thoang 15m ap suat phu hiidng len tren, no co gia tri
am. Trong trtfdng hdp tong quat mat cong co dang bat ky, Laplaxd da chiing minh
diidc cong thttc

1 1
Ap = or — -j---- (3.11)
R

trong d6 Rj va R2 la ban kmh cong cua hai giao tuyeTn vuong goc vdi nhau C h
C2 cua mat cong vdi hai mat phing ba't ky chiia phap tuy&n tai dilm d6.

1.2.2.2. Hi§n tupng mao dan

Nhung mot ong thuy tinh nho vao chau niidc, ta th&'y mat nvtdc lom trong
ong thuy tinh dang cao hdn d chau (hinh 3.5). Nhiing neu nhung ong thuy tinh
nav vao chau thuy ngan, mat cong loi cua thuy ngan trong ong th£p hdn mat thuy

60
ngan d ch&u (hinh 3.5). Hien ttidng ntidc dang len hay tut xuong tren goi la hien
ttidng mao dSn.
Trong ong thuy tinh, do N i/dc dang len Thuy ngan tut xuong
ntidc lam udt ong, mat ntidc
se 15m, ap suat phu Ap hudng
len tren la giam ap suat khi
quyen p tren mat ong nUdc,
nUdc phai dang len de cho ap
suat tai 2 diem A (trong ong)
va B (trong chau) co cung do
cao phai bang nhau :

P = P a = P b = P - A p + p gh

Trong do p g h la ap suat
cot nU6c co chieu cao h
TUdng tu, d chau thuy
Hinh 3.5 Hien ti/dng mao dan
ngan thi
P = P a = P b = P + A p - p gh

Noi chung, vdi moi chat long deu co:

= ~ ~ - P gh (3.12)
K

TU day co the suy ra chieu cao cot chat long (dang len hay ha xuong) la:

2< j
h— (3.13)
Rpg
Neu r la ban kinh ong, a la goc tao bdi giUa thanh binh va tiep tuyen mat

thoang cong tai ndi mat cong gap thanh binh thi R = do do:
cos a
2 a cos a
h=
rpg

Trong trUdng hdp a ldn , p nhd, nUdc bam thanh binh nhieu thi a = 0, do do
cosa « 1, nen

2a
(3.14)
rpg
DUa vao cong thUc nay, neu biet h, r, ta ti'nh dtidc sUc cang mat ngoai:

hrpg
a = (3.15)

ttic la dtia vao chieu cao cot ntidc mao dan ma do dtidc he so cang mat ngoai.

61
 Hien tiidng mao d in co anh htidng ldn trong thtic te. Cac vat r&n xop c6 rat
nhieu lo nho, neu nhti lam tidt ch§.'t do thi do hi£n ttidng mao d in , ntidc dang len
v& lam tidt v^t mot cach de dang, ngtidc lai neu ntidc khong 16m tidt dtidc vat thi
ntidc khong the lot vao cac lo nho do th&nh thti v&t khong bi t&m tidt. Long thu
khong bi t&m tidt vi cd cac chat nh&y bao boc.
Bong tho cd nhieu md nen khong tham ntidc nhting khi t&y het md thi bong
th&'m r&'t nhieu ntidc. Bdi dau md vao kim loai chong khdng khi oxy hoa cung la
chong ntidc xam nh&p vao cac lo nho.
Vdi thtic v&t, cac ong d in nhtia cay cd dtidng kinh r&'t nho (vai phan tr&m
milimet), do hien ttidng mao dan ma nhtia leo len dtidc den vai met. Nhting vdi
nhting cay to cao vai chuc mdt, nhtia len ngon dtidc khong nhting la do stic mao
dan ma con do stic tham thau cua cac te bao song.

1.3. Cac hien tudng van chuyen vat chat trong cd the

1.3.1. Hi$n twang khuech tan

Cac phan tti luon luon chuyen dong hon loan va va cham vao nhau, cho nen
khi ta de hai tap hdp phan tti lai gan nhau du chung d the ran, long hay khi chting
cung chuyen dong ngau nhien xuyen lan vao nhau. Dd la hien ttidng khuech tan
phan tti.
Vdi chat ran ta kho quan sat dtidc hien ttidng nay nhting vdi chat long hoac
khi ta co the quan sat dtidc d dang vi mo. Neu trong chat khi hoac chat long
khong cd sti dong nhat d moi diem ve nong do thi chuyen dong nhiet ctia cac phan
tti se cd tac dung lam mat di sti khong dong nhat dd. Ndi cach khac la no se dan
den sti san bang nong do d moi diem. Va nhti vay da cd sti di chuyen vat chat tti
ndi co nong do cao den ndi cd nong do thap. Hien ttidng khuech tan la hien ttidng
di chuyen vat chat cd ban chat la sti chuyen dong nhiet hon loan ctia cac phan tti
khong tao phtidng tiu tien dan den trang thai san bang nong do, la trang thai co
xac suat nhiet dong ctic dai hoac cd entropi ctic dai khi khong cd ttidng tac vdi moi
trtidng ngoai.

1.3.1.1. Khuech tan khong qua mang

De quan sat hien ttidng khuech tan xay ra trong dung dich ta lam thi
nghiem sau: Dung mot binh thuy tinh dting siro dac cd mau tdi mtic P. Do nhe tay
ntidc len phan tren. Luc dau ta quan sat thay cd mat phan cach ro ret P. Sau mot
thdi gian ta thay cd mot khoang tti M den N mau s i c thay doi nhat dan. khong
con mat P ntia. Cac phan tti tao nen siro va cac phan tti ntidc da chuyen dong xen
lan vao nhau, dd la sti khuech tan trong dung dich.

Khao sat sti thay doi nong do C theo true Ox ta dtidc do thi dang sau (hinh 3.6).

Nghien ctiu hien ttidng khuech tan. Fick da khao sat sti phu thuoc cua so*
phan tti khuech tan dn qua dien tich S trong khoang thdi gian dt va ong da thiet
lap dtidc cong thtic:

dn = - D S .gradC .dt (3.16)

62
 Day chinh la cong thtic cua dinh luat Fick trong do gradC la gradien nong do
va D 1^ he so" khuech tan cua loai phan tit ma ta khao sat.
Ngudi ta nh&n tha"y D phu thuoc vao:
+ Khoi ltidng va hinh dang cua phan tti
+ Do nhdt cua dung moi
+ Nhiet do cua dung dich

M
N

M \P
-------- ----------x

! \ N I
---------- !----- ^ -----------►
Hinh 3.6. Hien tifdng khuech tan trong dung dich

Einstein da thiet lap he thtic bieu dien sti phu thuoc gitia he so" khuech tan
D va cac yeu to" lien quan:

D _ RT 1 _ k T
(3.17)
N cp (p

trong do R la hang so" khi ly ttidng, N la so" Avogadro, k la hang so"

Boltzmann, T la nhiet do tuyet doi cua dung dich, cp la he so ma sat phan tti bieu
dien sti can cua moi trtidng long doi vdi chuyen dong nhiet cua phan tti. Co the coi
(p = Kr|, trong do r] la he so" nhdt cua moi trtidng, K la he so" dac trting cho hinh
dang cua phan tti. Trong trtidng hdp phan tti co dang hinh cau vdi ban kinh r thi
<p = 67t.r.r|, do do

RT 1 kT
D = (3.18)
N 6m-r/ 6w ri

Neu bieu dien cong thtic nay theo khoi ltidng phan tti (a ta co:

A
D (3.19)

trong do A la mot hang so" phu thuoc nhiet do va loai dung moi. Bang 3.1
dtidi day cho biet mot so gia tri D tinh bang ddn vi em~/ngay d 20 °C vdi mot so"
phan tti khac nhau trong trtidng hdp dung moi la ntidc.

63
 Bang 3.1. Gia tri he so khuech tan D va trong ludng phan tif n cua mot so chat

Chat D

Ure 60 0,81

M anitol 182 0,40

Sacarose 342 0,31

H em oglobin 63.000 0,059

Serum album in 69.000 0,060

Dinh luat Fick la dinh luat thtic nghiem, no cho ta biet so' phan tu tham gia
khuech tan khi co sti chenh lech ve nong do chat tan giUa cac vung trong dung
dich. Cac phan tii hoa tan se dich chuyen tU ndi co nong do cao sang ndi co nong
do thap tUc la theo chieu gradien nong do. Toe do khuech tan tang theo nhiet do
va giam khi phan tu ltidng chat hoa tan va do nhdt cua moi trtidng tang.
Ngoai ra ta cung thay rang hien ttidng khuech tan khong chi xay ra vdi
phan tii chat tan ma con xay ra vdi ca dung moi. Cac phan tii dung moi se chuyen
dong ngtidc chieu vdi cac phan tii chat tan co nghia la tii ndi co nong do dung moi
ldn den ndi co nong do dung moi nho.

1.3.1.2. Khuech tan qua mang xop tham tit do

Mang
C,

Hinh 3.7 Hien tifdng khuech tan qua mang xop tham tu do

Mang xop tham tti do la loai mang co nhting lo vdi dtidng kinh rat ldn so vdi
dtidng kinh phan tii khuech tan. Khi ta dat hai dung dich co nong do khac nhau d
hai phia cua mang thi se co hien ttidng khuech tan xay ra va hien ttidng khuech
tan nay xay ra ttidng tti nhti trtidng hdp khong co mang chan nhting xay ra cham
hdn vi phan dien tich de cac phan tii di qua bay gid chi la phan dien tich tong
cong cua tat ca cac lo.

Thi nghiem bo' tri nhti hinh 3.7.

64
 Gia sii d moi phia cua mang luon duy tri nong do dong nhat C, va C2 (chang
han bang cach khuay), khi ay chi co phan ben trong gitia hai mat mang la co nong
do bien doi (gia sti bien doi tuyen tinh lien tuc) ttic la gradC co gia tri khong doi

gradC = - — — — , L la chieu day cua mang.

dx I

Ap dung dinh luat Fick ta co :

An = -D .S . ° 2 - C| At (3.20)

trong do — goi la hang so" mang.

Ta khong biet dtidc chinh xac dien tich S cua cac lo mang va chieu day
mang, nhting bang thtic nghiem co the xac dinh dtidc gia tri trung binh cua hang
so mang.
Tren hinh 3.7 ve do thi bieu dien sti bien thien nong do theo khong gian ting
vdi thdi diem t va t’ (t’ > t) ta thay sti chenh lech nong do gitia hai phia cua mang
giam dan theo thdi gian, dan dan tien tdi trang thai can bang khuech tan ttic la
trang thai ma so" phan tti chuyen dong qua mang theo hai phia bang nhau.

1.3.2 Hien twang tham thau

Trong tti nhien co nhting loai mang chi cho mot loai hoac mot so loai phan tti
xuyen qua, con nhting loai khac thi khong the qua lai; co loai mang chi cho dung
moi di qua ma khong cho cac chat hoa tan di qua. Cac loai mang co tinh chat nhti
vay goi la mang ban tham. Cac loai mang trong cd the h&u het la mang ban tham
bdi vi sti ton tai cua te bao phu thuoc vao sti tham nhting chat can thiet tti moi
trtidng ben ngoai vao va loai trti nhting chat chuyen hoa can ba tti no ra ngoai.
Ngoai nhting mang ban tham co trong tti nhien d cac cd the sinh vat con co
cac mang ban tham nhan tao. Chinh do co tinh tham chon loc ma chung ta co hien
ttidng tham thau. Doi vdi cd the song thi tham thau dong vai trd rat quan trong
trong cac phtidng thtic van chuyen chat d cd the song.
Tham thau la qua trinh van chuyen
dung moi qua mot mang ngan cach hai
dung dich co thanh phan khac nhau khi
khong co cac ltic ngoai nhti trong ltic, ltic
dien tti, ltic day pistong... Hai dung dich
co the khac nhau ve ban chat, nong do
chat hoa tan... Dong ltic cua qua trinh
tham thau la ap suat tham thau.

1.3.2.1. Ap suat tham thau

Nhting mot cai ong chtia dung dich
ntidc dtidng vao trong mot chau ntidc cat.
Phan tren la mot ong nho dai de phat Hinh 3.8. Thi nghiem ve hien tifdng tham thau

65
hien sii bien doi do cao miic dung dich. Phia dtidi ong c6 mieng rong dtidc bit kin
bdi mot m&ng ban tham chi cho ntidc th&'m qua con diidng thi khong (hinh 3.8).
Luc d&u mtic dung dich trdng 6ng v& mtic ntidc trong ch&u dtipc de’ ngang nhau.
Sau mot thdi gian thay mtic dung dich trong ong dang len cho den mot do cao n&o
do thi dting lai. Phan tich ntidc d chau khong th&y c6 dtidng. Dieu do c6 nghia lik
ntidc da tham qua mang vao ong trong khi dtidng khong th&'m dtidc ra ngoai.

6 trong chau chi toan cac phan tti ntidc nen so phan tti ntidc trong chau do
chuyen dong hon loan dap vao mat ngoai mang ban th&'m nhieu hdn so vdi so cac
phan tti ntidc cua dung dich dap vao phia trong mang ban th&'m (mot ph&n cua m&t
trong mang ban tham da bi cac phan tti dtidng chiem). Do do cac phan tti ntidc tti
chau di vao ong se nhieu hdn so vdi so phan tti ntidc tti ong di ra chau. Ket qua 1&
sau mot thdi gian, mtic ntidc dtidng trong ong se dang len lam tang ap suat thuy
tinh. Nhting khi ap suat thuy tinh tang thi so phan tti ntidc tti ong bi ep quay trd
lai chau tang len. Khi ap suat thuy tinh dat tdi mot gia tri nao do thi so phan tu
ntidc chuyen dong qua mang theo hai htidng se b&ng nhau. Trang thai can bang
nhti v&y goi la can bang th&m thau. Ap suat thuy tinh ctia cot ntidc dtidng co chieu
cao h co do ldn b&ng ap suat th&m thau cua dung dich dtidng trong ong.
Neu ta lam lai thi nghiem vdi dieu kien la trong chau dting ntidc dtidng vdi
nong do nho hdn nong do ntidc dtidng trong ong thi khi d trang thai can bang
dong, chieu cao cua cot ntidc dtidng trong ong bieu thi hieu ap suat tham thau cua
hai loai ntidc dtidng trong va ngoai ong.
Ngtidc lai neu nong do ntidc dtidng trong ong nhd hdn ntidc dtidng trong chau
thi mtic ntidc dtidng trong ong se thap hdn mtic ntidc dtidng trong chau, ttic la da
co mot so' phan tti ntidc tti ong di ra chau.
Tti do ta thay r i n g moi dung dich deu co mot ap suat tham thau nhat dinh.

Ap suat tham thau sinh ra la do sti co mat cua cac chat hoa tan trong dung
dich. No co tac dung lam dung moi chuyen dong ve phia dung dich va co do ldn
b i n g ap suat thuy tinh can thiet lam ngting sti th&m thau khi dat dung dich ngan
cach vdi dung moi bang mot mang ban tham.

V an’t H off nghien ctiu hien ttidng tham thau d cac dung dich loang cua cac
chat khong dien ly, da dem so sanh vdi thuyet dong hoc phan tti cua chat khi va
rut ra la co the dung phtidng trinh Clapeyron-M endeleev cho ap suat t h im thau:
m n_
P = — R.T (3.21)
P vm

trong do p la ap suat tham thau ctia dung dich

m la khoi ltidng chat hoa tan

|ii la trong ltidng phan tti chat hoa tan

V m la the tich dung dich

R la hang so Clapeyron-M endeleev va R = 8,31 J/m ol.K

T la nhiet do tuyet doi cua dung dich

66
 TCr (3.21) ta thay ap sua't th^m tha'u ty le nghich vdi trong ltidng phan tii vh
ty le thu^n vdi nhiet do tuy$t doi T.
Neu ta thay ml/u.Vm = C la nong do cua dung dich thi ta co phtidng trinh
V an’t Hoff:
p = C .R .T (3.22)
tiic la khi nhiet do khong doi thi ap sua't tham tha"u ty le thuan vdi nong do
chat tan cua dung dich.
Phtidng trinh V an’t H off nghiem kha dung v6i mot so dung dich loang,
nhting doi vdi mot so" dung dich khac nhti dung dich muo'i vo cd chang han thi ap
sua't tham tha'u ldn hdn nhieu so vdi gia tri tinh dtidc. Do la vi v6i cac chat dien ly
khi hoa tan vao trong dung moi se phan ly thanh cac ion, neu cac ion nay khong
tham qua mang ban tham thi so" ltidng phan tii trong dung dich se tang len dan
den ap suat tham thau cung ldn len. Tti do ta thay phtidng trinh V an’t H off chi
dung v6i dung dich loang khong dien ly.
Doi v6i dung dich loang dien ly ta co the suy rong phtidng trinh V an’t H off
de tmh ap suat tham thau.
Gia sti mot dung dich dien ly co a% so phan tti chat hoa tan bi phan ly va
moi phan tti bi phan ly thanh n ion.
Goi N„ la sd phan tti cua chat hoa tan ting vdi mot ddn vi the tich dung dich
neu chat hoa tan la khong dien ly.
N la so" phan tti co trong mot ddn vi the ti'ch dung dich sau khi da phan ly
thanh cac ion.

Ta co N = N (t.a.n + (1-a) N„
N = (an + 1 - a)N„ = [1 + a (n-1)] N 0
Vi ap suat tham thau ty le v6i so" phan tti trong mot ddn vi the tich nen doi
vdi dung dich dien ly ap sua't tham thau se tang len i lan vdi i = 1 + a (n - 1) va i
dtidc goi la he so" dang tha"m. Nhti vay phtidng trinh V a n ’t H off viet cho dung dich
loang chat dien ly se la:
p = i.C .R .T (3.23)

1.3.2.2. Can bdng Donnan

d tren ta xet ap sua't tham tha'u cua cac cha't phan ly va khong phan ly ma
ban than chung khong di qua dtidc mang ban tha'm. Trong thtic te 0 cac to chtic
song co cac muoi protein la cac dai phan tti bi ngan cach vdi cac dung dich dien ly
bdi cac mang te bao. Mang te bao nay khong cho cac dai phan tti va cac ion ldn di
qua nhting cho cac ion nho cua cha't dien ly di qua. Do vay ma co sti phan phoi lai
cac chat dien ly trong va ngoai mang, anh htidng len ap sua't tham thau.
Gia sti co mot mang ban tham ngan cach dung dich dien ly dai phan tti R
N a + d phan I vdi dung dich dien ly N a+Cl‘ d phan II (hinh 3.9). Cac ion N a + va Cl
co the qua lai 2 phia cua mang con R' thi khong the tham qua mang dtidc. Vi cac

67
phan tii trong ca hai phan deu co tich dien nen hien ttidng phtic tap hdn Ta
nhan thay:

Ph&n I M ang Phdn II

Trang thai dau R Na+ N a+ Cl

c,c> C2 c2
Trang thai cuoi R Na+ Cl N a+ Cl

C, Cj+ x x C2- X C2 ■x

Hinh 3.9. Mang ban tham ng3n cach dung dich dien ly dai
phan tufva dung dich NaCI.

Cac ion Na+ khong the di qua m ang mot minh vi nhti the se dan den qua
trinh tich tu dien dtidng d ph&n I va tao ra dien trtidng chong lai cac ion Xa* khac
qua mang. Mot ion Na+ nao do chi co the qua mang neu no dtidc cung cap nang
ltidng tti ben ngoai. Nhting neu Na* va Cl qua mang cung luc sau va cham d gan
lo mang thi sti tham thau xay ra de dang va khong can cung cap nang ltidng tti
ngoai.
Neu Na+ va Cl d phan II co nong do la [Na+]2, [C l] 2 (dau [ ] ky hieu nong do
cac ion, ddn vi mol/1) thi so"cap ion qua theo chieu tti phan II den phan I la:
n2 = k[Na*]2[ C l ] 2
va so" cap ion qua theo chieu tti phan I den phan II la:
n, = k[Na*],[Cl ],
Theo Donnan d trang thai can b i n g dong phai thoa man hai dieu kien:
- So" phan tti qua lai mang tti hai phan phai b i n g nhau n, = n2
[Na*]2[C l']2 = [N a*] ,[Cl ] , (*)
- Co sti trung hoa ve dien trong moi ngan

Ta co trang thai ban dau cua he: [ R ] , = [Na*], = C,

[Na*]2 = [ C l ] 2 = C2
Neu goi x la phan nong do ttidng ting v6i so cap ion N a+, Cl da di chuyen
qua mang tti phan II sang phan I cho tdi khi dat trang thai can bang dong, luc do:

[R], = C„ [Na*], = C, + x, [ C l ], = x, [N a*]2 = [ C l ] 2 = C2 - x

Thay vao phtidng trinh (*) ta co:

(C , - x) 2 = (C, + x)x

68
 Giai phtidng trinh nay ta dtidc :

x = — ^ 2— (3.24)
C, + 2 C2

Xet mot so" trtidng hdp dac biet :

- C , « C2 ttic la [R ] d trang thai d&u rat nho thi ta co the bo qua ltidng C, d
mau so" trong bieu thtic (3.24)

C2 C .
x = — — = —- , co nghia la khi dat den trang thai can bang dong da co mot
2 Cj 2
utia so" phan tti chat dien ly NaCl tti ngoai vao trong te" bao.
- C, » C2 ttic la [R ] rat ldn thi x = 0 ttic la NaCl d ngoai hau nhti khong
i ham dtidc vao trong te bao.

C2 c
- C, = Cp thi x = ------- ------ = ——, co nghia la da co 1/3 so phan tti chat dien
C, + 2C, 3
y d ngoai mang chuyen vao trong khi dat can bang dong.
Nhti vay khi cho te" bao tiep xue vdi chat dien ly co cting loai ion vdi muoi
>rotein trong te bao thi trong moi trtidng hdp deu co mot ltidng chat dien ly di vao
te bao do do co sti thay doi ap suat tham thau va gia tri ap suat tham thau cua te
bao luon luon ldn hdn ap suat tham thau ctia moi trtidng va do chinh la dong ltic
gay nen dong chay vat chat ve phia cac te bao song.

1.3.2.3. Y nghia cua ap suat tham thau

Hien ttidng tham thau dong vai tro rat quan trong trong sti song cua cac cd
the dt ^ thtic vat. Da so" cac mang te bao dong vat, thtic vat la mang ban tham
nen gic. ri ap suat tham thau co lien quan trtic tiep den qua trinh trao doi chat
trong cat cd quan cua te bao. Gia tri ap suat tham tha'u cua cac cd quan khac
nhau, d cac loai sinh vat khac nhau thtidng khac nhau. Dich tiet ra tti cd the ech
co ptt nho hdn ptt d ngtidi. Cac dong vat song trong ntidc bien co cac dich v6i p tt ldn.
Thtic vat hut ntidc tti dat nhd p tt = 5 — 20 atm . Mot so" cay d sa mac co p u = 1 7 0
atrn. Cac te bao d la va ngon cay c o p tt ldn hdn d than va re.
Doi vdi con ngtidi chi can mot thay doi nho ve ptt cua cac dich trong cd the,
dac biet la mau (mau, bach huyet, dich cac to chtic cua cd the ngtidi co p u = 7',7
atm d 37 °C) cting du gay ra nhting anh htidng den cac hoat dong sinh ly binh
thtidng.

- ptt bi ha thap (do co sd ltidng ntidc 16n dtia vao hay do mat muoi) co the dan
tdi co giat, non mtia.

- pu tang (do dtia vao cd the ltidng muoi ldn) dan tdi sti phan phoi lai ntidc,
co the gay phu ne cac to chtic. Khi ay sti mat ntidc cua cac niem mac gay ra cam
giac khat ntidc. lam mat thang bang cua hoat dong binh thtidng cua he than kinh,
cua cac cd quan quan trong khac.

69
 CJ cd the ngUdi. than dong vai trd quan trong trong viec dieu chinh lai ap suat
tham tha'u.
D u n g dich ma ap sua't th a m tha'u cua no b an g ap sua't tha’ m th a u cua mot
dun g dich c h u i n goi la dun g dich d a n g trUdng vdi d u n g dich chu an. D u n g dich ma
ap s u at t h a m thau ldn hdn ap su a t th a m th a u cua d u n g dich ch u a n goi la dung
dich Uu trUdng, trUdng hdp nhd hdn goi la nhudc trUdng.

N e u de trong dun g dich Uu trUdng, te bao se bi m a t nude m a teo lai; neu de

trong dun g dich nhUdc trUdng te bao se bi vd vi cd ludng nUdc qua nh ie u di vao. Vi
vay m a khi rtia hong c i u ngUdi ta phai d u n g nUdc muo'i sinh ly (d u n g dich muoi cd
nong do 0 ,9 % ) vdi ap sua't th a m thau 7,7 atm la d u n g dich d a n g trUdng cua m au.

1.3.3. Hien twang loc va sieu loc

Ta da gap hien tUdng loc nhieu trong thuc te va trong ddi song hang ngay.
Thi du : nhu loc nUdc de loai bo can ba’n, loc bot nUdc de loai bo phan bot cd kich
thudc ldn hdn...
- H ien titqng loc la hien tudng jcay ra khi dung dich chuyen thanh dong qua
cac lo cua mang dudi tac dung cua luc thuy tinh (day hoac hut) dat len dung dich.
Mat do dong the tich J v la the tich dung dich chuyen qua mot ddn vi dien tich cua
mang trong mot ddn vi thdi gian cd the tinh theo cong thUc :

AV n r\ N .A p _
J = ----- = ------------ — = L A p (3 .2 5 )
At 8r|^

Trong dd :
AV la the tich dung dich chuyen qua mang trong thdi gian At.
r: b an kinh cua lo m a n g

N: so lo trong mot ddn vi dien tich mang

rj: he so nhdt cua dung dich

I : chieu dai trung binh cua lo mang hay chie\i day cua mang

Ap : hieu ap sua't gitia hai dau lo

L : he so' loc

Nhu vay ta thay toe do van chuyen cua dung dich qua m ang loc phu thuoc
vao hieu ap suat gitia 2 dau lo, do nhdt cua dung dich, vao cac kich thudc cua lo va
so' lo trong mot ddn vi dien tich.

T a t nhien d day coi cac lo m a n g giong n h a u va nhting v a t ch a t ta n trong

du n g dich cd kich thudc ldn hdn lo. khdng the qua lo.

- H ien tilting sieu loc la hien tUdng loc qua m a n g trong cac dieu kien sau:

+ M a n g loc ng an cac dai p h a n tti cd p h a n tti lUdng ldn hdn gia tri gidi han
|ngh (thi du ngan cac p han tti protein).

70
 + M&ng loc cho cac phan tti va ion nho lot qua, tuan theo can bang Donnan.

+ Co them tac dung cua gradien ap suat thuy tinh hiidng tti phan co cac
dai phan tti sang p h in kia hoac ngUdc lai. Tac dung cua ap suat thuy
tinh lam thay doi liiu liidng cua dong dung dich qua mang, cung co the
lam doi chieu dong.
Sii van chuyen cua cac phan tti ntidc va cac phan tti nho qua thanh mao
mach co the coi la hien tiidng sieu loc. Huyet ap co khuynh hiidng don niidc d
trong mau ra khoang gian bao; ngiidc lai, ap suat tham thau keo lai don niidc tti
khoang gian bao qua vach mao mach vao mau. Trong cac mao dong mach, huyet
ap ldn hdn ap suat tham thau keo, do do niidc tti mau thoat ra khoi thanh mao
mach. Trong cac mao tinh mach, huyet ap nhd hdn ap suat tham thau keo nen
niidc tti khoang gian bao di qua thanh mao mach vao mau.
Sii trao doi chat thiidng xay ra d t h a n h m a o m a ch nhii mot hien tiidng sieu
loc ma dong liic la sii chenh lech cua tong cac loai ap suat.

Ta biet ap suat thuy dong co chieu hiidng tti long mach ra thanh. Ap suat
nay d long mach la pA= 4kPa (1 Pa = 7 5 .10'4 mm Hg) va trong long tinh mach la
pv = 2kPa. Ap suat thuy tinh cua cac dich mo co chieu ngiidc lai, co gia tri trung
binh la p = 0,8 kPa (tti 0 den 1,3 kPa). Nhii vay do chenh lech d day lam cho dich
di chuyen ra khoi long mach :

Api - Pa - P - 4 - 0,8 - 3,2 kPa (d dong mach)

va Ap2 = pv - p = 2 - 0,8 = 1.2 kPa (d tinh mach)
Trong khi do ap suat tham thau cua dung dich diidc quyet dinh bdi nong do
cac chat htiu cd trong dd. Ta biet gia tri ap suat tham thau cua mau trong long
mach la rcM= 3,3 kPa va cua dich mo la 7rxc = 1,3 kPa. Sii chenh lech ap suat tham
thau nay (Atc= 3,3 - 1,3 = 2 kPa) lam cho niidc di chuyen tti to chtic vao long mach.
Cuoi cting sii di chuyen cua niidc va cac thanh phan tan trong dd (chat vo cd,
htiu cd, oxy v.v...) phu thuoc vao tong hdp cac ap suat thuy dong, thuy tinh va
tham thau co cac chieu khac nhau la:
6 mao dong mach 3,2 - 2 - 1,2 kPa
6 mao tinh mach 1,2 - 2 = - 0,8 kPa
- H ien tiicJng sieu loc d cau than: C lu than nam d vung vd than, no co hai
thanh phan hdp thanh la boc Bowm an va btii mao mach cau than. Vat chat trong
huyet tiidng chav qua bui mao mach cau than se lot qua thanh mao mach de vao
trong long boc Bowman. Bdi vay thanh mao mach va thanh boc Bowman gan vdi
nhau tao thanh mang loc cau than. M ang loc cau than cung giong nhii. mang mao
mach khac trong cd the nhung vi chtic nang loc ldn hdn nen cd do xop ldn hdn
khoang 25 ldn.
Vat chat chuyen qua mang loc vao boc Bowman la do su chenh lech ap suat,
co 3 loai ap suat d cau than:

71
 Ap suat mau trong mao mach p h = 70 mm H g dong vai tro liic day dich
chuyen vao boc Bowman.
Ap suat keo trong mao mach cau than tao ra do nong do protein hoa tan
trong huyet ttidng p k = 32 mm Hg.
Ap suat thuy tinh trong boc Bowman tao ra do dich loc chtia trong boc
Bowman p h = 14 mm Hg.
Nhii vay ap suat loc la ap suat day ntidc va cac chat hoa tan tii long mao
mach cau than qua mang loc vao boc Bowman pe la:

P e = Ph - (Pk + Pb) = 7 0 - (32 + 14) = 24 mm Hg

Trong dich loc khong co hong cau va ltidng protein rat thap vi chung khong
qua dtidc mang. Cac phan tii nho, cac ion khuech tan qua mang theo gradien nong
do, theo can bang Donnan. Do vay nong do cac anion cao con thanh phan cation
lai thap hdn trong huyet tUdng.
Tham phan mau: Th&m phan la phiidng phap tach cac phan tti nho trong
dung dich b i n g hien ttidng khuech tan qua mot mang. Trong y hoc, ngtidi ta
thtidng tham phan mau nham muc dich loai ra khoi mau cac chat co hai do benh
trong cd the sinh ra (thi du thieu nang than) hoac do cac chat tii ngoai xam nhap
vao (thi du nhiem chat doc). Ngtidi ta dat mot mang ngan cach mau vdi dung dich
tham phan (dung dich co nong do thich hdp cac chat nU6c, muoi khoang,
glucose...). Thong qua hien ttidng khuech tan qua mang, cac chat can loai bo rdi
khoi mau tdi dung dich tham phan. Nhu vay, mang dong vai tro nhu mot cai sang.
M ang dung trong tham phan mau thtidng la mang sinh vat hoac m ang nhan

Mau lay ra tii dong mach sau khi tham phan dtidc dUa trd lai vao tinh mach.
Thong thtidng mot ddt loc mau keo dai tu: 2 den 4 gid, cho phep loai bo nhiing
ltidng thtia ure, CT, Na+, K + sulphat va phosphat ... co trong mau.

1.4. Van chuyen vat chat qua mang te bao

Moi cd the song deu gom nhiing ddn vi cd ban la te bao bdi vi no tu chuyen
hoa, tii dieu hoa, tu thich nghi, tu sinh san v.v... tU do xay diing nen cac mo. cac
cd quan va cd the song. Te bao song luon luon phai trao doi chat vdi moi trtidng. 6
cac cd the song co hang loat cac cd che khac nhau de duy tri tinh on dinh cua moi
trtidng ben trong va ben ngoai mang te bao. 6 day can ltiu y r i n g tinh on dinh do
khong phai la ket qua cua mot trang thai tinh ma la ket qua cua trang thai can
b i n g dong. Cd sd cua trang thai can b i n g dong do co lien quan den cac cd che van
chuyen vat chat qua mang te bao nhti khuech tan thu dong, van chuyen tich ctic,
thtic bao va am bao.

1.4.1. Mang te bao

Te bao ve phtidng dien vat ly la mot he nhiet dong md, luon trao doi vat chat
va nang ltidng vdi moi trtidng xung quanh.

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 a. Protein dang cau
b. Protein dang sdi
c. Phospho lipid

Hinh 3.10. Cau true mang te bao

Te bao gom 3 phan chinh: mang te bao, nguyen sinh chat (bao tifdng) va
nhan te bao.
Moi te bao deu dtidc bao boc bdi mang te bao. mang te bao dong vai tro:
- Bao boc te bao, phan dinh ranh gidi gitia te bao va moi trtidng xung quanh,
lam cho te bao thanh mot the toan ven khac moi trtidng. Bao ve cac thanh phan
cua te bao trtidc cac tac dong cua moi trtidng.
- Tiep nhan, truyen dat, xti ly thong tin tti moi trtidng tdi nhti nhan dien te
bao quen, la; kich thich hoac tic che tiep xtic gitia cac te bao, gitia te bao vdi cd
chat; phan ting vdi cac thong tin tdi nhti hting phan dien, chuyen dong...
- Thtic hien trao doi vat chat va nang ltidng vdi moi trtidng gop phan thtic
hien cac chtic nang song cua te bao tren cd sd dieu hoa cac phan ting men trong te
bao, sti dung htiu hieu cac dang nang ltidng (cd, tham thau, dien hoa...) d te bao.
Mang te bao cd cau true phti hdp de thtic hien cac vai tro tren.
Hien nay cd nhieu gia thuyet ve cau trtic mang te bao, nhting hau nhti deu
O
cho r in g mang te bao cd chieu day khoang 50 - 120 A (hinh 3.10). Tren mang cd
O
nhting lo thung dtidng kinh khoang 7-8 A va moi cm 2 co khoang 1010 lo nhti the,
dien tich chung cua lo chi chiem mot phan nhd cd 0,06 % be mat te bao. Mang te
bao d cac mo khac nhau cd thuoc tinh ly hoa va cau true khac nhau nhting deu co
tinh chat chung:
- Ltidng chiet quang

- Stic ca n g m a t ngoai nhd.

Dien trd ldn

- Cau trtic khong dong nhat

Thanh phan thtidng la: d gitia mang la hai ldp phan tti phospholipid sap dat
phan ctic dinh htidng vuong goc vdi be mat te bao, cd xu htidng ngan can cac ion

73
va cha't hoa tan trong ntidc di qua. Bao boc hai phia tiep theo la ldp protein dang
sdi lam cho mang te bao cd tinh cha't dan hoi va stic cang mat ngoai nho. Phia
ngoai cung va trong cting la ldp protein dang c4u c6 l i n protein nhay va
glycolipid. C) glycolipid cd chtia cac acid amin trung tinh ma cac nhom COOH cua
chung tao nen ldp dien tich am d mat ngoai mang te bao.
Dtia vao cac thanh phan vat chat di qua mang sinh vat ngtidi ta chia cac loai
mang'tren cd the sinh vat ra lam 4 loai nhti sau:
- Mang gan nhti ly ttidng ve mat ban tham, chi cho cac phan tti ntidc di qua.
- Mang cho phan tti ntidc va mot so' phan tti co cau tao tinh the di qua.
- Mang cho tat ca cac chat hoa tan, trti chat keo di qua.
- Mang sinh vat d trang thai “ray” cho tat ca cac chat hoa tan ke ca keo di
qua.
Da so cac loai mang trong cd the sinh vat thuoc loai 2 va 3. M ang te bao
thuoc loai 2, thanh mao mach thuoc loai 3. Mang loai 4 co rat it trong cd the trti
trtidng hdp bi ton thtidng, chang han khi ngtidi benh thieu oxy, thanh mao mach
xuat hien khuynh htidng de cho cac chat protein di qua.
Ve phtidng thtic van chuyen vat cha't qua mang ngtidi ta nhan tha'y co 2
phtidng thtic chu yeu:
- Hoa tan vao cac lipid cd d mang te bao. Van chuyen bang phtidng thtic nay
cd cac chat htiu cd khong hoa tan trong ntidc va cac chat co chtia nhom khdng
phan ctic nhti metyl (CH3), etyl (C2H 5), phenyl (C6H 5).
- Xam nhap vao te bao qua lo mang. Van chuyen theo phtidng thtic nay cd
cac ion va phan tti vat chat hoa tan trong ntidc va cac cha't cd chtia nhom phan ctic
hydroxyl (OH), cacboxyl (COOH), amin (N H 2). Phtidng phap dong vi phong xa da
khang dinh r i n g sti xam nhap qua lo mang khong phai luon luon la do sti th im
thau . Ngtidi ta gia thiet la trong cac lo mang chtia day ntidc cd cac ion dtidng hoac
am do ket qua cua hien ttidng hap thu cac ion. Bdi vay nhting hat vat chat mang
dien trai dau de dang xam nhap vao te bao, con cac hat cting dau thi bi day ra.
Neu cd hai phan tti tich dien cting dau lot vao lo m ang thi chung can nhau. Cac
ion hydro va hydroxyl tuy cd ban kinh be nhting thtic te hoan toan khdng tti ngoai
vao te bao. Sd di nhti vay vi chung cd tinh linh dong cao, de xe'p thanh nhom tren
be mat cua mang te bao va chung se day cac dien tich cting dau. Chinh vi vay ma
te bao trd thanh khong tha'm do'i vdi cac acid va bazd manh, cac acid va bazd yeu
lai tham de dang.

1.4.2. Dong luc va co che van chuyen vat chat qua mang te bao
Van chuyen vat chat qua mang la mot qua trinh phtic tap. Dtia vao sti khac
nhau ttidng doi ve dong ltic va cd che ngtidi ta chia van chuyen vat chat qua m a n g
te bao lam 3 loai chinh sau:
- Van chuyen thu dong
- Van chuyen chu dong
- Thtic bao va aim bao

74
1.4.2.1. V$n chuySn thu ddng
Van chuyen thu dong la qua trinh van chuyen vat chat qua mang co dong
luc la cac loai gradien khac nhau ton tai cl hai phia cua mang. Nang ltidng chi phi
cho cac loai van chuyen nay dtidc l&y ngay d phan nang ltidng dti trU trong cac
gradien, te bao khong phai cung cap them nang ltidng lay tti cac phan Ung hoa
sinh. Chieu van chuyen vat chat do tong cac vectd gradien d vting mang quyet
dinh.
Cac loai gradien thong thtidng ton tai d vung mang cua te bao song la
- Gradien nong do: xuat hien khi co sti chenh lech nong do cua mot chat nao
do gitia trong te bao va dich bao quanh te bao. Vi d te bao co rat nhieu loai chat
khac nhau do do co nhieu loai gradien nong do.
- Gradien tham thau xuat hien khi co sti chenh lech ve ap suat tham thau
gitia ben trong va ben ngoai te bao. CJ te bao song thi sti chenh lech ve ap suat
th&m thau keo rat quan trong.
- Gradien mang xuat hien khi co mang ban tham: cac phan tti co klch thtidc
nho qua mang de dang, con cac dai phan tti xam nhap qua mang vao te bao hoac
thoat ra ngoai kho. Ket qua la nong do d hai phia cua mang te bao se khac nhau.
- Gradien do hoa tan: xuat hien d ranh gidi hai pha khdng tron lan dtidc,
trong trtidng hdp chat da cho cd do hoa tan trong hai pha khong giong nhau. Sti
phan phoi nong do cua chat bat ky hoa tan dtidc trong ntidc va md deu phai tuan
theo dinh luat Nerst: “CJ nhiet do xac dinh, ty so" nong do mot chat hoa tan trong
hai pha long tiep xue khdng tron lan vao nhau la mot dai ltidng khdng doi khi dat
tdi trang thai can bang nhiet dong“

C
k = —- , vdi Cj va C2 la nong do chat hoa tan cua mot chat nao dd d hai pha,
Q
k dtidc goi la he so phan phoi.
- Gradien dien hoa: gay ra bdi sti chenh lech the dien hoa. Sti chuyen dong
cua cac ion theo the dien hoa cd the xay ra ca trong trtidng hdp khi chting dich
chuyen chong lai gradien nong do hay chong lai gradien dien the vi gradien dien
hoa la ket qua cua cac hieu ting hoa hoc va dien.
Do cd nhieu loai gradien d vung mang nen sti van chuyen vat chat qua mang
khong chi phu thuoc vao sti chenh lech nong do gitia trong va ngoai mang. Thi du:
do cd gradien mang ma nong do kali d trong te bao thtidng xuyen ldn gap 30-50
lan nong do cua no trong huyet thanh hay dich mo.
Chieu van chuyen vat chat phu thuoc vao cac yeu to* sau:
- Ttidng quan gitia cac gradien d vting mang (ve ca chieu va gia tri)
- Mtic do trao doi chat

- Ttidng quan gitia cac qua trinh tong hdp va phan huy cac dai phan tti quan
trong nhat cd trong thanh phan nguyen sinh chat.
 Thi du nhu d cac te bao gia, cac nucleotid bi phan huy, cac goc p h o s p h a t va
K+ thai qua mang ra moi trtidng ben ngoai; d cac te bao non goc p h o s p h a t va K
lai chuyen theo chieu ngtidc lai, chung dtidc tich luy trong te bao bang c a c h gan
vao cac nucleotid.
Khi te bao s ip chet thi sti van chuyen vat chat qua mang tang len mot cach
khong thuan nghich va te bao mat kha nang van chuyen chon loc.
Van chuyen thu dong qua mang te bao co the thtic hien theo nhieu cd che
khac nhau, song khuech tan la cd che chu yeu. Ta quan tam den 3 dang khuech
tan:
- Khuech tan ddn gian
- Khuech tan lien hdp
- Khuech tan trao doi
K huech tan dcfn gian:
Khuech tan ddn gian la dang khuech tan ma vat chat chuyen dong thanh
dong trong dung moi dtidi tac dung cua gradien nong do. Cac phan tti ntidc va cac
anion thtidng khuech tan theo cd che nay.
Goi An la so* phan tii hoa tan khuech tan qua dien tich S trong khoang thdi
gian At. Ap dung dinh luat Fick ta cd :
A

An = - D . S .----- A t
Ax

Mat do dong vat chat khuech tan dtidc xac dinh bang cong thtic :

. An AC
O = — - = - D . ------
S. At Ax

Trtidng hdp khuech tan qua mang cd chieu day t thi :

AC P
An = -D .S .— A t = - S . — A C A t
£ k

Trong dd P = k — la he so tham cua mang vdi k la he so* ty le.

P P
Vay An = S. — .(C, - C , ) A t hay O = ----- A C (3.26)
k ' k

Cd the xac dinh dtidc gia tri ctia P bang thtic nghiem. He sd" tham P cua
mang phu thuoc vao :

Tac dong qua lai cua cac phan tti va ion cung di qua mang.

Sti tham gia ctia cac phan tti va ion van chuyen vao cac qua trinh trao doi
vat chat trong te bao.

Toe do van chuyen cua dung moi qua mang.

76
 Neu chat khuech tan la chat dien ly thi ludng chat khuech tan qua mang
con phu thuoc vao do linh dong u+ cua cac ion dudng va u' cua cac ion am the hien
qua he so khuech tan D dUdc tinh bang cong thiic :

d = 2 . R T _ u^ u_
F u +u
trong do: R la hang so Clapeyron - M endeleev
T la nhiet do tuyet doi cua dung dich dien ly
F la hang so Faraday
Toe do cua mot chat nao do qua mang bang con dudng khuech tan ddn gian
dUdc xac dinh bdi tinh hoa tan cua chung trong lipid va bdi kich thudc cua cac
O
phan tii khuech tan. Nhiing chat hoa tan trong nUdc ma co phan tti ldn hdn 8 A
(nghia la ldn hdn dudng kinh cua lo) thi thUdng la khdng the di qua mang. Nhieu
phan tii tich dien thudng la hydrat hoa nghia la cd bao mot ldp vd cd tich nhieu
phan tii nUdc va cai vd nUdc ay da lam tang cao “dudng kinh hieu iing” cua cac
phan tii khuech tan, trong trUdng hdp dd toe do khuech tan cua chung be hdn toe
do khuech tan cua cac ion tu do khdng bi hydrat hoa. Cac lo hoat dong nhu the la
thanh cua chung mang dien tich dudng. Mdi dien tich dudng dUdc bao bdi mot
vung tich dien nhu the hudng vao long cua lo. Mdi mot ion tich dien dUdng cung
dUdc bao bdi mot vanh tich dien va 2 dien tich cung dau dd day nhau. Do dd ma
cac phan tii tich dien dudng rat kho khan va cham chap xuyen qua mang, ca khi
O
kich thudc cua chung nhd hdn 8 A .
Khuech tan lien hdp:
Khuech tan lien hdp la qua trinh van chuyen vat chat qua mang theo
gradien nong do, song cac phan tii vat chat chi lot dUdc qua mang khi dUdc gan
vao phan tu khac goi la chat mang. Cac chat glucose, glycerin, acid amin va mot
so" chat htiu cd khac van chuyen theo cd che nay. Qua trinh nay mang dac tinh
“dong hoc bao hoa” : khi nong do phan tti chat tham nhap d mdi trudng ngoai nhd
thi toe do van chuyen cua chting vao trong te bao la ty le thuan vdi nong do dd.
Tuy nhien khi nong do phan tti chat tham nhap ldn thi sU ty le thuan khong con
ton tai dUdc ntia vi chat mang da “no” roi. Cac chat mang cd tinh dac trUng, chting
chi cd the lien ket vdi mot loai phan tti hoac la phan tti khac nhung phai cd cau
true rat giong vdi loai tren. Chinh vi vay ma thuc te cac phan tti dudng cd cau tao
hoa hoc giong nhau se canh tranh vdi nhau ve mien lien ket vdi chat mang.

Phan tti chat xam nhap vao te bao, con goi la cd chat, ky hieu C. phan tti
chat mang la M. cd the ket hdp vdi nhau tao thanh phtic chat MC hoac MC phan
ly thanh M va C:

M + C # MC

Ky hieu nong do phtic chat MC d mat trong va mat ngoai la [MC]tr va [MC]n(,
thi mat do dong vat chat MC qua mang la:
 < b = - [ M C \ , ) < 3 2 8 )

O phu thuoc vao cac yeu to:

- Toe do xu&'t hien phtic ch&'t MC. To'c do n&y mot ph&n phu thuoc vao so
phan tii cd ch&'t C tiep xue vdi mang trong mot ddn vi thdi gian. mot ph&n
phu thuoc vao so ph&n tu chat mang M phan phoi trong mot ddn vi dien
tich mang.
- To'c do di chuyen cua phtic chat MC.
- Toe do phan ly cua phtic chat MC.
Noi chung to'c do di chuyen cua phiic chat nho, do do m&t do dong cua cd
chat di vao te bao khong ldn.
X6t khuech tan lien hdp d trang thai can b&ng dong la luc so phan tu phUc
chat dUdc tong hdp v& phan ly bang nhau, ngUdi ta da chUng minh dUdc mat do
dong vat chat khuech tan cd the tinh dUdc theo cong thUc

[Cl, [c L
k + [ c l, k + [Cl

k o
trong dd — = k , vdi k h k2 tudng Ung la he so phan ly va tong hdp phUc chat, [M ]
k2
la nong do cua toan bo chat mang d vung xac dinh ma ta xet.
K huech tan trao d o i:
Cung nhu khuech tan lien hdp, khuech tan trao doi xay ra khi cd su tham
gia cua chat mang, song chi cd dieu khac la phan tii chat mang thuc hien mot qua
trinh van chuyen vong. Sau khi mang phan tti cd chat ra phia ngoai m ang te bao
roi, phan tii chat mang lai gan ngay vdi mot phan tti cd chat khac cung io a i d
ngoai mang te bao roi lai van chuyen no vao phia trong te bao.
Dua vao cd che khuech tan nay chung ta cd the giai thich dUdc sU van
chuyen cua cac ion Na+ qua mang hdng cau trong sU kien do danh dau phong xa
ma thay cac ion Na+ cua hong c i u nhanh chong doi cho cho cac ion Na* cua huyet
thanh trong khi nong do cua chung d huyet thanh va d hong cau khong thay do’i.

1.4.2.2. Van chuyen chu dong

Van chuyen chu dong chi cd the xay ra khi cd su tham gia cua cac phan tii
chat mang. Cac chat mang phai dac hieu doi vdi cd chat hoac cung cd the khdng
dac hieu (nghia la khdng nhat thiet phai can mot chat nhat dinh) ma cd the cd
nhieu chat hoa hoc tUdng tu dam nhiem viec “ mang cd chat” .
Hai dac trUng chinh cua van chuyen chu dong la:

- Hien tUdng van chuyen vat chat luon xay ra theo chieu chong lai gradien
nong do hoac ngUdc chieu gradien dien hoa khi cd chat la cac ion.

78
 - Hi$n tUdng v&n chuyen luon c&n dUdc cung cap nang liidng. Nguon cung
c^fp n&ng lUdng \k cac qua trin h phan huy glycogen, qua trin h ho h&'p ho&c
qua trin h thuy phan adenosin triphosphat ATP.
Qua trinh v&n chuyen dUdc goi 1& tich tu neu dong vat chat tii moi trUdng
ngoai di vko te b&o v& goi 1& xuat tiet neu vat chat tii te bao di ra moi trUdng
ngo&i.
Co the chia van chuyen tich cUc ra thanh 3 cd che:
- Chuyen dich nhom: d day cd chat dUdc van chuyen bi thay doi qua sU tao
thanh nhiing lien ket dong hoa tri m6i, nang liidng de van chuyen b&ng nang
liidng c&n thiet de tao ra cd chat.
- Van chuyen tich cUc tien phat la tao ra nhiing lien ket dong hoa tri mdi
trong chat mang, nang liidng de van chuyen dien ra b&ng nang ludng can thiet de
lam thay doi hinh dang chat mang.
- Van chuyen tich cUc th ii phat: d day cd chat dau dUdc van chuyen mot cach
tich ciic, vi du Na+ tao ra the nang gradien dien hoa, ma the nang nay hudng sii
van chuyen cua cd chat th ii hai, vi du nhu dUdng, acid amin, theo gradien nay.
Dudi day trin h bay qua trinh van chuyen Na+, K+ (thuoc loai cd che van
chuyen tich cUc tien phat) la th i du dien hinh cua van chuyen tich ciic. Day la sii
van chuyen cac ion Na+ va K+ theo chieu chong lai gradien dien hoa, chuyen van
nay chi xay ra khi co mat ATP va cac ion Mg++, dong thdi khi ay ATP thuy phan
giai phong nang liidng. Qua tinh toan Hodgkin thay rang nang lUdng giai phong
ra do qua trin h phan huy 1 moi ATP co the du de van chuyen 1 moi ion dUdng
chong lai gradien dien hoa. Su hao ton nang ludng ldn nhii vay chi dung vdi
trUdng hdp van chuyen cua cac ion H + qua mang te bao da day. Con doi vdi van
chuyen Na+ th i cti lm ol ATP van chuyen dUdc 3 moi ion Na+ va trong hong c&u
gan 2 moi K+ di vao th i co 3 moi Na+ di ra.
Cd che van chuyen cac ion Na+ va K + co the giai thich bang sd do sau:
M, + Na+ + MgATP <=» NaM, ~ P + Mg++ + ADP
x
NaM, ~ P ^=± NaM 2 ~ P
NaM 2 ~ P Na+ + M 2 ~ P
M2 ~ P + K+ KM 2 ~ P

v
KM2~ P KM, ~ P
KM, ~ P M, ~ P + K +

0 giai doan ( 1) Na+ gan vao chat mang M,, chat mang nay xuat hien cung
vdi MgATP d mat trong cua mang te bao. Qua trin h phosphoryl hoa xay ra, cung
cap nang liidng cho phuc hdp “Na-chat mang” la NaM, - P lot qua mang te bao.
Do tac dung cua chat x d mat ngoai mang te bao, cau true cua phiic hop XaM, ~ P

79
bi bien doi thanh phiic hop NaM 2 ~ P d giai doan (2 ) tiic la M, bi bien doi thanh
M 2. Do chat mang M 2 gan rat yeu vdi Na+ nen phiic hdp nay bi phan ly trong giai
doan (3) va Na+ di ra moi triidng ngoai. 6 giai doan (4 ) chat mang M 2 gan vdi K 4 d
mat ngoai mang te bao tao thanh phiic hdp KM 2 ~ P, phiic hdp nay di vao phia
trong te bao. Trong giai doan (5), d mat trong te bao, do tac dung cua chat y, phiic
hdp KM 2 ~ P bien thanh KM, ~ P, tiic la M 2 bien doi thanh M,. Do ai liic hoa hoc
cua M, vdi K+ nho (ldn doi vdi Na+) nen phiic hdp phan ly trong giai doan (6 ) giai
phong K+ va chuyen vao trong te bao. qua trin h sau do dUdc tiep dien tii dau.
Nhu vay qua trinh van chuyen tich ciic Na+ va K + luon xay ra dong thdi vdi
sii thuy phan ATP. Cac ket qua thiic nghiem da chiing minh r&ng de xav ra sii
thuy phan ATP can phai co mot loai men dac hieu la adenosin triphosphatase. Do
chat nay chi co hoat tinh toi da khi co mat cac ion N a \ K + nen ta thudng goi chat
men do la Na+, K + -adenosin triphosphatase hay chat van chuyen adenosin
triphosphatase. NgUdi ta cung tim thay la neu d hai phia cua mang te bao co sii
phan bo" khong dong deu cac ion K +, Na+ th i nhat thiet d trong mang te bao phai
co men adenosin triphosphatase.

1.4.2.3. Thuc bao va am bao

Mot qua trin h van chuyen vat chat khac bo sung cho van chuyen thu dong
va tich ciic la hien tUdng thiic bao va am bao. O hien tUdng nay, cac chat hoa tan
trong nUdc, cac protein va cac hat gom mot so phan tii kha ldn co the xam nhap
vao te bao nhd chiic nang tich ciic cua mang te bao ma khong can khuech tan qua
lo mang.
Mang te bao co dac tinh la kha nang bat giil cac vat lieu khac nhau nam ben
ngoai te bao, chung hinh thanh nen cac cho loi, bao lay vat lieu nao day trong moi
triidng vd cuoi cung khep kin lai vd nhii vay vat lieu do dd di sau vao trong te bao.
Cac khdng bao diidc tao thanh bang cach nhii vay di sau vao trong te bao chat, d
day chat chiia trong khdng bao se bi xii ly. Trong kieu van chuyen vat chat tii mdi
triidng vao trong te bao nhii the thi tinh toan ven cua mang te bao khdng hi bi pha
huy. Qua trinh dd diidc goi la thiic bao - khi cac khdng bao ldn diidc tao thanh cd
chiia cac phan tii cd hinh dang nhat dinh vd diidc goi la dm bao (hay uong bao)
neu nhii khdng bao rat be chi chiia cac chat hoa tan.

Kha nang thiic bao khdng nhiing chi cd d cac vi sinh vat md con thay d mot
so loai te bao cua sinh vat da bao. O dong vat cd vu, cac bach cau hat hoac cac te
bao cd nguon goc trung bi (he vong mac noi md) cd kha nang thiic bao. Hien tiidng
thiic bao bi chi phoi chu yeu bdi cac yeu to hod ly nhii tiidng tac hoa hoc, dien tich
be mat cua mang vd cua cac hat.
9

Hien tiidng dm bao thiidng xay ra khi trong mdi triidng cd cac chat hoa tan
dac triing nhii protein, cac acid amin, kiem hoa tan... Khi dd, d amip se hinh
thanh cac chan gia ngan vd trong moi chan gia se xuat hien cac ranh cd hinh song
chay tii dinh den phan goc chan gia. O phan cuoi cung cua ranh, khdng bao diidc
hinh thanh vd ve sau khdng bao nay tach khoi chan gia vd di sau vao te bao chat.
Doi vdi te bao dong vat bac cao thi khi dm bao cung xay ra chuyen dong hinh song
cua mang, nhiing khdng hinh thanh cac ranh, cac khdng bao diidc tao thanh se

80
dinh vdi cac phan tii protein tap trung d tren mang (ldp protein nay co nong do
gap den 50 lan nong do dung dich protein d moi triidng). Sau do mang lom vao
trong tebao vd hinh thanh cac bong rieng biet co chiia cac phan tii bi bat giit.
Qua trinh thiic bao va am bao giong qua trin h van chuyen tich ciic d cho la
chi xay ra khi dUdc cung cap nang lUdng (nguon nang ludng cung la ATP) va la cd
che van chuyen co chon loc qua mang te bao. Cd che nay da cho phep giai thich
cac phan tii ldn hdn hoa tan trong nUdc qua mang, th i du cac phan tii protein hoac
acid nucleic.
Ta can chu y them rang d qua trinh thiic bao va am bao, te bao hap thu ca
chat doc. Cac chat dUa vao trong te bao dUdc tieu hoa b&ng cac loai men co trong
thanh phan cua mang hoac b&ng cac men cd kha nang phan huy rat cao chiia
trong cac hat lyzosom.
Ngoai ra con cd qua trin h ngUdc lai trong dd cac khong bao cd mang bao boc
se bi dinh vao mang va cac chat chiia trong khong bao se bi bai tiet ra ngoai, dac
biet la d cac te bao tiet thudng dUdc goi la qua trin h bai xuat.
Nhd cd mang te bao vdi cac dang van chuyen vat chat thu dong, chu dong,
thiic bao va am bao ma te bao trao doi vat chat va nang liidng vdi moi trUdng xung
quanh. Sii trao doi vat chat dudi dang nao cung phai tieu ton nang lUdng: dd la
nang ludng dii trtf dudi dang cac gradien hoac nang lUdng cua sU thuy phan ATP
mot cach chu dong theo yeu cau cua hoat dong song. Hoat dong cua mang te bao
nhu vay co the coi la mot trong nhiing dau hieu quan trong bieu thi hoat dong song.

2. CHUYEN DONG CUA CHAT LONG VA SL/VAN CHUYEN MAU TRONG CO THE
2.1. Cac phan tur va ion trong cd the
2.1.1. Phan tu va cac ion trong c a the sinh vat
Trong tat ca cac qua trin h sinh hoc deu cd sii tham gia cua cac phan tu va
ion. Dai da so" cac qua trin h dd deu cd mot so" liidng phan tu va ion rat ldn tham
gia nhu van chuyen mau, qua trin h ho hap v.v... Cung cd qua trin h nhu di truyen
chi cd rat ft cac phan tii ADN tham gia nhung pham chat cua cac phan tu nay
quyet dinh hoan toan viec hinh thanh mot ca the song mdi. Cac phan tii va ion
trong cd the song phai dam bao 3 vai tro la yeu to" cau true cua cd the: du trii,
van chuyen, giai phong nang liidng can thiet cho hoat dong song. Mot so" phan tu
chiia diing cac thong tin quan trong va can thiet cho qua trin h song ke ca thong
tin di truyen.

2.1.2. Dung dich trong c o the sinh vat

Cac dung dich trong cd the sinh vat dong vai tro rat quan trong. Chung van
chuyen vat chat tu' ndi nay den ndi khac cua cd the. chung la moi trUdng de thiic
hien hang loat cac phan iing hoa sinh, chung bao boc va bao ve cac to chiic, chung
thiic hien cac qua trin h trao doi chat, chung dan truyen cac xung dien sinh vat.
Trong cd the cd 2 loai dung moi chinh la nUdc va lipid, tii dd chia ra lam 4
loai dung dich: dung dich khong dien ly, dung dich dien ly, dung dich keo va dung
dich dai phan tii.

81
 - D u ng dich hod tan khong dien ly: la mot he dong nha't gom 2 hay nhieu
chat va cac cha't n&y khong co kha nang phan ly thanh ion. Khi nghien ctiu loai
dung dich nay ta quan tam den ti le cha't tan trong dung dich (nong do) bdi vi moi
tinh ch^t cua dung dich deu phu thuoc v&o nong do cua n6.
- D ung dich hod tan chat dien ly: khac vdi dung dich tren 0 cho cac cha't hoa
tan co kha nang phan ly thanh cac ion dtidng va am. Do dien ly phu thuoc v&o
dung moi, nhiet do, nong do chat dien ly. Dung dich khong dien ly va dung dich
dien ly dUdc goi chung la dung dich thUc.
- D ung dich keo: la mot he phan tan di the, chung gom mot pha lien tuc
(moi trtidng) va cac phan tti chia nho vdi kich thtidc va hinh dang co the khac
nhau (pha phan tan). Trong mdi trUdng nay, cac phan tti chia nhd trong dung dich
keo hay con goi la tieu phan keo (hat keo) cd kich thudc tti 1 100 nm. Khi moi
trUdng phan tan la chat long thi dung dich keo dtidc goi la sol long. Neu moi
trUdng phan tan la nUdc thi goi la sol nUdc. Neu la cha't long htiu cd thi dUdc goi la
sol htiu cd. Dd'i vdi cd the ta quan tam chu yeu den sol long. Sol long dUdc chia lam
hai loai: keo than dich va keo sd dich.
- D ung dich dai phan tii: cac dai phan tti cd khoi liidng ldn (cd hang chuc
nghin den hang chuc trieu Dalton) nhu protein, polymer cao phan tti kich thudc
ldn... Do vay, dung dich dai phan tti cung la mot dang cua dung dich keo va cung
cd cac tinh chat chung nhu dung dich keo.

2.2. Cac djnh luat ve sir van chuyen cua chat long
De khao sat cac dinh luat ve sU chuyen dong cua chat long, ngUdi ta dua ra
khai niem chat long ly tudng va chat long thuc. Chat long ly tudng la chat long
tuyet doi khdng nen dUdc va ben trong cha't long khdng cd ma sat. Tuy nhien, vdi
mtic do kha chinh xac d nhting ap sua't va nhiet do binh thudng ta cd the xem cha't
long la ly tudng.

2.2.1. Dinh luat bao toan the tich hay Phirong trinh lien tuc
Xet mot ong d i n cd chat long ly ttidng chay lien tuc (hinh 3.11). Sau mot ddn
vi thdi gian, the tich chat long chay ra khoi tiet dien S2ia: V2 = S 2 . v2

trong dd, v2 la toe do chay cua chat long d S2 va v,\a toe do chay cua cha't
long d Sj. Do chay lien tuc va khdng nen dUdc, ltidng cha't long chay qua S, vao de
bu cho chay qua S2. Hai the tich nay bang nhau cho nen tai ndi cd tiet dien tang,
to'c do chay giam va ngUdc lai, ndi cd tiet dien giam thi to'c do chay tang, ta viet
dUdc;

$u- v 2.= S2 . v2 (3 30)

Dang thtic nay cho phep ta ket luan: ndi thiet dien be chat long chay nhanh,
ndi thiet dien ldn cha't long chay cham.

±3___ _
v2 Hinh 3.11. M inh hoa ve
PhUdng trinh lien tuc

82
2.2.2. Djnh luat hay Phi/ong trinh Bernoulli dx,
Tren hinh 3.12, ta co khoi cha't long
chiem vi tri (1 ,2 ) chuyen dong tdi chiem vi
tri (1’,2’j. Khoi cha't long nay chuyen dong
dtidc nhu vky la do ap suat p ; gay nen luc
F, = p , . S, day cha't long tien tdi. Ap sua't
p 2 gay lUc F 2 = p 2. S2 can chuyen dong cha't
long. Tinh cong thuc hien do ap sua't chat
long va stf bien doi cd nang cua khoi chat
long gitia hai vi tri (2, 2’) va (1, 1’) dong
thdi ap dung dinh luat ve moi lien he gitia
Hinh 3.12. Minh hoa phUdng trinh Bernuli
cong va cd nang ta cd the chting minh:

mv
p V + mgh H-------- = const (3.31)

Day la phtfdng trinh Bernoulli hay dinh luat bao toan nang lUdng doi vdi
chat long ly tiidng (Ta da coi khdng cd liic ma sat trong long chat long).
Vi m / V = p la khoi liidng rieng cua cha't long nen lay phiidng trinh (3.31)
chia cho V thi ta diidc:

p + pgh + p — = const (3.31’)

2
Gia sti ong nam ngang, phan pg\\ se la hang so' nen cd:

v2
p + p — -const (3.32)

Dd la bieu thtic toan hoc cua dinh luat Bernoulli: ap suat chat long khdng
nhdt (khdng ma sat) chay theo o'ng nam ngang se tang tai ndi nao to'c do chay
giam va ngiidc lai, giam tai ndi nao to'c do chay tang.

2.2.3. Do nhdt chat long. Cong thuc Poiseuille (Poadai)

2.2.3.1. Khai niem tuc noi ma sat trong Idng chat long
Chat long thiic khac chat long ly ttidng d cho khi chay trong long o'ng, chat
long thuc cd ma sat dong thdi cd kha nang nen dUdc chut It. Tuy theo to'c do chay
chat long thuc, cd the cd hai loai chuyen dong: chuyen dong xoay va chuyen dong
thanh ldp. Trong trudng hdp o'ng tru, dong chay ma trong dd tat ca cac phan tti
cha't long chuyen dong theo hudng song song vdi true cua ong goi la dong chay
thanh ldp. Dong chay thanh ldp chi cd the cd trong trudng hdp to'c do dong chay
khdng ldn lam va thiet dien ngang cua o'ng nhd.

Khi chat long chuyen dong thanh ldp, ta cd the hinh dung cha't long xep
thanh nhieu ldp khac nhau cd be day vd cting nhd, mdi ldp cd mot toe do chay khac
nhau. Bang thuc nghiem ngudi ta xac dinh dUdc rang, van to'c ldp chat long tiep

83
xue vdi thanh ong luon luon bang khong. Van toe cac ldp tang dan theo hiidng ra
xa thanh ong.
De hieu ro hdn y nghia cua do nhdt ta xet rieng hai ldp A va B giap nhau cd
be day vd cung nhd dx (hinh 3.13). Toe do chay cua ldp B la v va toe do chay cua
ldp A la (v + dv). Ldp A cd xu hudng k6o
ldp B chuyen dong nhanh hdn. ngUdc lai
ldp B cd xu hudng kim chuyen dong cua
v+ dv
ldp A cham lai. Dd la vi gitia hai ldp co
mot luc ma sat. NgUdi ta goi dd la noi
»
A luc ma sat cua chat long. Luc noi ma sat
dx lam thay doi to'c do chay cua cac ldp
B »
chat long. Gia tri cua luc noi ma sat F
ty le thuan vdi dien tich tiep xue gitia
hai ldp S, gradient van toe dv I dx gitia
Hinh 3.13. C hat long chuyen dong thanh ldp
chung va la he so' nhdt ctia chat long rj:

J? =
F 77 dv S
— C
dx
Cong thtic tren cd the viet la:
dx 1
rj = F — — (3.33)
dv S

Neu cac dai lUdng dv I dx va S bang 1 thi rj = F. Nhu vay nghia la he so' noi
ma sat la luc ma sat xuat hien gitia hai ldp chat long thuc chuyen dong thanh ldp
cd gradien to'c do la 1 va dien tich tiep xue la 1 ddn vi. Vi vay, ngudi ta cd the dung
he so' nhdt de bieu dien noi luc ma sat (do nhdt) cua mot chat long. 0 he SI, he so'
77 dUdc tinh bang N.s/m 2 va dUdc goi la Poiseuille (doc la poaddi):

N .s
1 poiseuille = 1
m

Tuy nhien ngUdi ta thudng dting ddn vi khac ctia- t] la Poise (doc la Poa),
dUdc viet tat la P .

IP = 0,1 poiseuille = 0,1 N.s/ m2 = 1 dyn.s/ cm 2.

He so' nhdt phu thuoc vao nhiet do, ap sua't va nhieu yeu to khac cua chat
long. Thiic nghiem cho biet do nhdt cua mot dung dich chat hoa tan the hien qua
cong thtic:

'7 = '7 o ^ '” (3.34)

trong dd: r|0 la he sd nhdt cua dung mdi.

m = C7 M la nong do phan tti cua chat hoa tan. A la hang so'.

Do nhdt cua dung dich cd chtia nhting hat nhd phu thuoc vao do nhdt cua
chat long va the tich tong cong V cua tat ca cac hat chtia trong mot ddn vi the tich
dung dich theo he thtic:

84
 n = rio 0 + 2>5 v ) (3.35)

Lrong do, r|0 la he so" nhdt cua dung moi.

Nhu v&y, mau chay trong he tuan hoan chiu anh hudng trUc tiep bdi do nhdt
lam anh hudng den luu ludng chay. Trong he tuan hoan cd cac te bao mau lUu
thong. Chung cd the dUdc coi nhu nhUng vat tron cd ban kinh r khi chuyen dong
trong chat dich cd do nhdt thi no se bi bao quanh mot ldp chat long dd va bi tac
dong bdi lUc can Z. Da xac dinh dUdc:
Z = 6n.r).r.v
NgUdi ta cd the do do nhdt gian tiep cua mau bang cach do to'c do lang cua
hong cau.

2.2.3.2. Cong thifc Poisueille

Khi chat long nhdt chay trong mot ong dan hep phai tfnh den luc noi ma sat
tUc la tfnh den do nhdt. Dong chay chat long nhdt qua ong tru rat hep dUdc
Poiseuile khao sat rat ki vdi muc dich chinh la de nghien cUu dong chay cua mau
trong cac dong mach va tinh mach. Trong cac huyet quan dong chay cua mau
thanh ldp nhu trong ong tru hep. Do tinh chat doi xUng cua ong tru ta de thay
rang toe do dong chay tai true o'ng la ldn nhat va giam dan theo hudng xa tam va
d be mat ong thi toe do dong ch a y bang 0 (hinh 3.14a).

Hinh 3.14a

Poiseuille da chUng minh dUdc cong thUc bieu dien sU bien thien to'c do cac
ldp chat long trong mot ong tru hep nam ngang (hinh 3.14b) nhu sau:

Ap.(R-r):
v=
877Z

trong dd v la van to'c cua ldp chat long, R la ban kinh ong con r la khoang
cach tU true ong den ldp chat long de cap den, L la chieu dai o'ng, rj la he so' nhdt,
Ap la do chenh lech ap suat giUa 2 dau ong.
TU dd cd the tinh dUdc lUu lu'dng chat long chay qua mot ong tru nam ngang
trong mot giay theo cong thUc mang ten Poiseuille nhu sau :

n R 4 Ap
Q= (3.36)
8 7 Z.

85
 C) day chung ta can lUu y rang, cong thtic Poisseuill chi ap dung cho ong tru
n&m ngang co thiet dien nho, vi khi do chat long chuyen dong trong ong chi nhd
chenh lech ap suat gitia hai dau o'ng, trong luc khong c&n xet tdi. TrUdng hdp ong
khong n&m ngang phai xet den ca trong lUc, thi du nhu tim bdm mau len dau thi
kho hdn bdm mau xuong chi dudi khi ngUdi dang dting.

8n L
Dai lifdng —— con dUdc goi la stic can thuy dong luc cua o'ng tru hep doi vdi
nR
chat long cd do nhdt 77.

2.3. Sir van chuyen mau

2.3.1. S olu oc ve tinh chat vat ly cua he tuan hoan

He tuan hoan mau cd hai vong khep kin:
vong tieu tuan hoan chuyen mau tti tim phai PHOI
den phoi. Vong dai tuan hoan dUa mau tti tim
trai qua he tho'ng dong mach xuong tat ca cac *
phu tang, to chtic, cd quan cua cd the (hinh
3.15). Cac ki hieu tren hinh 3.15' cd y nghia:
NP, NT - nhl phai, nhi trai ; TP, TT - that phai,
that trai. Cac dong mau trong va ngoai tim chay
mot chieu nhat dinh nhd sU co bop cua tim, tinh
dan hoi cua thanh mach cac van trong buong
tim va trong long mach.

2 .3 . 1.1. Tim nh i/ca i bam

Qua tim la mot cd rong, dtidc vach ngan

chia lam hai ntia: tim phai va tim trai. O mdi
ngan lai dtidc phan thanh tam that va tam nhi
nhd van. Van lam cho mau chi chuyen dong theo
mot chieu tti tam nhi xuong tam that ma khdng
Hinh 3.15
cd chieu ngUdc lai. Cd tim cd cau tao dac biet bao
gom nhting sdi cd van lien ket vdi nhau thanh
mot mang. Cd tim chi cd khi nao cUdng do kich thich dat qua “ngtidng" va khi dd
luc co cua tim tang nhanh de dat dtidc gia tri ctic dai ngay. 0 phoi mau hap thu
0 2 va dao thai C 0 2 roi chay lai ve tim. 6 md mau cung cap 0 2, lay C 0 2 va trao doi
cac chat can thiet roi cuoi cting qua he tinh mach ve tim phai. Nhu vay, mau ra
khoi tam that trai qua he thong dong mach, mao mach, tinh mach roi do’ vao tam
nhi phai. Trong buong tim. mau theo chieu tti tam nhi den tam that. Cac dong
mau trong va ngoai tim chav mot chieu nhat dinh nhd sU co bop cua tim. tinh dan
hoi cua thanh mach cac van trong buong tim va trong long mach.

Hoat dong cua tim trUdc het de cung cap cho mau mot ap suat nhat dinh. Do
tam that co bop, mau tti that trai vao dong mach chu va tti that phai %-ao dong
mach phoi. Khi tam nhi phai dan, mau tti tinh mach chu dUdc htit ve. Ngudi ta
thay khi tam that trai co, ap suat trong dd len den 120 + 150 mmHg. Mau dude

86
d&’y ra do moi lan tim co bop khoang 40 - 70 ml, tiic la khoang 4 + 6 llt/phut. Nhu
v&y, gia tri liic P dat ciic dai khi mau ve buong tim nhieu nhat vi luc do buong tim
diidc gian rong nhat lam cho gia tri S tang len. Qua trinh do xay ra tU tU va deu
dan nen d ngUdi binh thiidng liic F cung bien thien theo thdi gian. Ngtidi ta da do
diidc la dau tam thu, gia tri liic toan phan cua cd tim la 89 N (Newton), d cuoi tam
thu gia tri do la 67 N. Tim co bop diidc la nhd hoat dong cua cac sdi cd tim. Nguyen
nhan la do sdi cd tim diidc keo dai ra diidi tac dung cua liidng mau chtia trong tim
vao cuoi thdi ky tam triidng. Cac buong tim co the coi nhuf co dang ciu . Khi mau
chtia day buong tim, cac sdi cd diidc gian dai ra diidi tac dung cua liic F do khoi
liidng mau chtia trong buong tim gay ra. Gia tri cua liic diidc xac dinh:
F = P.S
P la ap suat trong buong tim, S la dien tich mat trong buong tim.

2.3.1.2. Van va tinh dan hoi cua thanh mach mau

He thong mach mau trong cd the rat day dac va phan bo- tiidng doi dong deu.
Cac mach mau diidc phan nhanh nhieu l&n va cd klch thiidc rat khac nhau. Dong
mach chu va tinh mach chti cd diidng kinh ldn nhat, con diidng kinh cua mao
mach la be nhat. Thanh mach diidc cau tad bdi nhieu ldp. Thanh phan chu yeu
cua thanh dong mach ldn rat It thd cd va cd nhieu sdi dan hoi, con d cac dong
mach nhd thi ldp cd trdn nhieu hdn. Ldp cd trdn cd kha nang giti mot the co nhat
dinh va keo dai trong mot thdi gian dang ke de tao nen triidng liic cd. Tinh trang
triidng liic cd quyet dinh tiet dien cua ong mach. Thanh dong mach dong vai trd
quan trong de duy tri dong chay lien tuc va tang them ap suat dong chay nhd tinh
dan hdi cua no. Sii co gian cua cd trdn de thay doi tiet dien long mach diidc dieu
khien bdi he than kinh thiic vat va cac noi tiet to". Ngoai ra, trong long mach con
cd mot he thong van. He thong van cua dong mach lam cho mau chi chay theo
hiidng tti tim di cac ndi, nghia la tti mach mau ldn ve mach mau nhd ma khdng
chay ngiidc lai diidc. O cac tinh mach ldn cung cd mot he thong van. Cac van tinh
mach lam cho dong mau chi chay diidc tti cac tinh mach nhd ve tinh mach ldn roi
ve tim. Van trong he thong tinh mach cting rat quan trong bdi vi do tii the cua cd
the, cd luc dong mau tinh mach phai chay ngiidc vdi chieu cua trong liic. De thay
rd tac dung dan hdi cua thanh mach ta khao sat sii bien dang dan hoi. Ngiidi ta
dting do bien dang dan hdi Al /1, trong dd 1 la chieu dai con Al la sii bien dang theo
chieu dai. Trong mot pham vi nhat dinh, do bien dang nay tuan theo:

— = £— hoac — = kP
I S I
Trong dd F la liic tac dung, S la dien tich chiu tac dung cua liic, k la hang so",
P diidc goi la suat liic tac dung, E la modun dan hdi hay con goi la modun Young,

vdi E = — .
k
Do vay, liic F dat len thanh mach tai mot diem nhat dinh bang:

F = ™A ,
I

87
 Qua do ta thay trong thdi gian bien dang, gia tri luc khong phai la hang so
ma bien thien ty le v6i do dai Al d tting thdi diem. Cong thuc hien do sii bien dang
se diidc tinh theo gia tri trung binh cua lac. Vi vay ta co:

A = ~FA l

Hay: A = —. ^ - . ( A / ) 2
2 1
Cong nay tao ra the nang Et cua bien dang dan hoi vdi:

E = I . ^ . (A/ ) 2 (3.37)
' 2 1
Vay, the nang cua thanh mach ty le binh phiidng cua do bien dang (Al)2.
Qua cong thtic 3.37 va hinh 3.16, ta thay mach gian cang rong thi the nang
dii trti cang 16n. The nang nay ro rang co gia tri bien thien tuy thuoc vao tting
thdi diem. C) thdi ky tim khong co bop, ap suat dong chay giam xuong dan, The
nang d thanh mach se cung cap ap suat de bti vao lam cho dong chay lien tuc va
dieu hoa trong suo't ca thdi ky tam triidng.

Hinh 3.16. Sir chuyen hoa giira dong nang va

the nang cua thanh mach.

2.3.1.3. Su phan nhanh cua he mach

Nhin chung, ap suat dong chay bi giam d i n khi xa tim. Neu khong ke den
noi liic ma sat do do nh6t gay ra thi nguyen nhan chinh cua sii hao hut ap suat la
liic ma sat xuat hien gitia thanh mach va mau chay trong long mach. Hinh 3.17
minh hoa ve sii giam ap suat trong chuyen dong cua chat long.

d hinh nay ta thay binh A diing d i y

niidc den do cao h, o'ng BD noi vao day binh
va co cac o'ng nhanh 1, 2, 3, 4... co tiet dien
giong nhau. O do cao h, nii6c trong binh A co
mot the nang nhat dinh. The nang nay tao
cho niidc d day binh mot ap sua't. Neu voi
khoa kin, niidc trong binh A khong chay diidc
va the nang khong chuyen sang dang dong
nang cua dong chay, miic niidc trong cac ong
1, 2, 3... se b in g miic h d binh A. Neu voi D
Hinh 3.17. T hi nghiem ve sir giam
md cho niidc chay ra thi miic nii6c trong cac
ap suat do phan nhanh
ong 1, 2, 3... se giam dan. Nhii vay la da co

88
mot sii giam the nang cua nUdc the hien d cac do cao h 1( h2, h 3 thap dan so vdi do
cao h. The nang hao hut do dung de tao nen to'c do chay va de th&ng liic can cua
thanh ong, trong dd phan ldn nang liidng dung de th&ng liic can.
Neu goi Ap la do giam ap su&"t giufa hai dau mot doan mach va R la siic can
cua doan mach, V la the tich mau chay qua doan mach trong mot ddn vi thdi gian.
NgUdi ta chiing minh dUdc rang:
Ap = R.V hay R = Ap / V
Ap suat d dau he tu&n hoan tiic la trong tam that trai khoang 130 mmHg, d
cuoi tiic la trong tam nhi phai khoang 5 mmHg. The tich mau lUu thong binh
thudng khoang 5 1/ phut (tiic 83 ml/ s). Nhu vay, siic can R cua toan he mach la:
R = (130 - 5)/ 83 w 1,5 ddn vi.
Khi gang siic, ap liic d dong mach chu cd the tang len den 150 mmHg va luu
ludng tang len gap 3. Luc dd siic can ngoai vi:
R = (130 - 5)/ (83 x 3) = 0,5 ddn vi.
Nhu the nghia la khi can thiet, do hoat dong cua tim nhanh len va anh
hudng cua nhieu yeu to" mach mau, lUu ludng mau tang len da lam cho siic can
ngoai vi cua he mach chi con 1/3 gia tri luc binh thudng. O nhiing benh nhan cao
huyet ap, ap liic d dong mach chu cd the tang len den 200 mmHg nhung lUu ludng
mau lai khong tang len dUdc vi gia tri cua siic can ngoai vi tang len den 2,3 ddn
vi. Do dd, tim lam viec kho khan hdn nhieu.
Ta cung cd the ap dung cong thiic Poiseuille de Udc tinh R.
Cong thiic Poiseuille: ^4 Ap
V = — .Ap R = 17
StjI V

D
Tiic la: R = —— (3.38)
t it

Cong thiic nay cho thay siic can chung cua mach ngoai vi phu thuoc vao cac
yeu to" hinh hoc (r va 1) cua he mach va phu thuoc vao he so" nhdt cua mau ngoai
vi. Cong thiic nay cung dUdc van dung de giai thich anh hudng cua yeu to" hinh
hoc cua mach mau len ap suat va toe do chay cua mau.

2.3.2. S u thay doi ap suat va toe do chay cua mau trong cac doan mach

2.3.2.1. Su thay doi ap suat

Trong he tuan hoan, do giam ap suat xay ra lien tuc. Cang xa tim gia tri dd
cang ldn vi mach cang phan nhanh nhieu. O ngUdi binh thudng. chieu dai tong
cong cac mach len tdi tren 100 000 km. Long mach cd ban kinh R cang be lam cho
ap suat chay ngav cang giam xuong. Can phai hieu la sii chenh lech ap suat chay
giiia hai dau doan mach lien quan vdi liic ma sat gnia dong chay va thanh mach,
tiic la lien quan triic tiep den cac yeu to" hinh hoc cua mach mau. Do chenh lech
nay cang ldn se lam cho ap suat d cuoi doan mach cang xuong thap. Ap suat mau

89
cI dong mach chu khoang 130 -s- 150 mmHg roi giam d4n theo chieu dai cua h$
mach. C) cac dong mach nho ap suat mau la 70 -5- 80 mmHg, khi den mao mach chi
con 20 -s- 30 mmHg. Ap suat d tinh mach khoang 8 + 1 5 mmHg, con trUdc khi do
vao tim, b tinh mach chu, ap suat mau co gia tr i am so vdi ap suat khi quyen. Tom
lai, he mach da co mot siic can dang ke doi vdi chuyen dong cua mau la cho ap
suat mau giam dan. NgUdi ta tinh toan thay, neu coi siic can cua tat ca cac he
mach la 100% thi cac doan mach da dong gop nhiing ty le nhu sau: tif dong mach
chu 4den dong mach nho la 20% (15 + 25%), he tinh mach la 10% (5 + 15%), he
dong mach nho va mao mach chiem nhieu nhat va la 70% (60 -r 80%), trong do
mao mach chiem 20 %.

Hinh 3.18. Sti thay doi ap suat mau trong cac doan mach A, B, C,
D, E Cfng vdi cac doan dong mach chu, dong mach I6n, mao mach,
tinh mach nho va tinh mach ldn.
1. ap suat tam thu.
2. ap suat tam trtidng.

2.3.2.2. Su thay doi toe do chay

Cac thuc nghiem cho thay mau chay vdi toe do khong giong nhau d cac ndi.
Toe do chay cua mau d dong mach chu la 10 + 20 m/s, dong mach co la 5,2 m/s.
Luc xuong mao mach, toe do chi con la 5 mm/ s. Chung ta hieu r&ng d mao mach
do toe do chay rat cham nen kha nang trao doi chat giiia mau va to chiic xung
quanh da tang len, vi theo dinh luat Bernoulli d day ap suat thuy luc tang len
nhieu vi toe do chay giam xuong thap nhat. Tuy vay, khi ve den tinh mach dui,
toe do chay cua mau la 4,5 cm/s, tinh mach co la 14,7 cm/s. Nhu vay, toe do chay
cua mau giam dan tii dong mach ldn den mao mach roi lai tang dan tCr mao mach
den tinh mach. Ta biet khoi liidng mau chay qua cac doan mach deu giong nhau,
nghia la d cac doan dd van dam bao quy luat tich so" giiia van toe mau chay va tiet
dien long mach la khong doi. Do dd, van toe chay cua mau ndi cd tiet dien nho cao
hdn ndi cd tiet dien ldn. Can lUu y la tiet dien cua cac mao mach khong phai la
tiet dien cua mot mach rieng biet ma la tong tiet dien cua tat ca cac mao mach.

90
Tuy tiet dien cua mot tieu dong mach nho hdn dong mach chu, nhung do phan
thanh nhieu nhanh nen tong tiet dien cua tieu dong mach ldn hdn cua dong mach
chu va ngUdc lai, tong tiet dien cua tieu dong mach lai nho hdn cua mao mach.
Cac do dac cu the cho thay tong tiet dien tang dan tu: dong mach chu den mao
mach roi giam dan tu! mao mach den tinh mach chu. Tong tiet dien cua mao mach
ldn gap 400 + 800 lan tiet dien cua dong mach chu va bin g 200 -s- 400 lan tong tiet
dien cua cac tinh mach nho.

Hinh 3.19. Ttidng quan giufa toe do chay

cua mau (1) va tong tiet dien cua long
mach (2).
A. Dong mach ldn.
B. Dong mach nho.
C. Mao mach.
D. TTnh mach.
E. TTnh mach chu ndi do vao tim.

2.3.3. Mot so yeu to chmh anh hudng den tuan hoan mau
Cd nhieu yeu to" anh hUdng den tuan hoan mau. TrUdc het la cac hoat dong
chu quan cua cd the lam tang qua trin h chuyen hoa, cac roi loan benh ly d ngay
he tuan hoan va cac hoat dong sinh hoc khac cua cd the. O day ta chi de cap den
cac yeu to" khach quan quan trong anh hUdng triic tiep den hoat dong cua tim,
thanh mach hay khoi liidng the dich trong cd the.

2.3.3.1. Hoat dong cua co bSp

Trong liidng cua cd van chiem tdi 40% trong liidng cd the. Khi cd hoat dong
manh (lao dong chan tay) nhu cau nang liidng cua no tang len, do dd he tuan hoan
phai tang cUdng hoat dong de dap ting nhu cau vat chat va nang lUdng. NgUdi ta
thay luc lao dong, nhu cau oxi tang gap 8 -s- 10 lan so vdi luc nghi. Cd the dap iing
b&ng cach tang so" lan co bop cua tim.

2.3.3.2. Anh hudng cua trong trudng

C) tu the diing, mau tu: dong mach de dang chay xuong cac phu tang d bung
va cac chi dudi nhd tac dung phu cua trong luc. Tuy vay, d ngUdi khoe manh dieu
dd khong lam thay doi ap suat mau nhieu d chi dudi. Neu tii tu the nam chuyen
sang tu the" diing, nhip tim bao gid cung tang len doi chut de dam bao khoi liidng
mau dUdc tim day ra trong mot ddn vi thdi gian la khong thay doi. 0 tu the diing,
ludng mau do tim day ra trong mot lan co bop it hdn tu the nam. Cd che qua trinh
nay dUdc giai thich theo dinh luat Starling la siic day cua qua tim tuy thuoc vao do
gian dai cua sdi cd tim. Do gian dd lai tuy thuoc vao liidng mau chay tii tinh mach
vao tim. O thdi ky tam trUdng, liidng mau tu! cac tinh mach phia dudi tim do ve tim
da bi giam bdt phan nao vi tac dung cua trong liic, do dd ap suat mau do tim co bop
se giam di. Do giam ap suat dd can bang vdi tac dung cua trong trUdng ma dong

91
mau dong mach chay tii tim xuong chi dudi thu nhan dUdc. Day la cd che rat phiic
tap da hinh thanh trong dieu kien song binh thudng tren cd sd nhiing phan xa c6
dieu kien. Chinh vi vay, khi con ngUdi d trong nhiing dieu kien ve trong trtidng bi
thay doi trong vu tru, roi loan hoat dong cua he tu&n hoan sdm xuat hien.

2.3.3.3. Anh hudng cua nhiet do moi trudng:

Nhiet do xung quanh tang len gay anh htidng trtic tiep den than nhiet. Mot
trong nhting cd che tu dieu chinh than nhiet cua cd the la tang ltiu liidng mau tdi
be mat da b£ng cach cac mao mach d da dtidc gian rong ra. Ban than sU tang
nhiet do moi trtidng cung lam gian cac mao mach d da. Thtic nghiem tren tho cho
thay khi nhiet do xung quanh len tdi 45°C, lUu ltidng mau toi da tang len 6-^7 lan
so vdi luc d nhiet do 20°C. De giti vting ap suat trong mau, cd the tu dieu chinh
b&ng cach co mach d trong cac phu tang. Do nhting tinh trang benh ly nao dd, cd
che dieu chinh dd roi loan, sU tang nhiet do mdi trUdng dot ngot cd the gay nen ha
huyet ap tam thdi. Cung theo mot cd che tUdng tti, khi cd the tang ctidng hoat
dong, nhu cau mau toi da tang len (cd quan tieu hoa sau khi an, nao khi hoat
dong tr i oc ...) se cd anh htidng den ltiu ltidng mau d vung khac trong cd the hoac
hoat dong cua tim, mach.

3. KHI VA SIT VAN CHUYEN KHI TRONG CO THE CON NGl/Ol

Sti trao doi va van chuyen khi xay ra trong cd the la nhd cd hoat dong ho
hap, hoat dong tuan hoan va nhieu yeu to" khac.

3.1. Hoat dong ho hap

Hoat dong ho hap thtic hien d cd quan ho hap, tuan hoan mau, mo va te bao
trong cd the. Thanh phan cau true cd ban cua phoi la phe nang. Phe nang la
nhting tu i nho, rong, cd kha nang chtia day khong kh i va dtidc cau tao bdi mot ldp
te bao mong. Vi vay, khoi khi trong phe nang de dang tiep xue vdi ldp mao mach
phong phu xung quanh. Hoat dong thd bao gom dong tac h it vao va thd ra mot
cach dieu hoa. d ngUdi binh thtidng, khoang 500 ml khong kh i dtidc trao doi sau
mdi lan h it thd thong thudng. 6 nhting ngUdi da dtidc luyen tap hoac co' y h it thd
sau, ludng khong khi ltiu thong se ldn hdn. Trong phoi luon luon ton tai mot ltidng
khi dti trti de lam cho phoi khdng xep xuong dtidi tac dung cua ap suat kh i quven
len thanh ngUc. Ltidng khi nay chiem khoang 1000 ml d ca hai la phoi. Phoi cd the
co lai hoac gian ra theo long ngtic. Hoat dong thd bao gom dong tac h it vao va thd
ra mot cach dieu hoa.
po

Hinh 3.20. Cac khoang va gia tri ap suat cua chung.

Pa: ap suat trong khong khi va trong phe nang.
Pp: ap suat do tinh dan hoi cua mo.
Pop: ap suat giQa hai la cua mang phoi.

92
3.1.1. C o che hit vao
Trong long ngUc, phoi d trang thai gian cang do to chtic cd tinh dan hoi.
Mang phoi ngan cach phoi va long ngiic bao gom hai la: la thanh va la tang. Cau
tao dd tao nen khoang mang phoi n&m gitia hai la. Trong dieu kien can b&ng ap
suat d phe nang Pacan b&ng vdi to’ng ap suat khoang mang phoi Pop va ap suat co
lai gay ra do tfnh dan hoi cua phoi Pp (Hinh 3.20).
Pa = Pop + Pp (3.39)
Ttic la ap suat khoang Pop nho hdn ap suat khi quyen Pamot gia tr i bang stic
cang cua long ngUc Pp. Do ap suat khoang thudng dUdc coi la gia tri am neu coi ap
suat khi quyen bang 0. Ap suat am d khoang lam cho long ngUc cd xu hudng co
lai, nghia la cd xu hudng ngUdc vdi stic cang cua phoi.
Dong tac h it vao thtic hien dtidc la nhd tang the tich long ngUc bang cach
nang cac xtidng stidn len va ha cd hoanh xuong. Cd hoanh rat quan trong cho ho
hap vi bao dam cho 2/3 viec thong khi d phoi. The tich long ngUc tang len, trUdc
het lam giam ap suat khoang mang phoi, nhd dd phoi cd the gian ra va do vay
(theo dinh luat Boyle - Mariotte) ap suat trong cac phe nang giam xuong. Sti xuat
hien hieu ap suat gitia khi quyen va phe nang dd lam cho khdng khi di chuyen
thanh dong tti mdi trUdng vao phoi. Ltiu ltidng khi V dtidc tinh bang cong thtic:
V = Ap/ R
V tinh theo lit/ giay trong dd Ap la hieu ap suat gitia khi quyen va phe nang,
R la stic can dong hoc gay ra bdi sU ma sat gitia dong khi chuyen dong vdi thanh
dtidng ho hap va lUc noi ma sat ben trong long chat khi.
Stic can dong hoc phu thuoc rat nhieu yeu to", nhat la chieu dai l, ban kinh r
cua ong va luc ma sat gitia dong khi va dudng ho hap, he sd" nhdt cua chat khi.

3.1.2. Co che th a ra
Khong kh i tti phoi dUdc day ra ngoai la do the tich long ngtic bi giam xuong.
Dieu dd lam tang ap luc khoang mang phoi. Luc nay, do ap luc tti khoang mang,
cac phe nang co lai lam cho ap suat khdng khi trong phe" nang tang len cao hdn ap
suat khi quyen. Do vay, dong khi di chuyen tti phoi ra ngoai. Cd che lam cho the
tich long ngUc giam xuong khi thd ra nhti sau: khi trtidng ltic cd h it vao giam di,
do tac dung cua luc ltic dan hoi cua long ngtic, cua cac cd quan trong long ngtic va
cua trong ltidng long ngtic, the tich long ngtic bat dau giam xuong. Dd la mot qua
trinh tti nhien, khdng doi hoi gang stic. Ngoai ra con cd mot sd" cd (cd lien sUdn
trong, cd bung, v.v...) khi co lam cho the tich long ngUc giam xuong. Cd hoanh
nang len cung lam cho the tich long ngtic hep lai ro ret. Khi cac ltic dan hoi cua
phoi can bang vdi ap suat khoang mang phoi th i dong tac thd ra ket thuc, vi vay
trong phoi con dong lai mot ltidng khdng khi chtia dtidc day het ra ngoai.
Ngoai ra. trong dong tac thd ra con cd vai trd cua cac ltic chong lai do cac
phu tang trong bung bi cd hoanh don ep xuong dtidi toi da khi h it vao. sU dan hoi
cua to chtic phoi. luc chong lai do cac md bi di chuyen khi h it vao...

93
 Nhin chung, tac dong cua cac co ho h&'p len phoi thuc hien mot cach gian
tiep thong qua sti thay doi ap su&'t khoang. Dieu d6 anh hudng den ap su&t trong
phe nang. Nguyen nhan trtic tiep lam cho khong khi di chuyen qua dudng ho hap
1& sti dao dong co chu ky cua ap su&'t phe nang. Neu long ngtic bi thung hofic bi
tran khi mang phoi tiic la nhan to' quan trong cua co che ho h&'p (ap suat khoang
mang) da bi loai bo. Luc do, do tinh dan hoi cua n 6 , phoi de bi xep lai. Qua trinh
thong khi d pho’i cung khdng xay ra binh thtidng ntia vi khi thay doi the tich long
ngtic, khong khi khdng di chuyen qua dtidng ho hap binh thudng ma chuyen qua
lo thung hoac lo thong nhan tao. Nhting vet thtidng loai n&y anh hudng nhieu den
ho hap.

3.1.3. Cong ho hap

La cong dtidc thtic hien qua cac cd quan ho hap de thang tat ca cac ltic can
khi thong khi. Vai trd cua cac cd rieng biet, hoat dong cua chung d cac giai doan
khac nhau cua chu ky ho hap va d cac dieu kien khac nhau dtidc nghien ctiu bSng
phUdng phap ghi dien cd. Viec do cong cua cac cd ho h&'p mot cach trtic tiep l&
khdng the thtic hien dtidc, vi v&y ngUdi ta thtidng dung phtidng phap gian tiep de
do cong ho hap. Cong cd gia tri bang tich so' cua ltic va quang dtidng di dUdc theo
htidng cua ltic. 6 he ho hap, cong dUdc tinh b&ng tich so' cua ap su&'t va gia tri cua
the tich thay doi ttidng ting. Vi ap sua't trong he ho hap l& mot dai liidng bien doi
nen viec xac dinh cong A thuc hien bang phtidng phap tich phan:

A = \p.dV
p la ap suat tong hdp dat vao he ho hap d mdi thdi diem cua chu trin h ho hap
dV la so' tang the tich cua he.
Trong thtic te, muon do cong ho hap can cd phe dung ke. Theo ket qua thu
dtidc ngtidi ta diing dudng cong bieu dien sU phu thuoc ap sua't vao the tich va tti
dd ma tinh toan. Ket qua thu dUdc cho biet: d trang thai tinh (thong khi dudi 10 1/
phut), cong ho hap khoang 0,1 v 0,59 J/1 hay 0,98 h- 4,9 J/ phut. Khi tang the tich
thd trong 1 phut cong ho hap se tang nhung khdng ty le vi dieu do lien quan den
sii tang stic can dong hoc. Ngtidi ta thay r&ng viec ket hdp tot gitia chieu sau va
tan so' thd thich hdp ttic la lam cho cong thtic hien de ho hap 1 lit khdng khi nho
nhat. Dieu dd cd the thuc hien dUdc nhd he tho'ng dieu khien tu nhien trong cd the
va sti tap luyen.

3.2. Cac quy luat khuech tan khi

Su van chuyen cua cac khi trong ho hap trUdc het tuan theo nhting quy luat
vat ly, nhat la quy luat ve khuech tan khi:

* Dinh luat Henry cho biet: ludng khi tham nhap (khuech tan) dUdc vao chat
long ty le vdi ap suat rieng phan cua chat khi dd tren be mat chat long. Chung ta
biet la he sd khuech tan cua khi phu thuoc vao ban chat khi thanh phan trong
hdn hdp khi (nhti khdng khi ch&ng han).

94
 * Dinh lu&t Dalton (xem 1. 1.2 )
Mau chiia r&'t nhieu th&nh ph£n, vi vay sti tham nhap cua khi vao mau
khong chi ddn thu&n phu thuoc v&o dac diem cua chat khi.
* Dinh luat Cetrenov: Cetrenov khi nghien ciiu sti th&m thau cua khi C 0 2
v&o dung dich th&y ltidng khi hoik tan v&o dung dich ty le nghich vdi nong do mud'i
v& cac chat ho& tan trong dd (protein, lipid, v.v...). Tac gia da tim dtidc bieu thtic
lien he gitia nong do C cua ch^t dien ly trong dung dich va ltidng khi hoa tan S, la:

l g f = *.C
S0 la ltidng khi hoa tan vao ntidc nguyen chat; S la ltidng khi hoa tan vao
dung dich cd chat dien ly d nong do C; k la hang so".

Bang 3.2. He so khuech tan cCia mot so khi quan trong trong cac dung dich
He so khuech tan
Dung djch C 02 o2 n2

Ni/dc nguyen chat 0,545 0,023 0,013

Huyet thanh 0,510 0,021 0,012
Mau 0,470 0,023 0,013
Hong cau 0,440 0,026 0,015

Do hien ttidng khuech tan ddn thuan va cac hien ttidng sinh hoc khac, cac
chat khi thanh phan 0 2, C02, N 2 tham nhap vao cac ndi trong cd the vdi cac gia tri
khac nhau. d phe nang, phan ap cua C02, 0 2, N 2 lan ltidt la 39, 99 va 575 mmHg.
Vay, the tich khi cd the xam nhap vao 1ml mau theo quy luat khuech tan ddn
thuan chi la:
k p.,
V -
P
vdi: k la he sd" ma gia tri da cho d bang 3.2; pn la phan ap khi thanh phan; p
la ap suat khi quyen.
Ket qua do dac thtic te ap suat rieng phan cua cac thanh phan khi trong cd
the dtidc trin h bay d bang 3.3.
Dtia vao dinh luat Henry, chung ta cung hieu dtidc chieu van chuyen cua 0 2
va C0 2 trong cd the. Do chenh lech ap suat, 0 2 dtidc khuech tan tti phe nang
(phan ap la 99,8 mmHg) den mau d mao mach cua tinh mach quanh dd (phan ap
la 38 mmHg). Mau se trd thanh mau do chtia nhieu 0 2 va chuyen den cac md, te
/ 1 J* ty

bao khap cd the. O md, 0 2 tti mau dong mach (phan ap la 99 mmHg) se chuyen
vao dich gian bao (phan ap la 20 mmHg). 6 day phan ap cua C 02rat cao (53 + 76
mmHg) nen C 0 2 khuech tan tti dich gian bao vao mau dong mach (39.6 mmHg).

95
 Bang 3.3. Ap suat rieng phan cua C 0 2, 0 2 va N2(don vi la mmHg) trong ccj the

Mau 6 dong
Chat khi Phe nang Mau a phoi 6 to chijrc
mach chu

o2 99,8 99 38 20 + 40

co2 39 39,6 45 -r 48 53 - 76

n2 575 550 550

Neu chi do khuech tan ddn thuan, the tich cac khi thanh phan cua khong
khi trong cd the se khac nhieu so vdi gia tri do dUdc trong bang bdi vi con nhieu cd
che sinh hoc phiic tap khac ntia.
Qua trinh sii dung 0 2, san sinh C0 2 va van chuyen cac khi do d mo te bao
rat phiic tap. Nhin chung, tai day 0 2 dUdc sii dung de oxy hoa cac chat hiiu cd,
cung cap nang lUdng cho cd the va tao ra C 02. Do la mot day cac phan ling lien
tiep xay ra dudi tac dung cua cac men sinh hoc.

3.3. Sir van chuyen khi trong cd the

Qua trin h trao doi khi trong cd the khong chi tuan theo nhiing quy luat ve
ap suat ma con chiu anh htidng cua nhieu phan ting hoa ly khac ntia. Mot phan
ap 100 mmHg cua 0 2 tiep xue vdi huyet ttidng chi tao dtidc mot liidng khi xam
nhap vao mau khoang 0,35 h- 0,4%, ttic la 0,003 -5- 0,004 ml 0 2 trong 1ml mau. Ty
le do thap hdn rat nhieu so vdi gia tri thiic te trong mau dong mach la 19 -5- 20%,
ttic la 0,19 -s- 0,20 ml 0 2 trong 1ml mau. Muon tao dtidc ham ludng trong mau cao
nhu the b&ng th i nghiem in vitro phai tao dUdc mot phan ap 6 h- 7 atm doi vdi 0 2
va 300 mmHg doi vdi C02. Nhu vay, trong cd the sinh vat, ben canh quy luat
khuech tan con co mot cd che khac bo sung them. Nghien ctiu ky ngUdi ta thay cac
thanh phan trong mau, chu yeu la hong cau, da dong vai tro vo cung quan trong
trong viec van chuyen 0 2 va C 02.

3.4. Nhurng yeu to anh hudng tdi sir trao doi khi trong cd the con ngirdi
Trong cd the hoat dong ho hap hay qua trin h trao doi kh i lien quan mat
thiet vdi cac ho^t dong chtic nang khac. Do do, co rat nhieu yeu to' ben trong va
ben ngoai cd the anh htidng triic tiep hoac gian tiep den sti trao doi khi.

3.4.1. Yeu to ben trong

Moi yeu to anh htidng den hoat dong thd, sti ltiu thong khi, hoat dong cua
cac phe nang deu anh htidng den ho hap. Ta cung thay vai tro to ldn cua tuan
hoan mau doi vdi hoat dong ho hap, cac thay doi khoi ltidng va chat ludng mau (ke
ca hong cau va huyet ttidng) anh htidng triic tiep den sii van chuyen 0 2 va C 02.
Hoat dong chuyen hoa d te bao, mo lam cho toe do sii dung 0 2 va san sinh CO,
khac nhau. Tat ca cac yeu to do anh htidng trtic tiep den ho hap. Con ngudi la mot
the hoan chinh cho nen moi hoat dong chtic nang khac deu lien quan chat che vdi
ho hap. Cd the dieu khien moi hoat dong chtic nang do qua he than kinh. he noi
tiet, cac men v.v...

96
3.4.2. Yeu to ben ngoai
* Anh htidng cua trong trUdng:
Khi thd xay ra sii thay doi vi tri long ngUc va cac cO quan trong o bung. Luc
do, luc can co lien quan den trUdng hap dan cua trai dat se thay doi tuy theo giai
doan cua chu trinh ho hap va vi tri cua cd the trong khong gian va trong vu tru. 0
dieu kien tren trai dat, khi hit vao, trong ludng long ngUc se gay ra liic can cac cd
hit vao va khi thd ra, chinh nhan to" nay se tu dong lam giam the tich long ngUc
ma khong can phai gang siic. Trong ltic cua cd quan trong o bung (dac biet d tu
the diing) se tac dong len cd hoanh va co xu hudng keo no xuong dudi. Dieu do tao
dieu kien thuan ldi cho dong tac hit vao va can trd dong tac thd ra. Anh hUdng cua
trUdng hap dan len qua trinh ho hap co the xac dinh dUdc khi so sanh cac chi so cd
hoc va thong khi khi ho hap d cac trang thai nam va diing.

* Anh hudng cua ty le khi thanh phan:

Nhu ta da ro, oxy rat can cho cd the, binh thudng cd the da thich nghi vdi
moi trUdng khong khi chiia oxy co phan ap khoang 100 mmHg. Chung ta biet
rang, C0 2 co tac dung kich thich ho hap. Do vay, cd the doi hoi khong khi co ham
ludng 0 2 va C 0 2 binh thudng. Cd the con chiu diing dUdc khong khi co the tich 0 2
len tdi 50% nhung se co roi loan nghiem trong neu chi thd thuan khi 0 2. Tat ca
nhiing sue vat th i nghiem deu chet neu dat trong nhiing long kin co chiia oxy vdi
phan ap tren 2 atmotphe. Vai tro cua C 0 2 trong ho hap cung quan trong. No kich
thich ho hap hay gay kho khan cho ho hap tuy thuoc ty le.
* Anh htidng cua ap suat khi quyen:

Len tren cao, ap suat khi quyen ha thap va phan ap cac khi thanh phan
cung giam, dieu do dtia den tinh trang thieu oxy trong cd the. De dap ting lai,
hoat dong ho hap co the tang len hoac bi roi loan tuy theo mtic do va thdi gian
thieu oxy. Sii thay doi dot ngot ap suat khong khi cung co the xay ra cac bien
chting nang chet ngUdi. Vi vay, bien phap quan trong la phai giam ap suat tti tti.
Tom lai, sti trao doi khi trong cd the tuan theo cac quy luat dong hoc chat
khi va chiu tac dung trtic tiep cua nhieu quy luat sinh hoc phtic tap. Chtic nang
ho hap lien quan chat che vdi cac chtic nang khac va chiu anh hudng trtic tiep cua
cac dieu kien d moi trtidng ben ngoai.

4. CHUYEN DONG ■ CO HOC

• TREN CO THE SONG
4.1. Dai cirdng ve chuyen dong cd hoc
4.1.1. Cac dinh luat cua Newton ve chuyen dong
Cd hoc co dien nghien ctiu nhting dang chuyen dong ddn gian nhdt cua vat
chat. Do la sii dich chuyen ddn gian cua vat nay so vdi vat khac hoac nhting phan
cua chung vdi nhau. Noi khac di, do la sti thay doi vi tri trong khdng gian. Chuyen
dong cd hoc co nhieu dang khac nhau va phtic tap. Dang chuyen dong ddn gian
nhdt la chuyen dong cua chat diem. Thong thiidng ta gan vdi he quy chieu vao he
true toa do vuong goc de xac dinh toa do cac vi tri khac nhau cua doi tiidng khao
sat.

97
 Cd 3 dinh luat cd ban cua Newton, la:
-D in h luat Newton thti nhdt: Moi vat se giti nguyen trong trang thdi dtinq
yen hoac chuyen dong thang deu khi tac dong cua vat khac khong buoc no bien doi
trang thdi dy.
Tti dinh luat nay, ta hieu diidc tinh chat quan trong nhdt cua vat chat van
dong la quan tinh. No dtidc the hien muon hinh mudn ve trong tii nhien. Khoi
liidng la thiidc do mtic quan tinh cua mot vat vd ddn vi do la kg trong he SI.
Quan tinh anh hiidng den con ngtidi ve toan bo cung nhii tting phan rieng re
cua cd the trong qua trinh song. Khi thay doi dot ngot van to'c chuyen dong hoac vi
tri trong khdng gian, cac cd quan khac nhau trong cd the co do quan tinh khac
nhau lam xao tron chung, anh htidng den hoat dong chtic nang cua chung.

-D in h luat Newton thti hai: Dinh luat nay diidc phat bieu nhii sau: Gia toe
a cua chat diem (vat) thu diidc ty le thuan vdi liic tac dung F , ty le nghich vdi
khoi liidng m cua vat, cd chieu trung vdi chieu cua liic:

a = k .—
m

trong dd, k la he sd ty le, cd gia tri diidng.

Tti dd ta suy ra:

F = ma
Nhii the nghia la diidi tac dung cua liic F , mot vat cd khoi liidng m dang
dting yen se chuyen dong bien doi vdi gia to'c a-

Trong triidng hdp chat diem chiu liic tac dong dong thdi cua nhiiu liic khac
nhau p , p , ..., p thi vat coi nhii bi tac dung cua mot liic duy nhdt F ma:

n
f = f + p + + f f
1 lO nghop i | T J 2 T . . . T l B / j i

1=1

Xet ve sii van dong cua cd the, chung ta can liiu y nhting dac diem sau day:

4.1.1.1. Gia toe trong trudng:

Mot vat rdi tii do trong chan khdng gan trdi dat se cd gia to'c cd phiidng
thang dting vuong goc vdi mat dat vd hiidng vao tam trdi dat. Gia to'c dd diidc goi
la gia to'c trong triidng - hay gia toe rdi tii do. Theo dinh luat thti 2 cua Newton,
ta cd:

F = m.g = P

trong dd P la trong liidng cua vat.

4.1.1.2. Trudng hap d in cua trai dat

Newton la ngiidi dau tien vao nam 1687 diia ra dinh luat hdp dan vu tru:
"Hai chat diem (vat) cd khoi liidng m ; vd m2, d cach nhau mot khoang r se hut

98
nhau bang nhiing liic co phiictng la phiidng cua diidng thang ndi hai chat diem, co
do ldn ty le vdi tich hai khoi liidng m h m2 vd ty le nghich vdi binh phiictng khoang
cach giiia chung:
mlm2

~ 7 ~

trong do yla hang so'hap ddn vu tru.

Trong triidng hdp vat co khoi liidng m tiidng tac vdi trdi dat, dinh luat tren
diidc viet lai nhii sau:
m .M d
F = r — r ^
r
vdi M d la khoi liidng cua trdi dat; r la khoang cach tii tam vat den tam trdi
dat. Neu goi Rd la ban kinh trdi dat con h la do cao tii tam vat den mat dat thi:
r = Rh+ h

Nhii tren dd biet:

P = m.g

tiic la:
P F M.
g =—=- =r
m m (Rd + h)~

Tii bieu thiic nay ta thay, cang len cao gia toe trong triidng cang giam. Tai
mat dat (h = 0), g co gia tri:
M
g = r - J - = 9,Sm /s2
Kd

Ta biet, m la khoi liidng cua vat, lien quan chat che vdi quan tinh tiic la "siic
y " cua vat. Bang thiic nghiem, ngiidi ta dd chiing minh diidc m trong siic y cua vat
vd khoi liidng hdp ddn trung nhau vdi do chinh xac rat cao. Nhii vay, khoi liidng
quan tinh vd khoi liidng hdp ddn la bieu hien hai mat cua mot tinh chat cua vat
chat: liidng vat chat trong mot vat cu the.

Bieu thiic E = m.c2 cua Anhstanh cung cho thay khoi liidng m vd gia tri nang
liidng E la nhiing dai liidng vat ly dac triing cho vat chat van dong lien quan mat
thiet vdi nhau.

Trang thai cua vat md tong hdp tat cd cac liic vd momen liic tac dong len vat
bang 0 diidc goi la trang thdi can bang. Neu luc do, tac dong vao vat mot liic lam
pha bo trang thdi can bang, tiic la tong hdp liic se khac 0, vat trd lai trang thdi
can bang cu ta goi do la trang thdi can bang ben (a) nhiing neu liic do lam cho vat
chuyen dong tiep tuc thi ta goi la trang thdi can bang khong ben (b). Nhiing neu
vat chuyen dich mot doan rdi trd ve trang thdi can bang nhii cu thi ta goi la trang
thdi can bang on dinh (c).

99
 Hinh 3.21 Ba trang thai can
being cua vat:
- a: Ben
- b: Khong ben.
- c: on dinh.

Ve phiidng dien nang liidng co the noi do tac dung cua trong triidng, md vat
cd mot the nang nhdt dinh ling vdi trang thdi cua no:

Ep = m.g.h

d trang thdi can bang ben thi E p la nho nhdt.

Khi cd liic tac dung vao, lam cho trong tam di chuyen vd the nang Ep tang
len den gia tri ciic dai iing vdi suat liic tac dung. Sit chuyen dong lam cho the
nang giam di. Tai trang thdi can bang ben thi gia tri the nang dd khdng thay doi.
Nhii the nghia la vat dat trang thdi can being khi the nang cua no dat gia tri ciic
dai hoac ciic tieu. Ngiidi ta thay trang thdi can bang dn dinh cua vat (hay cua mot
he thong hinh chan de) khi vectd trong liic cua no dat tai trong tam cua vat van rdi
vao trong hinh chieu cua no tren mat dat. Neu ra ngoai thi vat se di chuyen vao
trang thdi mdi thoa man yeu cau neu tren.

4.1.2. Chuyen dong quay cua vat ran

Mot vat ran trong chuyen dong cd hoc khdng thay doi hinh dang. Du d dang
chuyen dong phiic tap nao, chuyen dC,ng cua vat ran cung cd the phan tich thanh
hai qua trinh: chuyen dong tinh tien vd chuyen dong quay. Khao sat chuyen dong
tinh tien cua vat, ngiidi ta thay moi phan tii cua vat deu cd quy dao hinh dang
giong het nhau vd moi dac triing khac cua chuyen dong,nhii van toe, gia to'c... deu
nhii nhau. Bdi vay, trong chuyen dong tinh tien, ta cd the thay vat bang mot chat
diem nao dd, chat diem nay dac triing cho vat.

Trong chuyen dong quay, moi phan tii cua vat cd quy dao vd cac dac triing
khac ndi chung khdng giong nhau nen ta khao sat chi tiet hdn de tim ra nhiing
dac triing cd ban cua chuyen dong quay.

4.1.2.1. Momen luc, momen quan tinh

Mot vat ran thiic hien chuyen dong quay khi quy dao cua cac phan tii tao
thanh vat la nhiing diidng tron dong tam nam tren cung mot diidng thang co dinh.
Dudng thang nay goi la true quay. Tren hinh 3.22, true quay nam tren diidng di
qua 0 0 '. Trong chuyen dong quay, van toe goc co vd gia tdc goc (3 cua moi diem
tren vat deu nhii nhau, con van tdc dai vd gia toe dai cua cac diem khac nhau ndi
chung khac nhau.

100
 Gia su! co mot vat quay quanh mot true cd dinh. Ta tdc dung len vat mot ltic
nao do. Qua thtic nghiem thay tdc dung lam quay vat phu thuoc vao hai yeu to:

- Do ldn cua ltic tdc dung F.

- Vi tri cua diem dat ltic M.
Goi r la khoang cach tti diem M den true
qua tam OM = r; goi d la khoang cach tti true
quay den phtidng cua ltic; d goi la canh tay don.
Khi ay, de dac trting cho tdc dung cua ltic
lam quay vat, ngtidi ta dung mot dai ltidng goi
la momen ltic hay momen quay, ky hieu la M .

M = r.F

M = r . F sin or

Momen ltic la mot dai ltidng vectd, Hinh 3.22. Chuyen dong quay
phtidng doc theo true quay, chieu xac dinh cua vat riin
theo quy tdc cai van nut chai: cho vat quay
theo chieu cua cai van nut chai thi chieu cua
momen ltic la chieu di tdi cua cai van nut
chai. Neu mot vat quay chiu nhieu ltic tdc
dung Ft vdi cac ban kinh r, (a = 90° thi d
triing r), momen ltic toan bo se la:

M = ' Z M , = ' Z d .-F ,

1=1

Neu lan Itidt tdc dung vao cac vat ran

quay khac nhau mot momen ltic xac dinh, ta
thay gia to'c goc md vat quay do thu dtidc
khong nhting phu thuoc vao khoi ltidng cua
vat quay md phu thuoc vao tinh trang phan
Hinh 3.23. Mo men quay
bo khoi ltidng cua vat do doi vdi true quay.

Thi nghiem sau day (hinh 3.24) cho ta

thay rd diem nay: Hai bank xe A, B tuy cung khoi ltidng, momen ltic tdc dung (F
vd r giong nhau) nhting banh xe A quay nhanh ddn hdn, ttic la co gia tdc ldn hdn.
Sd di nhti vay vi khoi ltidng cua chung phan bo khac nhau doi vdi true quay: khoi
ltidng cua banh xe A tap trung gan true quay, khoi ltidng cua banh xe B ddn ra xa
true quay. De dac trting cho dac tinh nay cua vat quay ngtidi ta dtia ra dai ltidng
momen quan tinh.

Momen quan tinh cua mot phan tit nho khoi ltidng m cua vat doi vdi true
quay la:

j = m.r 2
*
vdi r Id khoang cach tti phan tit dd den true quay.

101
 Mot vat cau tao bdi n phan tit nho se co
momen quan tinh la:

i=i i=l

Dita vao cong thiic nay vd thay phep tinh

tong bang phep tich phan dinh han, ngitdi ta tinh
ditdc momen quan tinh cua mot so vat. Chang han
nhit mot hinh tru dac dong nhdt khoi litdng m, Hinh 3.24 Mo men quay
ban kinh r co momen quan tinh doi vdi true hinh
tru la:

2
hinh cau dong nhdt khoi litdng m cd momen quan tinh doi vdi true xuyen
qua tam la:

2 2
mr

4.1.2.2. Phuong trinh co ban cua chuyen dong quay cua vat r£n
Theo dinh luat Newtcfn thit hai, phan tit khoi litdng ra( cd gia tdc a, dd chiu
litc tdc dung la F t :

Fi = a, . m ,

Nhan cd hai ve vdi r, vd tit bieu thiic a = r./3 ta cd:

F , . r, = r,2. m ,. fi

lay tong cho toan bo cac phan tit cua vat:

' Z F r r, = Z A m , r,2
1=1 1=1

Vi gia toe goc ft cua moi phan tit tren vat quay la nhit nhau nen ta cd:

± * , = fi± j.
/=! «=i

hay la: M = p.J

Bieu thiic tren la dinh luat Newtcfn thit hai dp dung cho vat ran quay: Gia
tdc goc cua mot vat ran quay quanh mot true ty le thuan vdi momen litc (doi vdi
true quay dd) vd ty le nghich vdi momen quan tinh (doi vdi true quay dd).
Neu viet d dang vectd, ta cd: M = J.P
Khi mot vat quay deu hoac ditng yen, gia toe goc /3 = 0 ta cd M = 0; dieu nay
cd nghia la neu tong dai so cac momen cua cac litc tdc dung len vat bang 0 thi vat
khdng cd gia tdc goc.

102
4.1.3. Ddn b iy
- Cac dang don bay:
Don bay la loai vat ran chiu
tdc dung cua 2 litc la litc can
va litc phat dong, co mot t
Lp Lp
/
s
\ ,— ■\
i i
diem tita la true quay. Dieu i

kien can bang cua don bay la

tong momen cua litc can vd
litc phat dong phai bang
khong. Theo sit phan chia 3 Hinh 3.25 Ba loai don bay
loai don bay (hinh 3.25) ta
deu co:
M P+ M f = 0

P.Lp + F .L f = 0

Hay:
Li l = F
L ~ P

Khai niem khoi tam (hay trong tam): khoi tam cua vat la diem md ta co the
dat litc hap ddn (trong litc) toan bo vat tai day, thay cho toan bo cac litc hap ddn
dat len titng phan nho cua vat. Trong tam cua cac vat phang dong nhdt triing vdi
tam hinh hoc cua chung. Vdi cac dang dac biet hoac sit phan phoi khoi litdng
khong dong deu, trong tam co the d ngoai vat (hinh 3.26).
7 9 ,
4.2. Chuyen dong cd hoc tren cd the song

4.2.1. Chuyen dong quay tren c o th e

Chuyen dong quay tren cO the
chu yeu la chuyen dong cua xUOng do
tac dung cua cac bo cO xUOng. Gia sti
co mot dau cO bam vao xtiOng A, mot
dau bam vao xtiOng B. Khi cO nay co
lai, co the lam cho xtiOng A chuyen
dong lai gan xtiOng B hoac ngtiOc lai,
hoac lam cho ca hai xtiOng tien lai gan
nhau. Trong ca ba trtidng hop deu co
true quay xuyen qua o khclp.

Hinh 3.27. Loai don bay

H inh 3.26. T ro n g tam cua vat thir nhat

103
 Trong mpi chuyen dong cua xUOng do tac dung cua co, chu ng ta co the coi he
tho'ng xUOng - cO nhu mot don bay: xUOng la tay don, ltic phat dong la ltic cua
mot hay nhieu cO bam vao xUOng, ltic can la ltic ma co phai thang (phan ldn \k
trong ltic) con diem ttia nam trong o khdp. Ta co the tim thay ca ba loai don bay
9

tren cO the:
+ Loai don bay thti nhat, diem ttia n&m 0 giula diem dat cua ltic can va ltic
phat dong. TrUOng hop dau chung ta dtiOc giti can b&ng tren cot song la mot vi du
dOn gian ve loai nay: diem ttia la diem nam d trong khdp cham - cot son g (tao bdi
loi cau cua xUOng cham va hom khdp cua dot song co thti nhat), ltic phat dong F la
ltic cua cO gay, con ltic can P la trong ItiOng cua dau (co khuynh hudng guc ra phia
trUdc).
+ Loai don bay thti hai, diem dat cua ltic can n&m gitia diem ttia va diem dat
cua ltic phat dong. Trudng hop chung ta dting mot chan va nhon cao got chan la vi
du cua loai ddn bay nay. Khi ay, diem ttia la dau nut cua xtiOng ban chan, ltic can
P la trong ItiOng cua cO the tac dung qua cac xUOng cang chan dat d trtidc diem dat
cua ltic phat dong F; ltic phat dong nay do cac cO dep va sinh doi sinh ra dat d
diem ma gan Asin bam vao xUOng got. Trong loai ddn bay nay, diem dat cua ltic
phat dong xa diem ttia nen no co the can bang vdi mot ltic can ldn, do dd loai ddn
bay nay goi la ddn stic.

J4.___ b

Hinh 3.28. Loai don bay Hinh 3.29. Loai don bay thti ba
thti hai

+ Loai ddn thti ba, diem dat cua ltic phat dong F d gitia diem ttia va di§m dat
cua ltic can. Loai ddn nay kha pho bien trong co the. Trtidng hop gap cang tav vao
canh tay la mot vi du ve loai nay: diem ttia la mot diem d trong khdp khuvu. ltic
phat dong F la ltic do co nhi dau va co canh tay trtidc sinh ra, con ltic can P la
trong ItiOng cua cang tay, ban tay va vat nang cam d ban tay. 0 day, diem dat cua
ltic phat dong d gan diem ttia hon diem dat cua ltic can, khi gap tay diem dat ltic
can di doan dtidng dai hon diem dat ltic phat dong, do dd ddn bay nay goi la ddn
van to'c.
Tai hinh ve 3.29, ta thay so do cau tao va hoat dong cua canh tay phai. Tam
cua chuyen dong nam d khdp khuyu tay (d). Vat nang Q nam trong long ban tay

104
tao ra moment liic Qb. C0 nhi diu canh tay B dich vao c4ng tay vdi mot khoang
cach a den tam chuyen dong d. Thong thudng ty le do la: a/ b = 1/ 12
Nhu vay, muon nang mot vat Q len, luc P do cO nhi dau tao ra phai ldn hon
12 l^n gia tri Q. Ty le do tao ra mot loi the cao la do co ru t ngan cua cO khong ldn.
Khi cac liic phat dong hay liic can khong th^ng goc vdi tay don, muon tim
dieu kien can bin g cua cac loai ddn bay tren chung ta phai tinh momen liic cua
cac thanh phan vuong goc vdi tay don cua cac liic tren.
Trong cac loai don ke tren ta phai chu y den vai tro cua cac dau xUOng. Vi
du: trong trudng hop gap cang tay vao canh tay, ne'u khong co dau xUOng phinh ra
de cac cO bam vao thi chung se bam sat vao cho xUOng ngay sat diem tUa, nhu the
momen cua liic phat dong se het siic nho va khong the gap canh tay lai dUOc.
Cung can chu y la moi dong tac can phai sii dung mot so" cO: trong qua trinh cO co
lai, de sinh ra liic phat dong con co mot so" cO do"i khang dan ra. Khi mot dong tac
nhanh manh sap cham diit, cac cO doi khang co lai de giam bdt van toe di chuyen.

4.2.2. Hoat dong co c o

4.2.2.1. Tac dung cua co CO

Trong cO the co ba loai cO: cO van bam vao he xUOng, cO trOn co 6 thanh mach
mau, cac cO quan trong cO the va cO tim. He thong cO van co gan 300 c0 vdi khoi
lUOng rat lcta va khong nhiing dam bao cho cO the giii the trong can bang trong
khong gian, di lai, thiic hien mot so" chCfc nang sinh ly quan trong nhu thd, an ...
ma con lam cho con ngudi cd kha nang lao dong, gop phan cai tao thien nhien, moi
trudng va phat trien the liic, siic khoe cua con ngudi. H oat dong chu yeu cua cac
cO la sii co dan do tinh dan hoi cua CO. Hoat dong co cO dac trUng bang cac tinh
chat dan hoi cua cO, liic co cO, do rut ngan cua cO va cong cua cO. Dai liiOng dac
trUng cho tinh dan hoi cua mot vat la moi quan he giiia do dai bien dang va liic
tac dung len vat dd. T rong thiic te", khi co cO mdi sinh ra liic tac dung, nghia la cO
da thiic hien mot cong. Ro rang rang hoat dong cua cO sinh ra liic, nghia la xuat
hien khi chieu dai cua cO co ngan lai. Tren cO the ta can phai hieu la chieu dai cua
cO chi cd the bien thien tii gia tri ^ luc nghi den gia tri t mm luc co rut toi da. Gia tri
liic cua cO tao ra khi co lai d chieu dai nao dd (Cmin < £x < t 0) iing vdi gia tri trong
liic Px cd tac dung keo cO tii chieu dai I min den tx. N hu the" nghia la muon cho co co
mot chieu dai t xac dinh khi cO dang co ta phai dung mot trong liiOng P2 ldn hon
trong liiOng P, khi cO dang nghi. Sd di the" vi cO con phai dung mot liic nufa de
thang lai siic can.

P, = Pj + F -> F = P2 - P,
Do co cua cO At la hieu sd" cua chieu dai £0cua cO luc nghi tru! di gia tri t khi
cO co: At = t 0 - t

Khi khao sat gia tri A t dd, ngudi ta dung nhiing thiet bi dien tu dac biet de ghi
do. Gia tri At bien thien trong suot chu ky co cua cO. Chu ky co la thdi gian tii luc cO
bat dau co den luc co ngan nhat, nghia la luc dd gia tri At dat ciic dai {At max).

105
 'i
Cho nen chung ta co the tinh duoc gia tri Al phu thuoc vao t:

A/ = A/max. s in ( |.£ )

T la chu ky co va t la thdi diem bat ky ke tii luc bat d&u chu ky. T ii cong
thiic do, ta co the tinh mot vai gia tr i dac biet:
Khi t = T/ 6 ta co:

A / = A / m„ s i n ^ = 0 , 2 6 A / m„

Khi t = TI 2 ta co:

M= > n ^ = 0.71A/m„

Nhu the nghia la chi sau mot thdi gian TI 2, gia tri co rut cO da dat dUOc 3/ 4
gia tri ciic dai. Dieu dd cho biet la giai doan dau cua co cO, toe do co rat ldn. Sii co
cO tao nen liic F dUOc goi la trUOng luc cO. Va nhu vay, ngudi ta do cong thuc hien
cua cO gian tiep qua trUOng luc cO, giong nhu do cong cua tim gian tiep qua ap
suat dong mau dUOc tong ra tii tim hay lUOng khi lUu thong khi thd trong mot don
vi thdi gian.Liic ma khi co co toi da tao ra la liic co tuyet doi cua cO. Ngudi ta do
no bang trong lUOng nhd nhat lam cho cO khong co dUOc nhu vay mac du cO da
nhan dUOc xung klch thich tdi da. Tat nhien, liic dd trudc het phu thuoc vao so
lUOng sOi cO, tiic la vao thiet dien cat ngang cua CO. Vi vay, ngudi ta dua ra khai
F
niem he so" lUc co cO P: P = —
5

Tii dd danh gia duoc kha nang cua cac loai cO d cac loai vat khac nhau. Kha
nang di chuyen cua mot cO the ngoai yeu to" liic con phu thuoc vao chat liiOng cua
he xUOng khdp, sii phan xa cua he than kinh.

4.2.2.2. Cong co hoc cua bdp co

Cong san suat ra cang ldn th i sii met mdi cang sdm xuat hien. VI du: cong
cua ngudi di xe dap la 120 kGm/ phut trong nhieu gid va 1800 kGm/ phut trong
1 gid dau nhung len den 2400 kGm/ phut trong nhiing giay d&u tien. Doi lai. toe
do dat duoc cung phu thuoc vao cong sinh ra.
30 km /h chi trong vong 30 giay dau.

15 -4- 18 km /h trong vong 1- ^2 gid dau.

Con ngudi nhin chung cd the san sinh ra mot cong len den 1,5 ma luc (g£n
110 kGm/s) trong vong vai giay dau tien. Keo dai nhu vay la khong the duoc.
Nhin chung, trong mot ngay dem con ngudi cd the hoan thanh mot cong the liic
khdng vUOt qua gidi han 100.000 -s- 200.000 kGm.
Co sii dung nang lUOng khdng phai chi de tao cong co hoc. M ot phan ldn
nang liiOng dUOc dung de duy tri sii cang cua cO va mot phan chuyen thanh nhiet

106
nang. Phan nang ludng chuyen thanh nhiet nang khoang 1,6.10 2J/kg.s. Khi cd co
gia tri do tang len nhieu lan.

4.2.2.3. Ndng li/Ong co co

Nang ludng nay dung khi co cO lay triic tiep tu: ATP. Ludng ATP co san
trong cd khong nhieu, ngUdi ta da tinh thay rang nang ludng trUc tiep tif ludng
ATP co s i n trong cd khong du cho cd hoat dong trong vong mot giay. Vi vay, de cO
hoat dong dUOc lien tuc phai co qua trinh tong hdp ATP tai cd. Viec tong hdp nay
thUc hien dUdc nhanh chong nhd trong cd co mot hdp chat giau nang lUdng khac la
phospho-creatin. ATP dUdc tong hdp trong c0 qua phan iing sau day:

phosphocreatin + ADP —> ATP + creatin

Qua trin h tong hdp nay chi du cho cO hoat dong trong may giay. Khi cac
nguon du truf nay can, ATP dUOc tong hdp theo mot cO che khac nho su phan huy
glycogen. Glycogen la mot dang tich true cua glucose co nhieu trong cO. Nang ludng
dUdc giai phong khi phan huy glycogen dUOc dung de tong hdp ATP. Co the bieu
dien mot cach tong quat qua trin h do nhu sau:

glucose + 3 H 3PO4 + 2 ADP —> 2 lactat + 2 ATP + 2 H 20

Khi liidng ATP dUdc tong hdp nhieu thi ludng lactat cang tich tu nhieu va
kim ham qua trinh tong hdp ATP. Nhd phUdng thiic tren nen khi co cO manh,
mach mau nhat thdi khong dUdc cung cap du de m ang lai oxy cho cac phan iing
hoa sinh, cd van co du nang lUdng de hoat dong. PhUdng thiic nay goi la qua trinh
cung cap nang ludng yem khi cho cO. Vi du:

- Mot ngUdi nang 60kg di mot quang dudng 7 m trong vong 10 giay, cac cd
cua hai chan da phai thuc hien mot cong cd hoc la 420 kgm. Gia tri do gan bang
lkcal. Ta biet hieu suat cong cO hoc chi khoang 25%, nghia la cd da can mot nang
ludng gan 4kcal.
- Cd sU dung 1 lit oxy de tao ra khoang 4,8 kcal. Nhu the, de thuc hien dUdc
viec di 7m trong vong 10 giay, ngudi do da dung khoang 800 ml oxy (tiic la khoang
80 ml/ giay). Luc nghi ngdi, toe do s\i dung oxy chi khoang 3,5 ml/ giay. To'c do
thay doi tu: 3,5 ml len 80 ml trong vong 1 giay la rat ldn, tim va phoi khong the
dap iing ngay dUdc. Vi vay, qua trin h cung cap nang liidng cho co cd bang cach
phan huy glucose yem khi co y nghia rat quan trong. Sau giai doan do cO phai
dUdc cung cap du oxy de thieu dot glucose. Su thieu dot glucose bang cac phan
iing vdi oxy tao ra acid pyruvic roi acid nay tham gia vao chu trin h Kreb de giai
phong tiep tuc nang liidng. San pham cuoi cung cua qua trin h la nUdc va acid
carbonic. Nang ludng dUdc tiep tuc giai phong ra luc nay dUdc dung de bu lai
lUdng ATP va phosphocreatin da sU dung. Gia tri nang lUOng do qua trin h chuyen
hoa hieu khi (co du oxy) ldn hdn nhieu lan gia tr i nang lUdng toa ra trong qua
trin h yem khi (thieu oxy). Dieu nay se dUdc de cap ky hdn d mon hoc hoa sinh.

107
4.2.3. Tinh mem deo ( dan h d i) cua cac mo
Tinh mem deo cua to chtic dong vai tro quan trong trong cd the ngiidi bdi vi
tat ca cac mo d miic do khac nhau luon luon bi bien dang dan hoi do bi ep, keo,
gap hoac x o in van. Nhd sti dan hoi cua sun sUdn ma long ngUc trd ve dUdc vi tri
ban dau sau khi thd ra. Tinh dan hoi cua cac dia dem giiia cac dot song ma cd the
giti dtidc tu the t h in g diing. Tinh dan hoi cua cac to chiic lien ket cu n g vdi trong
luc cua cd the va trUdng luc cua mot so” cO ma cd the giuf dUdc the th an g bang.
Tinh dan hoi cua mach mau gop phan tao ra dong chay lien tuc trong do.
Ngoai ra, cau true cua mot so xUdng tao ra nhiing hinh dang dac biet de co
sti dan hoi tot nhat (vi du: dau va co xUOng dui). Tinh dan hoi cua cac xUOng do
nhd to chiic lien ket, con do viing c h i c cua xUOng la nhd cac muoi vo cd, nhat la
Phospho va Canxi. Trong cd the, xUdng chiu diing siic n an g nhieu con do cau tao
dang ong, la dang ma vdi so liidng vat chat nhat dinh tao dUdc siic chon g dd tot
nhat so vdi cau tao dac.
Bang 3.4 dudi day liet ke gia tr i modun dan hoi E va gidi han ve do deo dai
Q cua cac mo trong cd the. (Ghi chu: 1 kg/ mm 2 = 9,81.106 N / m2)

Bang 3.4
Gia tri Q Modun E
Md
(kg1 mm2) (kg/ mm2)

Xi/dng ngi/di tre 9,2 + 12,4 2200 - 2700

Xudng ngUdi gia 6,4 -r 7,7 1800 + 2200
Cd bSp 0,038 0,95
Dong mach 0,14 0,05
TTnh mach 0,18 0,85
1,35

CO
Than kinh

•I-
o

o
Cd the ngUdi cd gan 300 cd bap, chung cd nhiem vu duy tr i sti can b in g va tu
the cua cd the (qua khung xUdng) va van dong. Khi cd co hai dau tien lai gan nhau
cd the lam n g in 50 -s- 60%, luc dd ta goi la sti co cd d in g tin h (isotonic), luc nav cho
san sinh ltic (cong cd hoc dudng tinh) ldn nhat th in g mot ltic tif ngoai tac dong
vao. Trong trUdng hdp no lai dan ra (nhu khi tha mot vat nang), luc nay lai sinh
ra mot cong am tinh de nhu mot cai ham. Nang ludng sii dung luc nay dUdc giai
phong dudi dang nhiet nang. Trong trUOng hdp cd cho la du th in g tac dong ltic
ben ngoai ma khong can co n g in lai th i se d vao trang thai khong trudng liic. hay
goi la trang thai isometric. Thong thudng, mot dong tac bao gom nhieu co duoi
dong thdi de lam cho dong tac deu dan, nhip nhang.
NgUdi ta da tinh dtidc liic tao ra tren mat cat ngang cua cd luc co la 6 kg/10 4 m2.
Nhu vay, ltic cua mot sdi cd se la 0,1 -e- 0,3 g va cd khoi liidng khoang 1 kg. Khi
lam viec 8 gid se tieu hao trung binh nang ltidng la 14,7 W. Cong suat dd cd khi
tang len den 20 -h 40% nhd tap luyen. Cong suat dd khong khac nhau gitia nam va
nii, phu thuoc vao tuoi tac.

108
4.2.4. S u can b£ng (thang bang) cua cor the ngifdi
Cd the ngUdi luon phai thtic hien sti can b&ng trong moi trUOng co trong luc
(siic nang cua cd the).
D&u ngUdi co diem tUa trong ltic d phia
trtidc cot song mot chut. Vi vay xuat hien 1
momen lUc do trong lUc cua dau d hai phia cua
diem tUa. De giot can bang cac cd d sau gay
phai cang len. Vi vay, khi ngu ngoi dau thUdng
do xuong phia trUcic (ngu gat).
Khao sat sU can b&ng cua cd the d tu the
diing, phai xem xet khong chi tren binh dien
cua hai ban chan ma ca binh dien giiia hai ban
chan. Ta biet, tu the can bang cua cd the se rat
chiic chan neu binh dien do dang rong. Vi vay,
con ngtidi dting hai chan dang rong ra se vting
hdn khi chum hai chan lai, nhat la khi co mot
chan (chi dting bang mot chan). Sd di nhu vay
vi chung ta biet trong ludng cua cac phan cd
the khong rdi vao vung mot dUdng thang dting, Hinh 3.30. Oieu chinh trong tam
vi vay se tao ra cac m om en quay va de lam dao co the de giuf thang b in g
Ion cd the. De giti dUdc can bang, cac cd phai
hoat dong de tao ra nhting mom en ngtidc lai
lam triet tieu cac m om en trong ltic tren. Khi bi mot ngoai luc tac dong vao (gio,
ltic quay, xo day ...) cd the ngtidi se d vao mot tu the sao cho tong hdp cua tat ca
cac ltic thanh phan van rdi vao chan de cua cO the (gitia hai chan), neu khong se bi
nga. Vi vay, con ngUdi thudng cui xuong khi bi gio day trU6c mat hay mang vat nang
sau lung, nghieng ra xa tam khi chuyen dong cong.

Sti di dong cua con ngUdi: co hai dong tac trong di dong cua con ngUdi la di
bo va chay. Di bo la di chuyen ma co luc ca hai chan deu cham dat. Con chay thi
khong co luc nao nhti vay ca, hai chan thay phien nhau thuc hien cac bu6c nhay
lien tiep va ta quan sat dtidc co luc ca hai chan deu khong cham dat. De thuc hien
hai dong tac do, cd the da thuc hien nhieu dong tac phtic tap cua nhieu philn,
nhieu bap cd khac nhau cua cd the.

109
 Bai 4

DAO DONG VA SONG

m

MUC TIEU HOC TAP

• • •

1. Trinh b&y dtidc cac dac trting cua dao dong vk s6ng co hoc.
2. Phan biet dtidc 3 dang dao dong cd hoc va 2 dang song cO hoc.
3. Trinh bay dtiOc cac dac trting cua dao dong va song dien tti.
4. Giai thich dtiOc nguyen ly phan tich cac tin hieu dao dong.
5. Trinh bay dUdc ban chat vat ly cua am, cac dac trting cua cam giac am vh
nguyen ly cua cac ting dung am, sieu am trong y te.
Cac hien tudng tuan hoan rat pho bien trong tu nhien. Hien ttidng tu&n
hoan mang trong ban than no nhting dac trting vat ly quan trong cho thay thong
tin ma no mang lan truyen trong vu tru, cho thay kha nang tac dong cua hien
tUdng tdi vat chat trong vu tru ...
Mat trdi cti sau khoang 11 nam lai co mot lan bien doi dot ngot ve tti trUdng
cua no, gay ra hien ttiOng bao tti lan truyen trong thai dtidng he roi vao vu tru xa
xam. Khi bao tti nay lan truyen tdi Trai dat, nhting ngudi bi benh tim co nhting
dot bien nguy hiem cho sti song cua ho. Mat trang quay quanh Trai dat, chu ky
trang tron da anh hudng ro ret len sU song: chu ky kinh nguyet cua phu nti. Mot
so” sao choi chuyen dong co chu ky do”i vdi Thai duong he, moi lan sao choi nay lti 6t
gan Trai dat, ngtidi ta quan sat thay hang loat benh lien quan den vi khu&n, vi
ru t cd ty le tang cao...
Tren ban than con ngUdi, cac hien tudng dien tim, dien nao, dien co, am va
sieu am... dang dong vai trd quan trong giup con ngUdi phong benh, chan doan,
dieu tri...
Hau nhti tat ca nhting thanh tUu cua khoa hoc hien dai phuc vu con ngtidi
deu dUa vao cac xung dien tti va sti lan truyen song dien tti.

Xa hon chut ntia, hang loat hien tUdng cho den hien nay ta con nghi van
hoac chtia giai thich dUdc nhu hien tudng than giao cach cam, hien tUdng thau
thi... cung deu dang dUdc nghien ctiu dua vao cac dao dong (dien tti hoac cao hdn
ntia ve tan so”...). Cho nen viec hieu mot so” khai niem cd ban ve dao dong, ve song
la het stic can thiet cho ngUdi thay thuoc.

1. DAO DONG CO HOC

Chuyen d<?ng lap lai sau mot kh oan g thdi gian xac dinh goi la chu yen dong
tuan hoan. Chang han nhti vat quay quanh true, vong du dua... C huyen dong
tuan hoan ma vat lech khoi vi tri can bang ve phia nay hay phia kia goi la chuyen
dong dao dong. Chuyen dong dao dong rat pho bien trong tu nhien, ta xet dang
ddn gian la dao dong cd hoc cua chat diem.

110
1.1. Dao dpng dieu hoa

1.1.1. Khtfi ni$m

X6t si1 chuyen dong cua con lac toan hoc, do la
mot vat khoi ItiOng m (coi la cha't diem) treo vao mot
diem co' dinh (hinh 4.1). Khi con lie b vi tr i th in g dting,
trong ItiOng P cua vat se can bang v 6i stic cang cua day.
K 6o con lac cho lech khoi vi tr i can bang mot goc b6 .
Trong ItiOng P bay gio dtiOc phan tich thanh Pn can
bang vdi stic cang cua day, Pt co xu htidng muon keo
con lac ve vi tr i can bang. Trong tam giac vuong MPtP
_ . . x
co. Pt = —F sin cp va sin 9 = y n®n
Hinh 4.1

(4.1)
p, = ~ l p

Ta tha'y ngay ltic keo Pt ty le vdi do dich chuyen, luon co xu htidng keo con
lac trci ve vi tr i can bang; do la mot dang dao dong dieu hoa.
Dao dong dieu hod la dao dong sinh ra duai tdc dung cua luc ty le vai do
dich chuyen vd huang ve vi tri can bang.

1.1.2. PhLfOng trinh dao dong

Mot trong nhting da'u hieu cO ban cua dao dong dieu hoa la sti thay doi cua
do dich chuyen phu thuoc thoi gian theo ham so' sin hay cosin.
Gia sti co cha't diem khoi ItiOng m, chiu tac dung cua ltic ty le do dich chuyen
va luon htidng ve vi tr i can bang:
F = -k . x

Ltic nay gay cho cha't diem gia to'c a, theo dinh luat Newton 2 :
ma = F = -kx (4.2)
dv d 2x
Vi a =
dt dt 2

d 2x
nen ta co m + kx = 0
da

d^x k
hoac la --------+ — x = 0
dt2 m

Neu dat co = J — thi co:

m
H inh 4.2

111
 d 2x ~
+ co2x = 0 (4.3)
dt2

Giai phUdng trinh vi phan hang hai nay se thu dUdc:

x = Acos((Dt + a ) (4.4)

trong do A va a la nhiing hang so" tuy thuoc dieu kien ban dau.
Trong bieu thiic (4 .4 ), x goi la ly do dao dong hay do dich chuyen. A goi la
bien do dao dong, f cot + a ) goi la pha dao dong, trong do co la tan so' goc, a la pha
ban dau (vi khi t = 0 thi pha la a). Do th i dao dong dieu hoa bieu dien 0 hinh 4.2

1.1.3. Chu ky va tan so

Vi ham so' cosin tuan hoan vdi chu ky 2n nen
x - A c o s ( co/ + a ) = A c o s ( cot + a + 2 n )

2n
= A cos cof t h )+a (4.5)
co

, 271
Bieu thiic nay cho ta thay sau mot khoang thdi gian la — th i chat diem trd
CO
2 rt
lai vi tr i ban dau hay ndi khac di sau ---- chat diem thUc hien mot dao dong toan
co
phan.
271
Gia tri T = — goi la chu ky dao dong, dd la thdi gian can thiet de chat
co
diem thuc hien mot dao dong toan phan.

Gia tr i f = — dUdc goi la tan so' cua dao dong, no chinh la so dao dong thiic

hien dUdc trong mot ddn vi thdi gian (1 giay). Ddn vi do ludng hdp phap cua tan so
la 1 Hertz (Hz), dd la 1 dao dong toan phan trong 1 giay. May cd tan so' bang
50 Hz cd nghia la trong 1 giay may thiic hien 50 dao dong toan phan.
271 1 v
Do T = — nen co = 2n .— = 271f (tan so goc bang tan so' nhan vdi 2 rr)
co T

1.1.4. Van toe va gia toe cua dao dong dieu hoa

dx
T\i x = Acos(cot + a) -> v = — = -Acosmicot + a)
dt

d 2x 47t 2
Ta thay a = ---- -- - A co2c o s( co/ + a ) = -co2.x = ------ x (4.6)
dt 2--------------------------------------- T 2

112
 Bieu thiic (4.6) nay cho ta thay trong dao dong dieu hoa, gia toe luon ngUOc
chieu chuyen dong (hay luc hudng ve vi tri can bang). Ta cung can chu y r i n g dao
dong dieu hoa co bien do A gitf khong doi, do do nang lUOng cua chat diem dao
dong khong thay doi.
That vay, 0 vi tr i can bang, toe do v cua chat diem dat cUc dai, nang lifOng
dao dong hoan toan 0 dang dong nang. Khi ay v = - A. co

E = ~ m v 2 = ^ m f - A c o ) 2 = -^mA2co2 = 2n 2mA2f 2

Cong thiic nay cho ta thay nang liiOng cua dao dong dieu hoa ty le binh
phUOng bien do, binh phUOng tan so va khoi lUOng cua chat diem dao dong.

1.2. Dao dong tat dan

Trong thuc te, dao dong tu do cua mot vat nao do khong duy tri mai dUOc.
Chang han nhu con lac sau mot thdi gian dao dong se diing lai. Nguyen nhan cua
sU tat dan dao dong ay la ma sat cua con lac vdi khong khi: xuat hien lUc can cua
moi trUdng ngUOc chieu chuyen dong.

Neu nhu vat dao dong co toe do nho, ta thay liic can nay ty le to'c do:

_ dx
Fc = - r — (4.7)
dt
r la he so" can, dau trii chiing to luc can ngiidc chieu toe do.
Theo dinh luat N ewton 2 ta co phUOng trinh dao dong tat dan bang each
them lUc can vao ve phai phUOng trinh dao dong dieu hoa (4.2):

d~ x dx ,
m — — = —r -------kx
d t' dt
d 2x dx
hay la m ---------hr — + Ax = 0 (4.8)
d t2 dt
Giai phUOng trinh vi phan hang hai nay co:

x = Ae~p>.cos(co* t + a ) (4.9)

trong do A va a la hai hang so" tuy thuoc dieu kien ban dau, con

P= ^ (4.10)
2m
goi la he so" tat dan.

77 fk ~r2
r2
\ k (4.11)
\J 111 4 ml 2
z
la tan so goc cua dao dong tat dan.

113
 Nghiem (4.9) co bo phan e~Pr dac triin g cho sU tat dan. bo ph&n
c o s ( co*t + Ci) dac triing cho sii dao dong.

Do thi cua dao dong tat dan theo nghiem (4.9) ve 0 hinh 4.3.

Ta co chu ky dao dong tat dan la:

2n 2n 2n 2n 2n
r = > =T
CO co

m
-P2

(3 day tha"y ngay chu ky dao dong tat dan ldn hOn chu ky dao dong dieu hoa,
ldn hOn nhu vay vi moi trUOng da can chuyen dong cua dao dong (lam thdi gian
thUc hien mot dao dong dai them).

De tha"y ro rang hdn miic do tat dan, ngudi ta dUa vao dai liidng logarithmic
decrem ent (giam lUOng loga) bang logarit nepe cua ty so" hai bien do dao dong cach
nhau mot chu ky, ky hieu bang A.

A — In ---------------- I n e ^ 1 = (37"
A e ~ $( t + T )

1.3. Dao dong ctrdng burc va hien tiidng cong hi/dng

1.3.1. Dao dong cisdng b u t

Ta da thay qua trinh dao dong tu do tat dan do liic can cua moi trUOng (bien
do giam theo thdi gian). M uon dao dong dUOc duy tri, phai tac dung vao vat dao
dong mot ngoai luc, liic nay dung de chong lai liic can cua moi trudng. Tan so dao
dong khi ay phu thuoc khong nhiing vao tinh chat cua he dao dong ma con phu
thuoc vao tan so" cua ngoai luc.

Gia sii rang ngoai luc nay tuan hoan

F ng.iuc= H cos(p.t) (4.12)

trong do H la bien do ngoai liic. p la tan so" ngoai liic.

114
 Vay bay gid vat thuc hien dao dong dti6i tac dung cua 3 ltic:
luc tu&n hoan gay dao dong tti do: F = -kx
dx
luc ma sat can dao dong: Fc - - r —
dt

luc tuan hoan ben ngo&i tac dong len vat: F nglUc= H cos(p.t)
Nhu the phUdng trinh dao dong co dang:
d 2x dx
m = -r kx + H c o s ( p t ) (4.13)
dt2 dt
Giai phUdng trin h vi phan nay co:
x = B co s(p t + y ) (4.14)

H_
trong do: B- ---- m (4.15)
V ^ O ~ P 2 ) Jr^ 2P2

2 op
f gY = HZ ( 4 .16)
P2 - ® o

k r
vdi — == C
-
Oq, - — = P
coo ^
(4.17)
m 2m

Bieu thiic (4.14) va (4.15) cho ta thay:

- Bien do cua dao dong cUOng biic phu thuoc vao tan so" ngoai luc p, vao tan
so" dao dong tu do co0, vao bien do ngoai lUc H, vao sU can cua moi trUOng p.

- Tan so" cua dao dong cUOng biic bang tan so" ngoai luc p.

Do thi tren hinh (4.4) la mot dang dien hinh cua dao dong cUdng btic.

1.3.2. Hien tuong cong hudng

NgUdi ta goi hien tUdng cong hUOng la trUdng hop rieng cua dao dong cUOng
btic khi bien do tang len tdi gia tri ctic dai ting v6i gia tri thich hdp cua tan so" goc
ngoai lUc.

Xet bieu thtic (4.15) cho bien do dao dong ctidng btic ta thay ngay de B ctic
dai chi can mau so cuc tieu (khi tan so"goc p thay doi).
Bang cach dao ham ta thu dtidc

khi Wq-2P2 (4.18)

*
thi B dat gia tri cUc dai la:

115
 H
B= (4.19)
2 w Pa/ coo - P 2

Do la tan so” de gay cong hudng va gia tri bien do khi cong hudng.

Hinh 4.4

TrUOng hop lUc can cua moi trUOng khong dang ke, tiic la co:

P= = 0
2m

th i p = (Oq va khi ay B tinh theo (4.19) se tang den vo cung.

Do hien tUOng cong hudng, cac vat co dao dong co khi gay nen nhiing rung
dong ldn cua san nha, truyen tdi cd the benh nhan va co the gay nhiing benh chan
dong. Quat tran do cong hudng co the gay sup tran nha. Do do de bao ve lao dong
can phai co bien phap tranh hien tUdng cong hudng va giam cac run g dong.
NhUng mat khac, hien tUOng cong hiidng cung giup chu ng ta giai quyet nhieu van
de kho khan trong ky thuat.

T rong pham vi y hoc, khi nghien ciiu dao dong am, dtia vao hien tudng cong
hudng chung ta co the tim dUdc cac thanh phan cua am mot cach don gian; dtia
vao sU hieu biet ve cong hudng chung ta co the giai thich diidc sti thay doi ve do to
cua am phat ra tii cd the.

1.4. Tong hdp va phan tich dao dong

Gia sii co chat diem A dong thdi tham gia hai dao dong la Xj va x2. XhU the
chat diem A se dao dong d trang thai x ma:
x (t) = Xj(t) + x2(t) (4.20)
Dao dong x goi la dao dong tong hop. Tong hop hai dao dong dieu hoa bat ky
(khac tan so', pha va bien do) la dao dong phiic tap (hinh 4 .5 a).

116
 Hinh 4.5a

Tong hdp hai dao dong dieu hoa cung tan so" cho ta mot dao dong dieu hoa
cung co tan so" do (hinh 4.5b). TrUdng hdp dac biet

Xj = sin( co/ + oij) va x2 = a2 sin( co/ + a 2 )

- Neu nhu otj = cl2 + 2kn thi sin ( co/ + a j^ = sin ( co/ + a 2 ) , hai dao dong la
cung pha va ket qua la chung lam manh nhau len. (hinh 4.5b).
- Neu nhu = a 2 + (2 k + \)n th i sin ( co/ + a ly) = - s i n ( co/ + a 2 ) , hai dao
dong ngUdc pha va ket qua la chung lam yeu nhau di.
NgUdc lai, mot chat diem dao dong d trang thai x ta co the phan tich thanh
hien tUdng chat diem dong thdi tham gia 2 dao dong xx va x 2 sao cho:
xx(t) + x2(t) = x(t)

H inh 4 .5 b H inh 4 .5c

117
 Ly thuyet toan hoc cung nhu thuc nghiem v a t ly chting minh cho ta biet: baft
ky mot dao dong phtic tap nao cung co the phan tich thanh tong cua cac dao dong
dieu hoa, dac biet la co the phan tich thanh tong cua cac dao dong dieu hoa m&
tan so'cua chung la boi so nguyen cua mot tan so cd ban (chuoi Fourier).

2. SONG CO HOC TRONG MOI TRUONG DAN HOI

2.1. Moi trtfdng dan hoi

Moi trUdng dan hoi la moi trUdng
dUdc cau tao bdi cac phan tti (phan tti,
nguyen tti) ma gitia chting co ltic lien ket.
Luc lien ket phu thuoc vao khoang cach x
gitia hai phan tti cua moi trtidng. Khi x < x0
luc lien ket la day, khi x > x0 luc lien ket la
lUc hut keo chting lai gan nhau. Do thi tren
hinh 4.6 cho ta biet sU phu thuoc luc tUdng
tac (keo hoac day) vao khoang cach gitia
hai phan tti cua moi trUdng dan hoi
Gia sti do mot ly do nao day, mot phan
tti O cua moi trUOng dan hoi bi lech khoi vi A O B
tri can bang thong thtidng cua no (hinh 4.6),
phan tti A se tac dung len 0 mot luc day,
con phan tti B tac dung len 0 mot luc keo. 0
0 in w !n i0 T m T !0
se dich chuyen ve phia ben phai nhung lai
di qua vi tri can bang, khi do thi A lai tac
dung len 0 mot lUc keo, B tac dung ltic day
... Ket qua, phan tti O se thuc hien mot dao
dong nao day. Do dac diem ctia moi trUOng
dan hoi, dao dong nay se lan truyen trong
moi trtidng, tao thanh song cd hoc. 0 dUdc
Hinh 4.7
goi la nguon phat song.
Thi du khi ta nem mot hon da xuong mat nu 6c, mien nUcic dtidi hon da cham
vao se bat dau dao dong; dao dong nay se dtidc truyen t t i’mien nay den cac mien
lan can va chung ta nhan dUdc song tren mat nUdc.
Ta cung can chu y rin g khi truyen dao dong, ttic la song truyen di. cac phan
tti ctia moi trUdng dan hoi chi dao dong quanh vi t r i can b in g ma khong dich
chuyen theo song lan den vung khac; dong thdi vdi qua trin h song truyen di la
nang ludng dUdc truyen tdi cac phan tti moi trUdng ma song tdi; phan tti nay se co
trang thai dao dong y het nhti nguon ltic ban dau.

2.2. Song cd hoc

Song cd hoc la cac dao dong cd hoc lan truyen trong moi trudng dan hoi.
Trong chuyen dong song, neu cac phan tti ctia moi trUdng dao dong vuong goc vdi
phtidng truyen song (truyen dao dong) thi song dUdc goi la song ngang: neu cac

118
ph^n tii cua moi trUdng dao dong song song phUdng truyen song thi song dUdc goi
la song doc.

2.2.1. Song ngang

Su truyen song ngang trong moi trUdng dan hoi dUdc xet d dang mo hinh
gom 5 phan tii nhu hinh 4.8.

t=o V - ...... r - ......t - ~ -------- T

i
i
---------------4
t=T/4 •t---............................ -♦...............
I i i
i
---------------1
t=T/2

A
i
i i

t
i
i
r ~
f -------- i
t=3T/4 i
t
i i i '
t=T t
t

Hinh 4.8

- Tai thdi diem t = 0 cac diem d vi tr i can bang cua no, phan tii O chuyen
dong hudng len tren (dong 1).
T
- Tai thdi diem t = — (1/4 chu ky), 0 se d vi tri cUc dai phia tren. Do lien
4
ket, 0 bi keo quay trd lai va phan tii 1 dUdc keo len (dong 2).

T
- Tai thdi diem t - — , 0 quay ve vi tr i can bang va tiep tuc di xuong dudi,
2
1 d vi tri cUc dai tren, 2 bat dau dUdc keo di len tren (dong 3).

3T
- Tai thdi diem / = — , 0 d cUc dai dudi va bat dau quay ve, 1 d vi tr i can
4
bang va dang di xuong dudi, 2 d cUc dai tren va dang di ve, 3 bat dau di len.
- Tai thdi diem / = T , 0 ve can bang, bat dau chu ky th ii 2, 1 d cuc dai dudi
va di len, 2 can bang va di xuong, 3 cUc dai tren va di xuong. 4 bat dau di len.
Ro rang ta thay d day do ton tai luc dan hoi ma dao dong cua phan til 0 da
du’dc truyen di. Dao dong (song) truyen tdi phan tii nao th i phan tii av cd trang
thai nhu nguon luc ban dau.

119
 Gia sii khong phai chi mot phan tii O bi lech so vdi vi tri cua no ma la mot
ldp moi triidng (gom rat nhieu phan tii tUOng tii O) bi lech di so vdi ldp moi trUdng
ben canh. Nhu vay se xuat hien liic dan hoi chong lai sii lech nay va ton tai song
ngang truyen tting ldp. Neu khong cd liic dan hoi chong lai sii lech nay thi se
khong cd song ngang. Do dd moi trUdng truyen song ngang la moi trUdng co liic
dan hoi chong lai sii lech giiia cac ldp cua moi trUdng. Nhiing moi trUdng nay
thudng la vat ran. Tru 1 mat ngoai chat long ra thi chat long va chat khi khong
truyen dUdc song ngang.

2.2.2. Song doc

Cung dung mo hinh 5 phan tii ta khao sat dUdc qua trin h truyen song doc
nhu hinh 4.9.

0 1 2 3 4
t --------- ?--------- - r ----------1 t = o
i i
-------------- * 1 = 7 7 4
i i
i
■j-. ----------*t= T /2
I I

----4t=3T/4

Hinh 4.9

- Tai thdi diem t = 0 cac phan tii d vi tr i can bing, rieng phan tu 0 dUdc gia
toe di ve phia phan tii 1 .

- T
- Tai thdi diem t — — , 0 di xa nhat ve ben phai, gan 1, hai phan tii nav day

nhau, do dd 0 di ve trai, 1 di ve phai.

T
- Tai thdi diem t = — , 0 tdi vi tr i can b in g va tiep tuc di ve trai, 1 va 2 da’y

nhau.
, 3 7
- Tai thdi diem t = — , 0 di xa nhat va do day nhau vdi phan tii d ben trai
4
va hut cua 1 ma quay ve, 1 ve can bang va tiep tuc sang trai, 2 va 3 day nhau.

120
 - Tai thdi diem t = T , O ve can bing va tiep tuc di ve phai nhu ban dau, 1
xa nhat ben trai bi O day va 2 hut ve phai, 2 di ve tra i con 3 va 4 day nhau, 4 co
trang thai giong 0 luc ban dau.
Ta thay ngay d day cac phan tii da bi “nen dan” va moi trtidng xuat hien ltic
dan hoi chong lai, do do phat sinh song doc. Vay moi trtidng truyen song doc la
moi trtidng xuat hien ltic dan hoi chong lai sti nen dan. Chat khi, long, ran deu co
the truyen dtidc song doc.
Neu goi p la mat do moi trtidng, N la he so dan hoi cua moi trtidng thi toe do
truyen song la:

v= (4.21)

2.2.3. Dac diem cua song c o hoc

Gia sii diem O thtic hien dao dong ma do dich chuyen bieu dien bang ham so
cua thdi gian f(t). Do co the khai trien f(t) theo chuoi Fourier (chuoi cua cac ham
sin hoac cosin), ta co the xet trtidng hdp ddn gian nhat:
f { t ) = acos(cot + a) (4.22)
a la bien do dao dong
co la tan so” vong
(cot +a) la pha, a la pha ban dau

i Jk t i j i

0 M
' r i r yr ^r x

Hinh 4.10

Gia sii dao dong d 0 dtidc lan truyen vdi toe do deu v ve phia tay phai, d thdi
diem t thi tdi diem M cach 0 mot khoang x (hinh 4.10), phan tti moi trtidng tai
9 X
diem M nay se lap lai dao dong cua phan tii d 0 tai thdi diem trtidc do la f t ---- ),
v
ta co phtidng trin h bieu dien dao dong xay ra tai M la :

f M ( t ) = acos cof t ——) + a (4.23)

v

Ta viet dtidc acos(odt + a --- x) = acos(odt + a - kx) (4.24)

v

121
 Dai ltidng k = — (4.2o)
v

goi la so” song

Gia sii X la quang dtidng song lan truyen trong 1 chu ky ta co :
'r j-, coT 2n oa\
— = T ^ > X = v.T = =— (4.26)
v k k

X dUdc goi la chieu dai song hay bu6c song.

f = — = — dUdc goi la tan so” song, la so' bticfc song lan truyen trong mot ddn
T X
vi thdi gian.
Dao dong cua mot phan tii tai mot diem bat ky trong khong gian co song
truyen t 6i dtidc bieu dien bing ham :
f ( t ) = a c o s ( co/ - kx + a )

B ing cach dao ham rieng theo x va t, ta thay ham so' song nay la nghiem
cua phtidng trin h song :

av i av
— — = — .— — (4.27)
a*2 V2 a/2
v la to'c do lan truyen song hay toe do pha.
Khi song lan truyen tdi dau thi nang ltidng dtidc chd tti nguon t 6 i do, the
hien bin g phan tii M ciia moi trtidng khi dao dong se co dong nang va the nang.
Phan tii M co khoi ltidng m, co do dich chuyen la. : f ( t ) = a c o s ( ( t it —kx + a )
df ,
se co toe do dich chuyen la — thi :
dt

'd f} 2
— = a2ca2 sin2(cot - kx + a )
\ d t)

(Toe do dich chuyen cua phan tii M khac han toe do lan truyen cua song,
phan tii M chi dao dong quanh vi tr i can b in g cua no).
Vdi gia tri trung binh trong mot chu ky, ta co dong nang trung binh cua
phan tii M la :

r
Ed = -1mi —
f
df i i
= —m. — a2co2 (4.28)
2 \ d tj 2 2

12 2
 Tti do ta co the tinh dtidc ctidng do song tai mot diem la cong suat van
chuyen bdi song qua mot ddn vi dien tich dat vuong goc phtidng truyen song tai
diem do (ddn vi dien tich tren mat song):
I = 2 n 2p v f 2a2 (4.29)
trong do p la mat do moi trtidng, v la toe do song, f la tan so” song, a la bien
do dao dong.
Ta thay d song cd hoc thi ctidng do song ty le thuan vdi binh phtidng bien do
dao dong a va binh phtidng tan so f. Ngtidi ta cung goi Z = pu la song trd, do sti
ttidng dtidng vdi cong thtic tinh cong suat do dong dien mang tdi cho mot day dien
trd : P = RI2.
Doi vdi song am, Z dtidc goi la am trd

Hinh 4.11

Khi song tdi mat phan gidi gitia hai moi trtidng dan hoi vdi bien do aj va goc
tdi ij (xem hinh 4.11) ngtidi ta thay cd song phan xa vdi bien do ap va goc phan xa
i , , song truyen qua hay song khuc xa vdi bien do aq va goc khuc xa i 2, nhin chung:
- Goc tdi ij = goc phan xa il
- Cac gia tr i cua bien do phu thuoc phtic tap vao song trd. con budc song
v 9.

truyen qua X2 cd the thay doi.

Trong truo'ng hdp song tdi vuong goc mat phan gidi. ngtidi ta thay:
Z, - Z 2
(4.30)
a, Z, + Z-i

Do ctidng do song ty le binh phtidng bien do nen ta cd:

/ / Z -Z 2
(4.31)
vZ , + Z2

123
 De dang kiem dinh lai diidc la: It = Ip + Iq

2.2.4. Hieu ung Doppler

Cd nguon phat ra song vdi tan so f. Song lan truyen vdi toe do v trong khong
gian tdi may thu. Neu ca nguon phat lan may thu deu diing yen, may thu se thu
dtidc song co tan so f = f. Con neu nguon hoac may thu hoac ca hai chuyen dong,
noi chung may thu se thu dtidc song co tan so f * f.

- May thu dting yen, nguon chuyen dong vdi van toe vn va tao vdi van toe lan
f
truyen song tdi may thu v mot goc 9^ (hinh 4.12a) thi: f ' — ------------------ (4.33)
1 - — cosQ n
V

Qua cong thtic nay ta thay:

+ Nguon di xa may thu f < f
+ Nguon di tdi may thu f > f

Hinh 4.12
 - Nguon diing yen, may thu chuyen dong vdi van toe v, tao vdi toe do song v
mot goc 0, (hinh 4.12b) thi:

f ' = f ( \ - — COsQt ) (4.34)

v
Ta thay:
- May thu tdi gan nguon f > f
- May thu di xa nguon f < f
Nguon va may thu deu chuyen dong tao cac goc 0 „ va 0, (hinh 4.12c):

1 - — cosQ,
/ ' = / ----- ----------- (4.35)
1 - — co s8„
V

Tom lai:
- Nguon va may thu xa nhau ra f < f
- Nguon va may thu gan nhau lai f > f
Hieu iing Doppler cd nhieu ling dung trong thtic te ddi song; trong sti dung
sieu am vao muc dich chan doan, trong xac dinh toe do o to chay tren dtidng ...

3. DAO DONG VA SONG DIEN TIT

■ •

3.1. Mach dao dong dien tCr. Djnh nghia dao dong dien tCr

Xet mot mach dien gom mot tu dien cd dien dung C va mot cuon day cd he so”
tU cam L mac noi tiep vdi nhau. Dd la mach dao dong dien ti* (hinh 4.13)

a b

Hinh 4.13

125
 Nhd co khoa K va nguon dien E ta nap dien cho tu dien (vi tri a cua khoa K).
Chuyen khoa K sang vi tr i b va tu se phong dien sang cuon day L. Dong dien
phong Ic tang d in va gtii qua cuon day L mot tti thong tang dan gay nen dong
dien tti cam I tc trong cuon day.
Theo dinh luat Lenx dong dien tti cam I tc phai co chieu ngtidc vdi chieu cua
dong dien Ic do tu dien phong ra. Ket qua la dong dien tong cong I trong mach
khong tang dot ngot ma tang d in tti 0 den ctic dai I 0. Trong khi dd dien tich q tren
ban tu dien giam dan tti ctic dai Q0 den 0 .

Goi van toe bien doi ctidng do dong dien trong mach la — va E tc la suat dien
at
dong sinh ra dong dien tti cam Itc, ta cd:

Elc = - L (4.36)
dt

. di
E tc ty le thuan va ngtidc chieu vdi — .
dt

Sau khi tu dien da phong het dien, dong dien I trong mach se giam xuong va
lam xuat hien mot dong dien tu cam I tc trong cuon day. Van theo dinh luat Lenx,
dong dien tti cam I tc bay gid lai cung chieu vdi dong Ic do tu dien phong ra do dd
dong dien tong cong I trong mach khong giam dot ngot ma giam d in tti I 0 den 0 .
Cuon day L bay gid dong vai tro cua mot nguon dien, nap dien cho tu dien C. Dien
tich q tren cac ban cua tu dien lai tang dan tti 0 den Q0, nhung cd dau ngtidc vdi
ban dau.
Tiep dd qua trin h lai xay ra nhti luc ban dau va trong mach dao dong LC
xuat hien qua trinh bien doi tuan hoan theo thdi gian cua dien tich q va ctidng do
dong dien I. Neu xet ve mat nang ltidng thi khi dd, nang ltidng dien trUdng strong
1 q - x 1
tu dien = —.---- va nang ltidng tti trtidng trong cuon day WB - —L I - cung
2 C 2
bien doi tuan hoan theo thdi gian.
Qua trin h bien doi tuan hoan theo thdi gian cua cac dai ltidng dien va tti (q.
I, WE, Wu....) dtidc goi la dao dong dien tti.

3.2. Dao dong dien tCr dieu hoa (khong tat)

Trong mach dien xet d tren, dien trd thuan cua cuon cam va cac day noi dtidc
coi bang khong (R = 0) nen bien do ctic dai cua cac dai ltidng dien tti khong doi va
chi phu thuoc vao nhting yeu to rieng cua mach dao dong dien tti. Do do nhting
dao dong dien tti nay dUdc goi la nhting dao dong dien tti dieu hoa (khong tit).
Thiet lap phtidng trin h dao dong dien tti rieng khong tat la tim bieu thtic
lien quan gitia cac dai ltidng dien tti (q. I, ...) thtic hien dao dong vdi thdi gian t.
Theo dinh luat Ohm tong quat cho doan mach dien. hieu dien the U giua hai
dau cua doan mach dd bang tong dai so” do giam the hieu tren cac dien trd

126
 ( ^ I R ) trti di tong dai so” cua cac sua”t dien dong Efr ) co trong doan mach,
ta co :

hay X IR = U + ' Z E k

Doi vdi mach dao dong dien tti gom tu dien C va cuon day L, vi dien trd cua

mach bang khong (R = 0), hieu dien the gitia hai dau doan mach bang U c = — va

w,c * dt
*
Ap dung cong thtic tren ta cd:

Uc + E tc = 0 hay = 0
C dt

Neu qui tide I > 0 th i khi dien tich q tren ban cua tu dien giam, ta cd dq < 0,
do dd gitia I va q cd moi lien he sau :
l _ dq
dt

di d 2q
do dd
dt dt2
thay vao phtidng trin h tren va chia phtidng trin h nay cho L, ta cd :
d 2q 1
---- - + ---- <7 = 0 (4.37a)
dt2 LC 1
1 .

Dat -----= COg . phtidng trinh (4.38a) dtidc viet dtidi dang :

y £ + (Ojfa = 0 (4.37b)

(4.38b) la mot phtidng trinh vi phan bac 2. Nghiem cua no cd dang:

q = Q0 cos(u>0t + (pj (4.38)

trong dd Q0 va cp la nhting hang so” phu thuoc dieu kien ban dau. PhUdng
trinh (4.39) dude goi la phUdng trinh dao dong dien tti khong tat cua dien tich q
trong mach dao dong dien tti LC. Hang so” Q0 la bien do cua dien tich q, p la pha
ban dau con co0 dude goi la tan so” rieng cua mach dao dong.

coo = J~ (4.39)

127
 PhUdng trinh (4.39) chting to dao dong dien tti co tinh chat bien doi tukn
hoan theo thdi gian. Chu ky dao dong rieng T 0 cua no dUdc xac dinh bang cong
thtic :
2jr _____
T0 = — = 2 n j L C (4.40)
co0
Trong cong thtic (4.41) neu he so' tti cam L do bang Henry (H), dien dung C
do bang Fara (F) thi T 0 do bang giay (s).

3.3. Su ttfdng tu giura dao dong dien tCr khong tat va dao dong dieu hoa cua con
lac ddn
So sanh cac phtidng trin h cua dao dong dien tti khong tat (4.38b) va (4.39)
vdi cac phtidng trin h dao dong dieu hoa cua con lac ddn hay con lac lo xo:
d 2x .
----- + co2* = 0
dt2

va x - A cos((tit + a )

, k
trong do x la ly do dao dong. A la bien do (ttic la ly do ctic dai), (tiz = — vdi
m
m la khoi ltidng cua con lac va k la do cting hay he so' dan hoi trong trtidng hdp
con lac 16 xo. Ta nhan thay cac phtidng trin h nay co dang hoan toan giong nhau.
Dieu do chting to rang tuy ban chat vat ly cua cac dai ltidng nghien ctiu la khac
nhau nhting tinh cha't bien doi cua chung trong cac qua trin h ttidng ting la giong
nhau:
- tuan hoan theo thdi gian dang ham sin
- chu ky (hoac tan so) chi phu thuoc vao cac thong so' dac trting cho he
nghien ctiu (vdi con lac ddn la khoi ltidng cua con lac va he so' dan hoi cua lo xo,
vdi mach dao dong la dien dung va do tti cam L).
- bo qua sti mat mat nang ltidng cua he trong qua trin h nghien ctiu. ttic la
nang ltidng cua he dtidc bao toan. Trong dao dong dien tti khong tat co sti bien doi
t 1 Q2
tuan hoan ttidng ho gitia nang ltidng cua dien trtidng WE = — va nang ltidng
2 C

tti trtidng trong cuon day WB = ■ Con trong dao dong cua con lac ddn, do la

sti bien doi tuan hoan ttidng ho gitia the nang cua lo xo ( E t = ^ k x 2 ) va dong nang

cua con lac (E d= —m v2 ).

2
Sti ttidng ting gitia cac dai ltidng dien tti va cd hoc trong hai qua trin h nay
nhti sau:

128
 - q tiidng iing vdi x
- i tiidng iing vdi v
- C tiidng iing vdi 1/k
- L tiidng iing vdi m

3.4. Dao dong dien tirtat dan

Trong dao dong dien tii khong tat, dien trd cua mach dao dong dtidc coi bang
khong (R = 0), nhting trong thtic te mot mach dien bao gid cung co dien trd, do dd
nang ltidng dti trti trong mach dien se bi giam dan de bien thanh nhiet lam nong
cac day dan theo dinh luat Joule-Lenx. Neu phan nang ltidng nay khong dtidc bu
lai thi dao dong dien tti cua mach dao dong RLC (hinh 4.14) se bi tat dan.
Theo dinh nghia, dao dong dien tti a b
xay ra trong mach dao dong cd dien trd R
dtidc goi la dao dong dien tti tat dan. ----------------- ---------------
Xet mach dao dong RLC (hinh 4.14).
Goi W la nang ltidng toan phan ma dien E
trtidng dti trti, ta cd:
c
(4.41) +

d day W khong con la hang so” ma ta cd: R

dt

dau trti cd nghia la nang ltidng dti trti W giam theo thdi gian, bien doi thanh
nhiet ltidng theo dinh luat Joule-Lenx, vdi toe do I 2R.
Lay vi phan hai ve phtidng trin h (4.42) ta cd :
dW dl q dq
(4.43)
dt dt C dt

Ket hdp (4.43) va (4.44), ta cd :

(4.44)
dt + C dt

™ , i dq d 2q dl
Chu y rang - —— - I v a --------= — phtidng trin h (4.45) se dtidc bien doi
dt dt2 dt
thanh :

(4.45)

129
 Do la phtidng trin h vi phan mo ta dao dong di$n tti tat dkn. Ta thay, neu R =
0 phtidng trin h (4.46) trd thanh (4.38a). Nhti vay dao dong dien tti khong tat chi
la mot trtidng hdp rieng cua dao dong dien tti tat din. Nghiem cua phtidng trinh
n a y la:

q = Q 0e Rtl2L.cosoit (4.46)

rA
trong do CO = (4.47)
LC 2L

Ta nhan x6 t thay rin g phtidng trin h (4.47) c6 the xem nhti mo ta mot ham
so' cosin vdi bien do giam dan theo ham so' mu. So sanh (4.40) va (4.48) ta tha'y
co'< co0 , nhti vay tan so' cua dao dong dien tti tat dan nho hdn tan so' cua dao dong
dien tti khong tat, hay dao dong dien tti tat dan co chu ky ldn hdn dao dong di§n
tti khong tat.
Khi R = 0 , ta co co'= co0

Hinh 4.15 bieu dien sti phu thuoc cua q vao t theo (4.47).

So sanh cac phtidng trin h (4.45) va (4.46) vdi cac phtidng trin h dao dong tat
dan cua con lac trong phan cd hoc:
d 2x dx
m br b kx = 0
d t2 dt

x = Ae~ P ' . cos( co't + a )

130
 trong d6 m la khoi lti<?ng con lac, k la he so dan hoi cua lo xo, r la he so cua
ltic can, ta thay chung hoan toan ttidng tti nhau.
Theo (4 .47 ) sti phu thuoc cua bien do dao dong vao thdi gian cua dao dong
di£n tti dtidc bieu th i bang cong thtic sau :
_R l _R_(
Qm = Q o-e 2L = Q o e 2L <4 - 4 8 >

ft
Nhti vay, to’c do giam cua Qmphu thuoc vao do ldn cua ty so” — . R cang ldn,
Lj
L cang nho toe do giam cua Qmcang ldn. Dtia vao cong thtic (4.49) ta co the tinh
dtidc thdi gian de bien do cua dao dong dat dtidc mot gi.' tri xac dinh nao dd so vdi
bien do ctic dai ban dau (Q0) doi vdi mot mach RLC cho trtidc. Chang han vdi L =
10 mH, C = l , 0 |iF va R = 0,1Q thdi gian de bien do giam den bang mot ntia gia tri
ban dau la :
2 1 , „ 2 .1 0 .1 0 - 3 A 1 /|
t = — In 2 - --------------x 0 ,6 9 = 0 ,1 4s
R 0,1

Theo cong thtic (4.48) ta cung tinh dtidc tan so goc cua dao dong dien tti tat
dan trong mach RLC nay la :
2
1 1 f 0,1
co =
J 1 0 .1 0 - 3 x 1 ,0 .1 0 - 6 1 ,2 x 1 0 .1 0 - 3 J1 = 1,0 . 104 rad / s

Trong bieu thtic tinh gia tri cua to’, ta nhan thay so” hang thti hai trong dau
can la rat nho so vdi so” hang thti nhat, nhti vay cd the ket luan rang dien trd R
cua mach anh htidng rat it den tan so” dao dong tat dan cua mach. Dieu nay phti
hdp vdi nhieu trtidng hdp trong thtic te”.
Ta con nhan thay, de dao dong dien tti trong mach RLC la dao dong tat dan
R phai cd mot quan he xac dinh vdi L va C. That vay, tti (4.48) ta suy ra:

>
LC v 2L hay R <

gia tri 2 — dtidc goi la gia tr i tdi han cua dien trd R
VC

3.5. Cach tao ra song dien tCr

3.5.1. Dao dong dien tircirong b u t
Muon cho nhting dao d^ng dien tti trong mach dao dong RLC khong bi tat
dan, ta phai cung cap nang ltidng tti ngoai vao cho mach dien de bu lai phan nang
ltidng da bi ton hao tren cac dien trd cua mach.

131
 Theo dinh nghia, dao dong dien tii khong tat xay ra trong mach dao dong
RLC diidc duy tri bdi tac dung ctidng btic cua mot nguon nang ltidng nao do bo
sung mot cach tu&n hoan vao mach dtidc goi la dao dong dien tti ctidng btic.

3.5.2. Cifdng bCrc dao dong dien tCr trong mach RLC b in g nguon xo ay chieu.
Hien tuung cong hudng
Xet mot mach RLC co chtia mot nguon dien xoay chieu hinh sin:
8 = Sm c o s t s " t , trong do co” co the thay doi tuy y (hinh 4.16a). Mot suat dien dong
xoay chieu nhti the co the nhan dtidc tti mot may phat dao dong co tan so thay doi
dtidc. Ttidng tti nhti phan (4.13) phtidng trin h vi phan mo ta dao dong dien tti xay
ra trong mach la:

L ^—^- + R — + — q = z mcos(ti"t (4.49)

dt2 dt CH m
Nghiem cua phtidng trin h nay la :

q = ^-m-sin (to"t - a ) (4.50)

trong do G — C O "2 L — -— ) 2 + R 2C O "2

y?co"
a = arccos
G

Trong da so' trtidng hdp, chu y den ctidng do dong dien trong mach, ta co:
da CO". 8 ™
I = — = -----—r c s ( co"r - a ) = I m c o s( co"t - a )
dt G

CO" 8 — 8W
v<5i I m = — X SL= I (4.51)
J ( a " L ------------- p + R 2 ’
V a>"C
Xet cong thtic (4.51) ta nhan thay rang bien do cua dong dien se dat ctic dai
khi:

(4.52,

So sanh v 6i (4.39) ta co: co" = co0

Vay bien do cua dong dien se dat ctic dai khi tan so cua nguon xoay chieu
ctidng btic bang tan so rieng cua mach dao dong dien tti khong tat (mach LC). Khi
do, bien do ctic dai cua dong dien se la:

132
 m
I = (4.53)
R
Do la hien tUdng cong hudng cua dao dong dien til trong mach RLC.

£ m. COS 0) ” t

Hinh 4.16a

Hinh 4.16b bieu dien sti phu thuoc I m vao to", iing vdi ba gia tri khac nhau
cua dien trd R (d day R ^ R2< R3). Ta nhan thay rang dien trd cang nho, dtidng
cong cong htidng cang nhon. Do nhon cua dtidng cong cong htidng dtidc do bang
"do rong mot niia", do la chieu rong Ago cua dtidng cong cong htidng t in ^ vdi gia tri
I ” m = I ’m/2
Ngtidi ta thtidng tao ra dao dong dien tti ctidng btic b&ng den dien tti 3 ctic
hoac trio t ban dan

Hinh 4.16b

133
3.5.3. Sis tao thanh song dien tCr. Dinh nghTa song di$n tif
Hertz da lam th i nghiem sau day: dung mot nguon xoay chieu cao ikn, noi
qua 2 cuon day tu cam L va L' (hinh 4.17) den hai thanh kim loai D va D tren d£u
hai thanh kim loai nay co g£n hai qua c iu kim loai A vk B va dat kha g&n nhau
nhu hinh ve. Dieu chinh dien the va khoang cach giiia A va B sao cho co hien
ttidng phong dien gitia A va B. Nhti vay gitia A va B da xuat hien mot dien trtidng
bien thien theo thdi gian (xoay chieu). Neu dung cac dung cu phat hien. ta se th&y
tai moi diem trong khong gian bao quanh A, B deu co cap vectd ctidng do dien
trtidng E va ctidng do tti trtidng H , chung cung bien thien theo thdi gian. Nhti
v&y th i nghiem Hertz da chting to rang dien tti trtidng bien thien da dtidc truyen
di trong khong gian.

Hinh 4.17

Ve mat ly luan ta thay: gia sii tai mot diem 0 ta tao ra mot tti trtidng bien
thien, vectd ctidng do dien trtidng E bien thien theo thdi gian, ching han (nhti
trong th i nghiem Hertz neu tren) bien thien mot cach tuan hoan theo thdi gian.
Theo luan diem cua Maxwell, dien trtidng tai diem 0 bien thien se tao ra tti
trtidng nghia la tai cac diem M, M'. M"... xuat hien cac vectd ctidng do tti trtidng
H, H \ H"... cung bien thien tuan hoan theo thdi gian. Nhting tti trtidng bien
thien lai gay ra dien trtidng xoay, tai cac diem M', M"... xuat hien cac vectd ctidng
do dien trtidng E ' va E "... nhti vay, ta thay cap vectd E , H da dtidc truyen den
moi diem trong khong gian, qua trin h truyen do tao thanh song dien tti.
Vay song dien tti la trtidng dien tti bien thien theo thdi gian, truyen di trong
khong gian.
Trong thtic te de tao ra song dien tti, ngtidi ta dung cac mach dao dong md.
Cac mach dao dong ve trong cac phan tren la mach dao dong kin, tti trtidng xuat
hien thi chu yeu tap trung d cuon cam, con dien trtidng th i chu yeu tap trung gitia
hai ban cua tu dien.
Hinh 4.18a, b, c cho thay sti chuyen dan tti mach dao dong kin thanh mach
dao dong md giup cho dien tti trtidng bien thien co the lan rong hdn kha nhieu. d
cac may phat vo tuyen dien, ngtidi ta sti dung ang ten de phat song dien tti. Ang
ten dtidc lien he v 6 i mach dao dong dien tti qua cuon cam LA (hinh 4.18d).

134
 Hinh 4.18
/ O 9 x 9
Theo thuyet dien dong ltic hoc co dien, bat ky mot hat tich dien nao chuyen
dong co gia toe cung deu phat xa nang ltidng ra moi trUOng dtidi dang song dien
tti. Ket qua la hat se chuyen dong ch£lm dan lai, vi vay song dien tti dtidc phat
ra trong trUOng hdp nay goi la btic xa ham. Dieu nay da giai thich ro sti xua”t
hien cua phan lien tuc trong pho phat xa tia X ma chung ta se nghien ciiu chi tiet
b bai 10 .
Ngoai ra khi cac dien tii quy dao trong nguyen tu chuyen tu: quy dao xa hat
nhan ve qui dao gan hat nhan hdn, hat nhan nguyen tu chuyen tti trang thai klch
thich ting vdi mtic nang ludng cao ve trang thai klch thich ting vdi mtic nang
ltidng thap hdn hoac ve trang thai cd ban, nang ltidng dti thtia cung dtidc phat xa
ra dtidi dang song dien tti vdi cac budc song khac nhau goi la tia hong ngoai, anh
sang nhin thay, tia tii ngoai va tia gamma. Chung ta se nghien ctiu chi tie t cac
van de nay trong cac bai sau.

3.5.4. Van tdc truyen song dien tCr

Song dien tti truyen trong khong gian khong ttic thdi ma truyen di vdi mot
van toe htiu han. Ngtidi ta tinh dtidc toe do lan truyen v cua song dien tti trong
mot moi trtidng phu thuoc vao tinh chat dien va tinh chat tti cua moi trtidng do
nhu sau:
1 1
v= (4.54)
Vsol^o
Trong do e goi la hang so" dien moi (hay do dien tham), fj. la hang so” tti moi
(hay do tti tham) cua moi trtidng truyen song, e0 va \i0 la hang so” dien va hang so”
tti, trong he SI. tr i so” cua chung la:
1
e0 = 8,859.1012 F/m = ,10'9 F/m
3 6 ti

135
 Ho = 1,257.10'6 H/m = 4^.10‘7 H/m
Doi vdi chan khong, ta co: e = 1, fi = 1 do do:
1 1 = 3.10® m/s
' ch .k c

V 8 oM-(
1 . 1 0 " 9 x 4 tt. 1 0 ' 7
3 6 ti

Nhu vay van toe truyen cua song dien tti trong chan khong la 3.10s m/s,
ngtidi ta ky hieu bang chti c.
c = 3.108 m/s
Cong thtic (4.54) co the viet thanh
1
v= X c (4.55)

Doi vdi mot moi trtidng bat ky e > 1, |i > 1 do do: v < c
Nhti vay van toe truyen song dien tti trong chan khong la van toe truyen
song dien tti ldn nhat.
Nhieu th i nghiem cho thay van toe truyen anh sang trong chan khong cung
cd gia tri bang c = 3.108 m/s. Tren cO sd dd, Maxwell da neu len thuyet dien tti ve
anh sang.

3.5.5. Song dien tirla m ot loai song ngang

Ngudi ta nhan thay, tai mot diem bat ky trong khong gian co song dien tti
truyen qua, hai vectd ctidng do dien trtidng E va ctidng do tti trudng H luon luon
vuong goc vdi nhau va vuong goc vdi phtidng truyen song (phtidng cua vectd V).
Vi vay song dien tti la mot loai song ngang. Hinh (4.19) cho ta hinh anh ttic thdi
cua mot song ngang.

136
 Nhu hinh ve chi ro cac vectd E ,H vuong goc vdi nhau va vuong goc vdi V .
Tai mot diem co' dinh trong khong gian vectd E va H thay doi theo thdi gian mot
cach dieu hoa (dang hinh sin). Chung dong thdi tang tti 0, sau 1/4 chu ky dat gia
tri ldn nhat (E hudng len tren, H hudng sang phai) sau 1/4 chu ky tiep theo
chung dong thdi dat gia tri 0. Tiep do lai dat gia tri cUc dai nhung theo hudng
ngUdc lai (E hudng xuong dudi, H htidng sang trai). Cuo'i cting sau dung mot chu
ky dao dong lai dat gia tri 0 . Su bien doi nhti vay cua vectd E va H xay ra tai moi
diem doc theo true X, nhung do lech pha dUdc xac dinh bdi khoang each gitia cac
diem.
Can chu y rin g qua trin h lan truyen cua song dien tti khong co lien quan gi
vdi qua trinh chuyen dong cua cac phan tti vat chat trong moi trUOng song truyen
qua vi the song dien tti truyen qua dUdc ca chan khong.

3.5.6. Tai nang I uong cua song dien tCr

Song dien tti la sti lan truyen trong khong gian cua trudng dien tti bien
thien theo thdi gian. Do vay, song dien tti da van tai nang lUdng cua trudng dien
tti bien thien tti vi tr i nay sang vi tr i khac, tao thanh dong nang ludng.
Nang ltidng cua trtidng dien tti bang tong nang ltidng cua dien trUdng va
nang ltidng cua tti trtidng.

Ta da biet trong chan khong mat do nang lUdng cua dien trudng la l2 eo g 2,

trong do e0 h in g so' dien, E la ctidng do dien trudng. Trong moi trudng bat ky, mat
do nang ludng cua dien trudng —eE2, vdi e h in g so' dien moi (do dien tham) cua
2
moi trtidng. Ttidng tu, ta cung co mat do nang ltidng cua tti trudng trong moi
trtidng bat ky la — u.H2, trong do |j. la £to tti tham cua moi trudng, H la ctidng do tti
2 ^

trudng. Do dd mat do nang ltidng cua trudng dien tti la:

to = —eE 2 + —u H 2 (4.56)
2 2

Ngudi ta goi mat do dong nang ltidng la phan nang ltidng do song tai qua
mot ddn vi dien tich dat vuong goc vdi phtidng truyen song trong mot ddn vi thdi
gian. De dang thay rin g , ve tr i so' mat do dong nang ltidng bang phan nang ludng
dien tti chtia trong mot hinh tru cd day b in g mot ddn vi dien tich, co chieu dai
bang gia tri cua van to'c truyen song, ttic la b in g v.tu. trong do rn la tri so' trung
binh cua to (trung binh theo thdi gian va theo khong gian vi co bien thien theo thdi
gian va bien thien tti diem nay sang diem khac cua hinh tru).
Trong ly thuyet dien tti, ngudi ta chting minh dUdc vectd.
S = E xH

cd gia tri trung binh S = v.tu

137
 Chu y rin g , theo quy tic cua tich vectd, S c6 phUdng, chieu trung vdi
phUdng, chieu cua vectd van toe truyen song V . Vi v&y S dUdc dung de d&c trUng
cho sU tai n&ng ludng cua song dien ti* va dUdc goi 111 vectd Umov - Poynting.

3.5.7. Phi/ong trinh truyen sdng di?n tCr

X 6t trudng hdp sdng dien tu: la mot sdng ph&ng truyen theo phUdng Ox trong
moi trudng dong ch&t va ding hudng (hinh 4.20). Gia sii phUdng trin h dao dong
cua vectd E va H ta i diem 0 d thdi diem t co dang:
E0it = E0cos(o0t
H 01 = H 0cosco0t

0 M

Hinh 4.20

Goi v la v&n toe truyen sdng trong moi trudng. K h i do, dao dong dien tii
truyen t ii diem O tdi diem M nam cach no mot doan OM = x phai m at m ot khoang
X — —
thdi gian b i n g x = — . NhU vay, phUdng trinh dao dong cua E va H tai diem M d
V

thdi diem t se cd dang giong phUdng trinh dao dong E va H tai diem 0 d thdi
diem (t - x), nghia la:

X
Em, = E0.t, = E0cosco0(t - —) (4.57)
V

X
HMt = E0„ = H 0cosco0(t - —) (4.58)
v

PhUdng trinh tren xac dinh dao dong cua cac vectd E va H d thdi diem M
bat ky trong moi trudng cd sdng dien tii truyen qua, nen dUdc goi la phUdng trinh
truyen song dien til. PhUdng trinh nay chiing to song dien tii co tinh chat vi*a
tuan hoan theo thdi gian vdi chu ky T 0 = 2ti , vifa tu a n hoan theo khong gian vdi
cd0

budc sdng X = vT 0.
3.5.8. Tinh pho bien cua tin hieu dien tif

Tudng tac pho bien trong th ien nhien la tUdng tac dien tif. Cac tin hieu dien
tu: la cac xung dien truyen di dudi dang sdng. Cac dac trUng cua sdng dien tu fbien
do, tan so, budc sdng, h in h dang...) cho chung ta biet tra n g th a i cua tudng tac. cua

138
ca'u true doi tUdng khao sat. Nhiing tin khai thac diidc tii song dien tut anh hudng
sau sic den moi hoat dong cua nhan loai: tien bo ky thu§.t, bao ve siic khoe... til vi
mo den vi mo. Co the noi con ngUdi song vdi tin hieu dien tii trong do vo tuyen
truyen thanh, vo tuyen truyen hinh, dien thoai di dong... la cac th i du dien hinh.

4. BIEN OOI,* KHUECH DAI

i VA GHI GlCnlN HIEU
•

Bat ki cong viec nghien ciiu hay khao sat y sinh hoc deu g in lien vdi viec ghi
do cac dii lieu v&t ly. So” liidng cac dii lieu vat ly can xac dinh trong khoa hoc, ky
thuat va ddi song noi chung va trong y sinh hoc noi rieng la vo cung ldn. Nhin
chung cac dii lieu vat ly trong y sinh hoc ma chung ta quan tam cac giac quan con
ngUdi khong cam nhan dUdc, neu co cam nhan dUdc th i cung khong dinh liidng
dUdc nhu la nhiet do. Theo da phat trien cua khoa hoc ky thuat cac phUdng tien
ghi do cang ngay cang tinh vi, nhay cam va chinh xac. Ve cd ban cac phUdng tien
ghi do cac dii lieu vat ly trong y sinh co the chia lam ba nhom chinh: cac bo phan
cam bien (sensing elements, sensors); cac dung cu khuech dai (amplifiers); cac bo
f)

phan hien thi (display devices)

4.1. Bien doi tin hieu khong dien thanh dien

Cac dii lieu vat ly trong y sinh hoc thuan tien hdn ca la bien doi thanh cac
tin hieu dien.Viec bien doi cac dii lieu vat ly khong dien thanh cac tin hieu dien
dUdc tien hanh nhd nhiing bo phan cam bien hoat dong dua tren cac hieu iing vat
ly khac nhau. Dudi day chung ta xet mot so" loai bien doi thUdng gap nhat.

4.1.1. Bien doi quang dien

Vdi loai bien doi nay ddn vi cam bien chia lam hai loai
- Te bao quang dien: bien chum anh sang thanh dong dien.
- Quang trd: chum anh sang dUdc dung de lam thay doi dien trd tiic la thay
doi dong dien chay qua ddn vi cam bien, dong dien nay do mot nguon dien san co
tao ra
- Tebao quang dien :
Ta se de cap khai quat ve hai loai dien hinh
+ Tebao quang dien chan khong: iing dung hieu iing quang dien ngoai. Do la
mot binh thuy tinh nho da dUdc ru t chan khong, trong do dat hai dien ciic: anot
va katot. Mac te bao quang dien vao mot nguon dien mot chieu sao cho anot noi
vao cUc dUdng. katot vao ciic am. Katot dUdc phu mot ldp kim loai co kha nang
phat xa dien tu khi co anh sang chieu vao.
Khi chieu anh sang vao katot th i ben trong binh thuy tinh se co dong dien
chay, cac dien tu phat xa tii katot se bay qua khoang khong gian giiia hai dien cUc
ve anot. Vdi nguon mot chieu co dinh thi cUdng do dong dien chay trong mach chi
phu thuoc vao cUdng do cua chum sang chieu vao vdi X xac dinh.
+ Te bao quang dien selen (Se): iing dung hieu iing quang dien trong. Do la
mot loai rat hay dung trong cac may y hoc, cau tao cua no dUdc mo ta tren hinh

139
(4.21). Tren de thep (dien ciic th ii nhat) phu mot ldp Se mong, tren mat 16p Se n&y
lai phu mot mang kim loai mong (thi du Au) gan nhu trong suot dong vai tro dien
cUc th ii hai. Anh sang chieu qua mang kim loai mong vao 16p Se lam xuat hien
mot siic dien dong giiia ldp Se va mang kim loai. Trong phan nay chung ta se
khong giai thich ky., Neu noi kin mach ngoai thi se co mot dong dien chay va
dong dien nay cung phu thuoc vao nang liidng anh sang chieu vao. Loai nay
khong can co nguon dien phu va con dUdc goi la pin quang dien.
- Quang trd: dUdc cau tao bin g mot de thuy tinh co phu ldp mong hdp chat
Pb, Cd hoac chat ban d in Ge... (hinh 4.22). Chieu day cua ldp nay khoang vai
micromet. Ldp mong nay co dac tinh thay doi dien trd cua no dudi tac dung cua
cac biic xa, dac biet rat nhay vdi cac biic xa hong ngoai.

anh sang mang kim anh sang

Hinh 4.21 Hinh 4.22

4.1.2. Bien doi nhiet - dien

Nguyen ly cua bien doi
nhiet dien dUa tren hien tUdng
nhiet dien. Theo ly thuyet ve
hien tUdng nhiet dien, khi cho Kim loai B
hai thanh kim loai khac nhau ve
ban chat tiep xue vdi nhau thi L
tai ndi tiep xue xuat hien mot
Kim loai A T To A
hieu dien the goi la hieu dien
the tiep xue. Hieu dien the nay
phu thuoc nhiet do diem tiep xue. Hinh 4.23

Neu ta thiet lap mot mach kin va duy tri sU chenh lech nhiet do giiia hai
moi han (T * T0) thi trong mach se xuat hien mot suat dien dong, goi la suat nhiet
dien dong £ (hinh 4.23)
Suat nhiet dien dong e phu thuoc vao ban chat cua hai thanh kim loai va sii
chenh lech nhiet do giijf hai moi han.
s = S ( T - T o)

trong do S la do nhav cua cap nhiet dien. phu thuoc vao ban chat kim loai
lam cap nhiet dien va co thu nguyen la mV/ do.

140
4.1.3. BiSn doi ap dien
Nguyen ly cua bien doi ap dien dtia tren hieu ting ap dien thuan. Noi dung
cua hieu ting ap dien thuan nhti sau: khi nen hoac dan mot so' tinh the dien moi
nhu muoi sec-nhet, tinh the thach anh theo nhting phUdng dac biet trong tinh the,
thi tren mat gidi han cua tinh the xuat hien cac dien tich tra i dau. Neu doi bien
dang, ttic la doi tti nen sang dan thi dien tich xuat hien tren 2 mat tinh the se doi
dau (hinh 4.24).
Nhu vay neu tinh the chat
+ +
dien moi tren bi nen dan lien tiep
tren hai mat cua tinh the se xuat - > + F F +
hien mot hieu dien the' bien doi. Tan
so' bien doi cua hieu dien the nay + +
phu thuoc vao tan so' nen dan va do
ldn cua no phu thuoc vao do manh Hinh 4.24
yeu cua sti nen dan.
Bo bien doi ap dien thtidng dtidc sU dung trong cac dau thu sieu am.

4.1.4. Bien doi dien cam, dien dung

Hai loai nay co nhieu diem chung ve nguyen tac va cach sU dung. Dien dung
C cua tu dien phang phu thuoc vao khoang cach gitia hai ban tu. He so' tu cam L
cua mot cuon day co loi sat tti phu thuoc vao vi tr i ttidng doi gitia loi va cuon day.
Do do neu bang cd cau nao do ta chuyen dUdc su thay doi cua tin hieu can khao
sat thanh dich chuyen cd hoc lam thay doi vi tr i tUdng doi gitia hai ban tu hay
gitia loi va cuon day th i ta co cac bo bien doi dien dung hoac dien cam tUdng ting.
Can chu y r£ng quan he gitia do ldn cua sti thay doi dien cam va dien dung
vdi do ldn cua dich chuyen cd hoc dtidc coi la bien thien bac nhat trong mot pham
vi ttidng doi nho cua dich chuyen cd hoc. Vi vay trong cac bo bien doi loai nay, tin
hieu vao (dich chuyen cd hoc) va tin hieu ra (dien) deu nho.

4.2. Nguyen ly khuech dai tin hieu dien

Cac tin hieu dien sd cap thu dtidc trong y sinh hoc thtidng yeu, de co the ghi
giti va xti ly cac thong tin ma no mang theo can phai khuech dai cac tin hieu dien.
Tranzito (triot ban dan) co the dtidc coi la ddn vi khuech dai cd ban .

4.2.1. Cau tao cua tranzito

Tranzito gom ba ldp ban dan loai p va n dat tiep xue vdi nhau theo sd do
hinh (4.25); Co hai loai tranzito: p - n - p (hinh 4.25a) va n - p - n (hinh 4.25b). E -
ctic phat (emitter), C -ctic gop (collector), B -ctic goc (base). Ben canh sd do cau
tao la k i hieu cua tranzito tren mach dien.
Tranzito co hai ldp chuyen tiep p - n (hinh 4.25b)

-L d p chuyen tiep 1: giiia ciic goc B vd ciic phat E.

- Ldp chuyen tiep 2: giiia ciic goc B vd ciic gop C.

141
 Khoang cach gitia hai ldp chuyen tiep rat nho, vao khoang 1 0 - 2 0 micrdmet
hoac nho hdn. Nhit vay khu vitc citc goc la mot ldp rat mong, do la diiu quan trong
bac nhdt cho cong tdc cua tranzito.

c C
C
p
n
1
B 1
B B
n -------- 1 P

P n

Hinh 4.25

4.2.2. Ccic mach di$n co ban dirge ldp vdi tranzito

Tit day ve sau ta chi xet tdi tranzito loai p - n - p lam thi du dien hinh. De
khao sat tinh chat cua tranzito ngiidi ta mac cac mach dien vdi tranzito theo cac
cach cd ban sau: mach vdi citc goc chung (hinh 4.26a) vd mach vdi citc phat chung
(hinh 4.26b)
Cac citc dien cua cac nguon dien mot chieu trong cac mach dien tren phai
ditdc lap dat dung chieu nhit tren hinh ve. Can litu y mot diem chung cd ban cua
moi mach dien la :

IE= Ic + IB , trong do IE~ h (4.59)

Mach dien vdi citc goc chung

Mach dien nay khong co kha nang khuech dai dong dien nhitng lai co kha.
nang khuech dai hieu dien the hoac cong suat. Nguon dien mot chieu eE tao nen
tren ldp chuyen tiep E-B mot hieu dien the thuan co nghia la Up.n> 0 (do diidc coi
la hieu dien the dau vao) md co the thay doi diidc bang chiet dp D. Nguon dien
mot chieu sc tao nen tren B-C hieu dien the nghich tiic Up n< 0 . Hieu dien the dau
ra (do tren dien trd phu tdi R) ditdc khuech dai so vdi the hieu dau vao.

(a)
Hinh 4.26

142
 Nhting thdng so quan trong cua mach dien vdi ctic goc chung

A U.
k= la he sd khuech dai theo hieu dien the
AC/V
A1^
- a = khi UCB - const la he sd khuech dai tinh theo dbng dien. a « 1 la.
A ir
dai ltidng chi phu thuoc tinh chat cua tranzito chti khdng phu thuoc cac thong sd
cua mach dien.
- Mach dien vdi ctic phat chung
Mach dien nay kha pho bien, mach nay co kha nang khuech dai dbng dien.
Thong sd quan trong nhdt cua mach dien nay :

AIr
P = — — khi UCE = const
Al B

Tti (4.59) ta co AIe = Alc + AlB md a =Alc /A lE , do do /3 = a / (1-a) . Nhti ta dd

noi d tren, a & 1 nen f i » 1. Thi du : a -0 ,9 5 thi (3 = 19 ; a - 0,995 thi (3 = 199

4.2.3. C4c ho dudng dac trung cua tranzito

Mdi cach mac tranzito ting vdi cac ho dtidng dac trting rieng. Dtidi day chung
ta chi xet tranzito mac theo ctic phat chung (hinh 4.26b).

Gitia 4 dai ltidng (IB, UBE, Ic , UCE) co mdi quan he chat che. Mot ho dtidng
dac trting khdng du de dien ta mdi quan he do, can phai co hai ho dtidng dac
trting : ho dtidng dac trting ctic goc vd ho dtidng dac trting ctic gop
Ib Ic

Hinh 4.27 Hinh 4.28

Hinh 4.27 ve ho dtidng dac trting ctic goc, do la cac dtidng bieu dien sti phu
thuoc gitia IB vd UBE ting vdi nhting gid tri nhdt dinh cua UCE.

Tren hinh 4.28 bieu dien ho dtidng dac trting ctic gop, do la cac dtidng bieu
dien sti phu thuoc gitia Ic vd UCE khi IBgiti nguyen khdng doi.

143
 Can phai dac biet ltiu y rang cd hai ho dtidng dac triing nay mdi dien ta day
du moi quan he giiia 4 dai liidng (IB, UBE, Ic, UCE)-

4.2.4. Khuech dai bang tranzito

Ta xet mot mach dien cu the
cua tranzito vdi ciic phat chung co
tdc dung khuech dai tin hieu sau
(hinfi 4.29). Gidi thich tinh chat
khuech dai cua tranzito khong nam
trong muc tieu cua chiicfng trinh
nay, do do chung ta chi gidi han
trong viec trinh bay mach dien vdi
tranzito de cap d day khuech dai tin
hieu nhii the nao.

- Nguon dien mot chieu khdng

doi e tao nen tren cd ldp chuyen tiep
E-B mot hieu dien the U BEgiong nhii Hinh 4.29
trong mach dien tren hinh 4.26b.

- Hieu dien the Uuiut trong hinh la tin hieu can diicfe khuech dai, d day can
phai hieu Uudo chinh la miic tang giam A U be. Can liiu y rang tdc dung cua mach
khuech dai dung tranzito chi la khuech dai miic tang giam hieu dien the (hay
dbng dien tuy theo muc dich).

- AU be (ttic la UvdJ gay nen mot mtic tang giam AIB ty le vdi no (tuan theo
mot dd thi thuoc ho diidng dac triing tren hinh 4.27).

- AIb lai gay nen mtic tang giam Alc gap nhieu lan no vi nhti tren ta dd noi
P =A ICI AIb la mot gid tri ldn.

- Vi Ura = s - l c R c nen AUra = R c Alc ldn hdn nhieu lan so vdi AUBE (ttic Id
Uvdo). Tuy nhien he so khuech dai bay gid lai mot phan phu thuoc vao ty so AU be /
AIb do cac thong sd cua mach dien quyet dinh. Van de la lam the nao de tach ra
dtidc thanh phan AUra de thu dtidc tin hieu vao dd dtidc khuech dai.

-D iin g tranzito khuech dai tin hieu khdng hoac it thay doi theo thdi gian rat
phtic tap, chung ta se khdng de cap tdi. Neu tin hieu Uvdn bien thien theo chu ki thi
viec tach thanh phan AUra se ddn gian hdn rat nhieu, nhdt la khi tin hieu bien
thien dieu hod hinh sin. Khi dd tai dau ra ngtidi ta se dung tu dien (thi du nhti tu
dien C2 trong hinh 4.29) de loc ra thanh phan cd dinh cua tin hieu ra. Trong
trtidng hdp dd, tren mach dien cua chung ta gitia hai diem do Ura thtic chat ta se
thu dtidc AUra.

- Tu dien Cj trong mach dien cd tdc dung khdng cho thanh phan cd dinh
cua dbng ctic goc di qua nguon tin hieu vao.

Tren day la mot mach dien cd ban cd tinh minh hoa cho viec dung tranzito
khuech dai tin hieu. Con cd rat nhieu cac cach mac khac nhau nhti vdi ctic goc
chung, vdi ctic gop chung. Ngay cd tranzito cung cd rat nhieu loai. Trong ky thuat

144
dien tii hien dai gia day ngiidi ta chi diing cac mach vi dien tii md thiic chat la
mach dien phiic tap cua vd so cac tranzito ti hon.

4.3. Ghi va bao quan tin hieu dien

Viec ghi va bao quan tin hieu dien dtidc thtic hien bang nhting phUdng tien
khac nhau tuy theo viec xti ly thong tin ma cac tin hieu nay cung cap. Ngay nay,
vdi sii phat trien cua may tinh dien tut, ngUdi ta da co the so' hoa cac thong tin do
cac tin hieu dien cung cap, vi vay cac tin hieu co the dUdc ghi va bao quan tren dia
quang va tren dia tti. Nguyen ly cua cac phUdng phap nay thuoc ve pham vi cua
cong nghe thong tin, vi vay chung ta khong khao sat tai day.
Tuy nhien da so' cac trUdng hdp viec xti ly cac thong tin van do con ngUdi
thuc hien la chinh. Vi vay cac tin hieu can dUdc ghi lai dudi dang cac hinh anh cu
the (cac do thi). Cac thiet bi ghi tin hieu thudng gap gom hai loai: loai ghi cd hoc
va loai ghi quang hoc.
Hoat dong cua cac bo phan ghi nay chu yeu van dua tren tac dung cua luc tti
trtidng len mot doan day co dong dien chay qua (qui tac ban tay trai) va tac dung
cua dien trtidng len cac dien tti chuyen dong va lam lech phUdng chuyen dong
thang cua chung (bo ghi dung o'ng tia am cUc).

4.3.1. Bo ghi quang hoc

Trong loai bo ghi nay chung ta se tim hieu chi tiet hai bo ghi sau day:
- Bo ghi bang dien ke gtidng
Bo ghi gom co dien ke gtidng, he thong quang hoc, he tho'ng dem thdi gian va
phim. Sd do dien ke gtidng hay con goi la dao dong ki tia sang dtidc mo ta tren
hinh 4.30
Dien ke gUdng cau tao tti mot
gUdng phan xa dUdc gan tren hai sdi
day manh song song cua mot vong
day dan D (hai dau cua vong day dan
D noi vao dau ra cua may khuech
dai). Vong day D dUdc dat trong tti
trUdng cua mot nam cham vinh ctiu,
tin hieu dien tti may khuech dai bien
thien th i dong dien chay trong cuon
day D cung bien thien ty le thuan Phim
theo. Tti trUdng cua nam cham se tac
dung vao hai doan day song song co
gan gUdng hai luc song song ngUdc
chieu nhau (qui tac ban tay trai) do
do lam gtidng quay. Goc quay gtidng
ty le thuan vdi cudng do dong dien Hinh 4.30
chay trong vong day D va cung co
nghia la ty le thuan vdi bien do cua tin hieu (trong pham vi nhat dinh). Tti nguon
sang S qua he thong quang hoc tao ra chum tia sang rat manh chieu len gUdng.

145
Tia sang phan xa tii gUdng dap len phim dang chuyen dong song song vdi true
quay cua gUdng va ve len phim anh dudng cong dao dong cua gUdng. lap lai v£
dang dao dong cua tin hieu can ghi. Mot phan chum tia sang phan xa tir gUdng
qua he tho'ng quang hoc di theo dUdng khac den bo phan hien th i de c6 the quan
sat va dieu chinh dUdc viec ghi.
Mot nguon sang khac phat ra chum sang di qua khe nho chuyen dong theo
kieu con lac va qua he tho'ng giidng va tha'u kinh qu6 t len phim vdi nhip do deu
deu, ta tha'y tren phim nhiing vach doc nho nhu ke chi cach rat deu nhau. Nhiing
dUdng ke nay dung de xac dinh cac khoang thdi gian deu nhau tren phim.
- B o ghi bang ong tia am ciic (cathode ray tube)
Vdi loai nay khong nhiing ta co the ghi dUdc dang cua tin hieu tren phim ma
con nhin tha'y ngay dang tin hieu tren man huynh quang cua o'ng tia am cuc, do d6
loai nay dUdc dung de theo doi dien bien cac qua trinh thi ra't tot. Mat khac quan
tinh cua bo ghi ra't nho nen ket qua ra't chinh xac, do nhay cao. Bo ghi bang o'ng tia
am ciic dUdc goi tudng iing la dao dong ki dien tii.
Ong tia am ciic gom mot o'ng thuy tinh dau loe ra nhu cai loa dUdc hut chan
khong, ap sua't trong o'ng tii 10'7 den 10‘8 mmHg.
Mat phia trong cua dau loe dUdc quet mot ldp huynh quang, khi chum dien
tii manh dap vao man huynh quang, diem bi dap vao se sang len vdi mau xanh la
cay, xanh Id. Diem nay con sang them mot luc khi khong con chum tia dap vao do
do tia dien tvf quet tren man anh se ve dUdc do thi. Ta't ca cac bong hinh TV,
computer thuc cha't la cac ong tia am ciic.

Hinh 4.31 Hinh 4.32

Sd do mot ong tia am cUc dUdc mo ta tren hinh 4.31. Bo phan dUdc bao trong
hinh chti nhat vach rdi la sung phong dien tii S, nhiem vu cua no la tao ra chum
dien tii manh (tia am ciic) chuyen dong doc theo true o'ng chan khong B theo
dUdng thang. Chum dien tii chuyen dong qua hai cap ban tu 1 va 2 se bi doi
hudng do tac dung cua luc dien trUdng. Tu 1 lam lech chum dien tii theo chieu doc
cua man anh M, tu 2 lam lech chum dien tii theo chieu ngang man M. Tren tu 1

146
dat v&o hieu dien the cua tin hieu da dUdc khuech dai, goc lech cua chum dien tu
nhu v&y se ty le vdi bien do cua tin hieu. Muon cho tia dien tii ve nen tren man M
do thi bien do cua tin hieu bien thien theo thdi gian th i tren tu 2 phai dat mot
hieu dien the sao cho tia dien tii qu6 t man anh M vdi toe do deu theo chieu ngang
va chi theo mot hudng tii trai qua phai. Vi man anh co gidi han va goc lech ngang
cua chum tia theo thdi gian cung chi gidi han trong pham vi hep nen hieu dien the
tren tu 2 phai dam bao de tia dien tii qu6 t ngang deu tii canh ben trai den canh
ben phai man anh va lap tiic quay ve canh tra i man anh. Uqu<5t co dang xung rang
cUa dUdc dat vao tu 2 (hinh 4.32) thoa man yeu c&u tren.
Muon ghi lai b&ng phim, ngUdi ta khong can cho tia dien tii qu6t ngang; chi
can den tu l lam tia dien tii quet doc va cho phim chay theo chieu ngang, ta se ghi
lai dUdc ket qua.

4.3.2. B6 ghi c a hoc: but ghi

Loai ghi nay cho biet ngay ket qua tren giay khong phai riia phim trong
phong toi, nhUng co nhUdc diem co quan tinh ldn.
But ghi la mot que kim loai nhe Q chuyen dong ngang theo mot true co dinh.
Dau nhon cua but ti len giay. Co khi dau but la mot bo phan nha mUc til tif khi
giay chuyen dong. Co khi dau but dUdc quan mot so' vong day dien dot cho r.ong,
khi de len giay se lam nong nhiing doan ma dau but di qua. Giay d day thuoc loai
dac biet, co the tao ra vet dudi nhiet do nong. Bang giay chuyen dong deu.
But ghi bi di dong bdi mot cai can C mac vao than but. Can nay lai dUdc gkn
vdi mot o'ng tru co cuon day B quan quanh, mot ciic cua nam cham vinh ciiu hinh
chti E dat lot long trong ong tru nay (hinh 4.33). Tin hieu vao sau khi dUdc
khuech dai dudi dang dong dien chay qua cuon day B. Luc hut, day cua nam cham
len cuon day lam but ghi chuyen dong ty le vdi bien do tin hieu vao, do do but ghi
vach len tren giay do th i cua tin hieu theo thdi gian.

Hinh 4.33

Hinh 4.33 ve sd do cau tao cua loai but ghi va nguyen tac lam viec da mo ta
d tren.
Trong thdi gian gan d^v, sii phat trien cua ky tuat so' da md ra mot con
dUdng mdi cho kv thuat ghi, bao quan va phat tin hieu dien tif. Nguyen lv chung

147
cua cac phUdng phap do la: tin hieu dien tii dUOc ma hoa dudi dang so va de dang
lUu giti cung nhu phat lai.

5. AM VA SIEU AM
5.1. Ban chat vat ly cua am va sieu am
Am la dao dong cua cac phan tii trong moi trUOng dan hoi truyen di theo loai
song doc, co tan so tii 16 Hz den 20.000 Hz.
Neu phan tii cua moi trUOng dan hoi dao dong co tan so ducii 15Hz ta co ha
am, tan so' tren 20.000 Hz ta co sieu am.
Nguon phat am thong thudng la cac vat thuc hien dao dong do tac dung cua
lUc co tan so, do va cham, do bien dang dan hoi... Chang han mot cai am thoa dap
manh vao mot vat ran se bien dang dan hoi gay dao dong va dao dong ay dUOc moi
trUOng khong khi truyen den tai gay ra cam gia'' £m.
Vi am la song doc trong moi trUOng dan hoi nen no co cac dac trUng nhu cac
song cO hoc khac: budc song X, tan so f, chu ky T, co toe do lan truyen v.

X
v = Xf = — (4.60)
T
Song am co the lan truyen qua tat ca cac moi trUOng vat chat 0 the khi, long,
r&n nhung khong the lan truyen trong chan khong vi chan kh ong co phan tu cu
the de thuc hien dao dong cO hoc. Toe do truyen cua song am phu thuoc vao mat
do moi trUOng va tinh chat dan hoi cua moi trUOng (cong thiic 4.21).
Ta thay ngay r&ng to'c do truyen am phu thuoc vao nhiet do cua moi trUOng
vi hien nhien la khi thay doi nhiet do thi tinh chat dan hoi cu n g nhu mat do moi
trUOng cung thay doi theo. C hing han vdi khong khi, 6 0°C thi v = 331,5 m/s khi
tang mot do thi to'c do tang kh oan g 0,5 m/s, 6 18° thi v = 342 m/s.

To'c do truyen am trong cac moi trUOng khac nhau th i khac nhau, It phu
thuoc vao tan so dao dong. Bang (4.1) cho ta to'c do truyen am tin h ra m/s cua mot
so' chat 6 0 °C.

Bang 4.1
Moi trudng Toe do am Moi trudng Toe do am
Khong khi 331,5 m/s Thuy tinh 5600 m/s
Niidc 1450 Go thong 4800
Dong 3800 Lie 430 - 530
Sat 4900 Cao su 50
Cd the ngifdi 1540

Khi song am lan truyen tii moi trUOng nay tdi moi trUOng khac (ta p han biet
hai moi trUOng chu yeu dua vao am trd) thi 0 m at phan gidi giiia hai moi trUOng
se xay ra hien tUOng nhieu xa, phan xa ... giong nhu anh sang. Do budc son g cua

148
am dai nen hien tUdng nhieu xa thu’dng hay gap. Nhd hien tiidng n h ilu xa nay am
co the vong qua vat can no mot cach de dang. Ta cung co the biet dUdc sU phan xa
am trUdc mot vat can nhu biic tUdng, trai nui): sau mot khoang thdi gian lai nghe
am phat ra doi trd lai (tieng doi). Hien tUdng tieng doi co the lam cho kho nghe
am nguyen phat vi tieng doi tiep noi hoac xen lan vao am nguyen phat lam cho
am md di va kho nghe. Tuy vay doi khi neu dUdc bo' tri tot, tieng doi lai giup cho
viec nghe vi no lam tang dUdc cUdng do am den tai ta. M uon vay phai bo' tri cho
thich hdp de co khoang cach thdi gian giula am nguyen phat va tieng doi la be
nhat. Thdi gian do phu thuoc vao khoang cach cua nguon phat am va vat can.
Trong nhieu trUOng hdp kho dat dUdc thdi gian do thich hdp thi ngUdi ta tim cach
xoa bo tieng doi.
Cung vdi sU truyen song am vao khong gian. xay ra hien tUdng truyen nang
liidng cua am thanh. N ang liidng nay la the nang dan hoi cua moi trUdng truyen
am va nang liidng dao dong cua cac phan tii moi trUdng.

Cudng do am tai mot diem la dai liidng bieu thi bang nang liidng truyen
trong mot ddn vi thdi gian qua mot ddn vi dien tich dat d diem ay vavu onggoc vdi
phUdng truyen cua am.

NgUdi ta ky hieu cUdng do am thanh b&ng chii I, ddn vi do ludng hdp phap
cua niidc ta ve cUdng do am thanh la oat tren met vuong (W /m 2) ngoai ra cung hay
dung ddn vi m icrooat tren xangtim et vuong (fiW /cm2).

Trong qua trinh truyen am, cUdng do am cang di xa nguon sang cang giam
mau vi cac ly do sau:

- Cac phan tu cua moi trUdng dao dong, ma sat vdi moi trUdng do do mot
phan nang liidng dao dong phai dung de thang ma sat va bien thanh nhiet nang
lam nong moi triidng.

- Am trong khi truyen gap mat phan cach hai moi trUdng cung phan xa,
khuc xa, nhieu xa nhu anh sang. Chinh hien tudng phan xa lam giam rat nhieu c-
Udng do song am di tdi.

- N gay trong dieu kien ly tUdng khi nguon phat am la mot diem, moi trUdng
dong nhat, cUdng do am cung giam theo qui luat ty le nghich binh phUdng khoang
cach tdi nguon. Ly do vi song am phai phan bo' deu tren mot dien tich mat cau ty
le thuan binh phUdng khoang cach nghia la ciidng do am ty le nghich. Tuy theo
miic do dan am tot hay xau (hay lam yeu am it hay nhieu) ngUdi ta chia ra vat
dan am (chang han nhu thep, be tong) va vat hap thu am (chang han nhu da. ni,
lie, cao su xop...) trong cd the, xUdng dan am tot; md dan am kern. Cac chat dich,
mu lam yeu am kha nhieu.

T rong bat cii moi trUdng nao, hien tUOng cong hudng la hien tUOng rat pho
bien doi vdi song am. Neu lay hai am thoa co tan so' dao dong rieng nhu nhau. dat
cach nhau mot kh oan g nao do va kich thich lam mot trong hai am thoa do dao
dong thi dao dong cung xu a'tiiien 6 am thoa kia vdi bien do ciic dai, hien tudng
viia mo ta la hien tudng cong hudng am. Co the giai thich nhu sau: Song am phat
tit am thoa thii nhat tdi am thoa thii hai lam cho am thoa nay dao dong cUdng

149
btic. Vi tan so" dao dong rieng cua am thoa th ii hai b&ng tan so cua liic ciidng biic
(gay ra bdi am thoa th ii nhat) nen co hien tUdng cong hUdng.

5.2. Nguon phat am

5.2.1. Nguyen ly phat am va cor quan phat am d ngircri
Co nhieu phiidng phap tao nen am thanh, nhiing pho bien hdn ca la lam cho
mot vat ran mot mang cang hoac mot day cang thang thiic hien dao dong dan hoi.
Tan so dao dong am tao ra d day co the tinh theo cong thiic:

f= — (4.61)
2L V M
Trong do: / la tan so am
L la chieu dai cua day cang
M la khoi liidng mot ddn vi cua thieu dai day
P la liic cang cua day
C) dong vat, cd quan phat am quan trong nhat la thanh quan vdi cac day am
thanh. Tieng noi doi vdi con ngUdi dac biet quan trong, no thuoc ve he thong tin
hieu thii hai, hinh thanh trong qua trinh lao dong sang tao va phat trien ve cau
tao cua cd the con ngUdi, no la cong cu the hien va truyen ba tii duy. T ieng noi la
am do con ngUdi phat ra, tuy vay con ngUdi con hieu biet qua it ve cd che phat am
cua minh. Co cac gia thuyet sau giai thich sii phat am d ngiidi:

- Thuyet cd dan hoi con goi la thuyet cd hoc: hai day am thanh la bo phan
phat am chu yeu, chung co cau tao dac biet va co the dieu hoa diidc do cang. Hai
day do co xu hudng nam song song va khep kin vao nhau. Khi phat am. khong khi
diidc day tii dudi phoi len vdi mot ap suat nhat dinh. Luong khi di qua khe hep
cua day am thanh lam day rung len. Than kinh trung Udng chi huy miic do cang
cua day va do do chi huy tan so dao dong cua day. Tan so song am phat ra tinh
theo cong thiic (4.61). Kha nhieu hien tUdng sinh ly lien quan den sii phat am
khong giai thich dUdc bang thuyet nay.
- Gia thuyet luong than kinh cua Housson: Day am thanh co kha nang dao
dong vdi cac tan so" khac nhau. Tuy vay tan so dao dong do khong phai tuy thuoc
vao do cang cua day va ap liic luong khi ma do chinh luong than kinh den day am
thanh quyet dinh. Noi mot cach khac day am thanh dap iing theo nhip kich thich
cua than kinh trung Udng. nhip kich thich do quyet dinh tan so dao dong am.
Ngiidi ta thav trung tam phat ra cac xung dong than kinh tao am thanh co nhip
dieu (bai ca) la vung doi thi d vo nao, tao tieng noi d vung trung nao.
Diia vao ly thuyet nay, ngiidi ta co the danh gia xep loai giong ca cua mot
ngiidi theo kha nang dap iing kich thich cua day than kinh quat ngUdc cua day X.
la day than kinh lien quan den cd quan phat am. Kha nang dap iing kich thich
thudng dude danh gia bang thdi tri (chronaxi). Tan so toi da cua mot ngiidi co the’
phat ra dUdc tinh theo cong thiic:

150
 fM= ^ (4.62)
k.c
Trong do: k la he so' ty le
c la thdi tri cua day th&n kinh quat ngUdc
fM la tan so toi da cua am co the phat ra
- Ngay nay ngudi ta thay cau tao cua day am thanh rat dac biet. Niem mac
cua no rat loang, long leo va khong dinh chat vao to chiic diidi do. Vi vay mot dao
dong co the xuat hien d tiing bo phan diidi, tren va ngay d day am thanh. Nhiing
tim toi nay bo sung cho hai quan diem cO hoc va than kinh d tren ve cO che phat
am.
Ta cung can nhan manh rang cac xoang cong hudng dong vai tro kha quan
trong, chung quyet dinh am sac cua tieng noi ngudi. Khi phat nguyen am nhu a,
o,u... thi xoang cong hudng chia ra hai phan tao thanh hai tan so'cong hudng khac
nhau. Khi phat phu am th i am thanh sinh ra con nhd sii ma sat qua ke rang, cac
khe giiia liidi va vdm hau. Nhieu khi cac am phat ra khong phai do day am thanh
rung dong ma cac hoc d xUdng mat dong vai tro quan trong ta goi la xoang mui
(khi ngam nga, noi tham).

5.2.2. Nguon phat sieu am

Nhiing nguon phat am thiidng dung nhu loa, ong nghe khong the dung de
phat sieu am dUdc vi phai tac dung mot liic kha ldn len chung, liic nay se ty le vdi
gia to'c cua mang loa.

d 2f
y = — — = -aco2cos(cot + a) = 4n2 a2cos(cot + a)

That vay, vi f cua sieu am > 20000 Hz, gia to'c mang loa ldn trong khi do dan
hoi kem nen no khong dao dong noi;
Muon phat diidc sieu am ngiidi ta phai dung mot nguon dac biet nhu tinh
the muoi xe nhet, tinh the thach anh, Nikel... dac diem cua cac chat nay la chung
co kha nang bien dang ldn khi co tac dung cua ngoai liic, dong thdi co kha nang
dan hoi ldn. Nguyen tiic phat sieu am diia vao hieu iing ap dien nghich hoac hien
tiidng tii giao. Con thu (phat hien) sieu am diia vao hieu iing ap dien thuan.
- Nguon phat sieu dm dtia tren hieu ting dp dien nghich: Mot ban thach anh
diidc ckt thich hdp theo cau true tinh the tao thanh mot ban thach anh ap dien.
Ngiidi ta ma hai mat cua ban de tao thanh mot tu dien hoac kep no vao giiia hai
ban cua mot tu dien phang (hinh 4.34). Khi tac dung mot hieu dien the U giiia 2
ban tu dien, ban thach anh bi tac dung mot liic nen (hay dan tuy dau cua U) lam
bien thien do day cua ban. Thay doi chieu cua U gay sii nen (dan) ngiidc lai. Thay
U bang mot nguon xoay chieu tan so' f, ban thach anh bi dao dong ciidng biic bdi
tan so' nay, phat sieu am khi f >20000 Hz. Sieu am phat ra co ciidng do manh
nhat khi tan so dao dong dien tac dung vao ban thach anh xap xi tan so' dao dong

151
rieng cua ban. C) day nang liidng cua nguon dien da bien thanh nang lirdng cd hoc
diidi dang sieu am lan truyen vao moi trifdng xung quanh vdi t in so co the den
50 MHz.
- Nguon phat sieu am dtia tren hien ttidng tit giao: Mot thanh sat tif hoac
mot thanh Nikel khi bi tti hoa th i do dai cua no se ngan di chut it, do la hien
tiidng tii giao. Dat mot thanh s it tif vao trong long mot cuon day da noi vdi mot
nguon dien xoay chieu tan so cao (hinh 4.35). Tif trifdng trong long cuon day bien
thien vdi tan so' b&ng tan so cua dong dien xoay chieu. Do hien tifdng tif giao,
thanh s it tif co chieu dai dao dong vdi tan so nhif tan so cua nguon dien, trd
thanh nguon phat sieu am khi f > 20000 Hz. Nguon phat sieu am loai nay co the
dat tdi tan so 109 Hz.

/\ y U

Hinh 4.34 Hinh 4.35

5.3. Cac dac tritag cua cam giac am

Cac song am tac dung den cd quan thinh giac co the gay cho ta cam giac am
thanh. Co the chia am den tai ta ra lam hai loai: am thanh va tieng on. C) day am
thanh la tif de chi nhiing loai am phat ra tif mot nguon truyen den tai ta, con
tieng on de chi loai am hon hdp do qua nhieu nguon phat ra cung mot luc, khong
mang den nhiing thong tin quan trong ve the gidi xung quanh ta.
Cam giac am chu yeu gom: do cao, am sac, do to.

5.3.1. Do cao cua am

Cam giac ve do cao cua am la do tan so' cua am quyet dinh. Nhiing dao dong
am co tan so' cao cho ta cam giac thanh (trong). Nhiing am co tan so' thap cho ta
cam giac tram (due). Tai ngifdi chi nghe diidc nhiing am thanh co tan so' tif 16 den
20.000 Hz, nhifng gidi han nay cung tuy theo liia tuoi, ngifdi gia chi nghe difdc
nhiing am co tan so' difdi 6.000 Hz. Mot so' sue vat co kha nang nghe difdc nhiing
am co tan so cao hdn hoac thap hdn pham vi nghe cua ngifdi ve tan so'. Tuy nhien
ngifdi binh thiidng chi phan biet difdc do cao cua am trong pham vi (40 - 4 .000 )
Hz, am tan so' cao hdn chi cho cam giac rlt, chinh vi vay cac nhac cu thiidng difdc
tao ra de phat cac am thanh co tan so' trong khoang do. De phan biet difdc do cao
cua am, thdi gian am tac dong len cd quan thinh giac it nhat phai tif _L den
100
1 ,
— s. Chang han vdi am co tan so 40 Hz, gay nen cam giac d tai ta. Nhu the am
40

152
nay thiic hien dUdc 40 x — = 1 dao dong toan phan. Neu am co tan so' 6000 Hz
40
thi trong thdi gian ay am da thtic hien 150 dao dong toan phan. Tti ket qua nay co
the suy ra: ngUdng cua cam giac do cao la mot dao dong toan phan cua am. Dieu
nay cung de dang hieu dtidc mot dao dong ma chua thuc hien day du mot dao
dong toan phan thi khong the xac dinh chu ky hay tan so" cua no.
Ngoai ra ngudi ta thay do cao phu thuoc phan nao vao cudng do am. Trong
mot mtic do nhat dinh am thay nhu cao len khi ctidng do tang va tram xuong khi
ctidng do giam. Dieu nay co le la ket qua cua sU thay doi dac tinh dan hoi cua
mang nhi do ctidng do am tac dung len mang.
Song sieu am co tan so' ldn hdn 20.000 Hz, khong gay cam giac am thanh cho
ngiidi.

5.3.2. Am sac
Nhting am phat ra tti am thoa cho ta mot cam giac ddn gian, chung ting vdi
nhting dao dong hinh sin. Goi p0 la bien do ap suat am gay tai mang nhi, t la thdi
gian, f la t in so am thi p la ap suat am thoa gay tai mang nhi co the bieu dien
bing phtidng trin h :
p = p 0 sin 2rft
Dai da so' cac am la nhting am phtic tap, gay cho ta nhting cam giac phong
phu hdn. Chang han nhu am cua cac dung cu am nhac, am do ngudi phat ra.
Dung thiet bi phan tich am co nhieu bo phan cong hUdng am khac nhau co the
phan tich am phtic tap ra thanh nhieu am ddn gian goi la pho dieu hoa; dac biet
co the phan tich am phtic tap thanh am ddn gian ma tan so' cua chung la boi so
nguyen cua am ddn gian co tan so' nho nhat.

Hinh 4.36

Tren hinh (4.36) trin h bay mot dang am phtic tap (a) va cac thanh phan
phan tich cua no (b), (c), (d). Am co tan so nho nhat goi la am cd ban. cac am khac
goi la hoa am.

153
 Tai ta nhan diidc hai am cung do cao cua hai loai nhac cu khac nhau m&
phan biet diidc la vi moi moi am do da gay cho chung ta cam giac am nhac khac
nhau. Nhu vay moi am co mot ban sac rieng biet hay noi khac di moi am co mot
am s&c rieng biet. Ve phUdng dien vat ly hai am phiic tap khac nhau ma co cung
tan so' thi khac nhau bdi thanh phan dao dong dieu hoa hinh sin da tao nen
chung; vi vay am s&c dufdc dac triin g b&ng thanh phan dao dong dieu hoa hinh
sin. Neu nhii thuc hien ve do thi cac dao dong am, ta thay ngay am sac con d&c
triing \)lmg dang do thi dao dong, ch&ng han tren hinh (4.37) trin h bay do thi dao
dong cua hai not nhac cung do cao cua dan piano (a) va ken clarinet (b)

Hinh 4.37

Sti phan tich am ve do cao va am sac, theo thuyet cua Helmholtz, lien quan
chat che vdi nhting dac tinh cua nhting sdi dan hoi cua mang nhi (chieu dai. chieu
day va mtic do cang). Khi tac dung len mang nhi, dao dong am cd ban hay phtic
tap gay nen d mang nhting dao dong cong hiidng cua nhting sdi xac dinh ma tan
so' rieng cua chung tudng ting vdi tan so' pho dieu hoa cua dao dong am. Khi ay
nhting xung dong than kinh xuat hien trong nhting te bao sdi tiidng ting se di vao
phan trung Udng cua cd quan phan tich am va do do gay nen cam giac ve do cao
va am sac.
Nhting nghien ctiu hien dai kh&ng dinh rin g nhting dao dong am khac nhau
ve tan so dtidc tiep nhan bang nhting phan khac nhau cua mang nhi giong nhti
thuyet cua Helmholtz. Tuy nhien dieu nay khong phai chi coi nhu nhting dao
dong cong hiidng cua cac sdi day cua mang, ma la ket qua tac dung dong thdi cua
nhieu dao dong xuat hien d limpho noi dich va sU bien dang dan hoi nhting ph^n
xac dinh cua mang. Hien tUdng nay dUdc coi la khau dau tien cua qua trin h sinh
ly thu cam am phtic tap.

154
5.3.3. D q to
Do to cua am la dac trting cam giac ve sti manh hay yeu cua dao dong am
dUdc cam nhan bdi tai ta. Hien nhien rin g tai mot tan so' nhat dinh cua dao dong
am, am co cUOng do cang ldn se gay nen cam giac am thanh “cang to” do'i vdi tai
va ngUdc lai. NgUOi ta tha'y rin g mot am co ctidng do I khi thay doi mot ludng Al
du de con ngudi nhan thtic dUdc rin g am do co thay doi ve do to, can phai co:

— >0,1 (4.63)
I

Day chinh la bieu thtic the hien ngUdng cua cam giac thay doi do to.
Nhting am co tan so' khac nhau tuy co cting ctidng do nhung lai gay nen
nhting cam giac to nho khac nhau, dieu do cho ta tha'y do nhay cam hay do
“thinh” cua tai phu thuoc vao tan so' am. Tti do ngUOi ta xay dung nen khai niem
“do to” (loudness) cua am. ThUc te cho ta biet tai thinh nhat do'i vdi nhting am co
tan so' trong khoang tti 1000 Hz den 5000Hz. Trong khoang nay co the nghe dUdc
nhting am co ctidng do vao khoang 10 11 W/m2, d cudng do am ay, cac phan tu khi
dao dong vdi bien do khoang 10'5 fim va tao nen ap sua't d mang nhi vao khoang
10-5 N/m2.
Nhting am co ctidng do qua nho thi tai khong nhan tha'y dUdc. Neu ta tang
dan ctidng do am len, den mot luc ma bat dau tti do trd di tai bat dau dau choi;
neu tang ctidng do am len cao hdn ntia co the gay nen sU pha hoai cd quan thinh
giac. Noi khac di, d moi tan so' am, ton tai ngUdng cam nhan dUdc va ngUdng gay
dau tai. Ta co hai dinh nghia sau:
Ctidng do am nho nhat du gay nen cam giac am d tai goi la gidi han nghe
hay ngtidng nghe.
- Ctidng do am ldn nhat ma neu vtidt qua cudng do do se gay nen cam giac
dau tai goi la ngUdng choi.
Doi vdi moi ngtidi thi ngtidng nghe, ngtidng choi co gia tri rieng, tuy nhien
nhin tong quat thi gan nhau. Doi vdi tat ca moi ngtidi ngUdng nghe va ngUdng
choi phu thuoc vao tan so' am. Do'i vdi mot ngudi “trung b in h ” (theo tho'ng ke) thi
tai tan so' 1000 Hz, ngUdng nghe la 10 12 W/m2, ngUdng choi la 1 W/m 2

- Dcfn vi decibel cho ctidng do dm

Bieu dien ctidng do am blng ddn vi W/m 2 nhti ta tha'y khong de hinh dung
dUdc vung nghe gitia ngUdng nghe va ngtidng choi vi hai ngtidng gap nhau qua
nhieu lan (1012 lan). Do do ngtidi ta dtia vao thang decibel (db).

Dinh nghia: Cudng do am (decibel) = 10. lg‘ (4.64)

12
trong do I la cudng do cua am dang xet tdi tinh bang W/m2; I 0 bang 10
W/m 2 (hay la cudng do ngUdng nghe tai 1000 Hz cua mot ngudi “trung binh")

155
 - Ddn vi phon cho do to cua dm
Ta biet rin g khi ctidng do am thay doi th i cam giac ve do to cung thay doi
theo. Dinh luat Weber - Fechner ap dung cho quan he gitia cam giac thay doi do
to va ctidng do am nhii sau:
Sti bien thien do to cua am ty le vdi logarit cua ty so ciidng do hai dao dong
am da gay ra cam giac am.
Tai mot tan so am xac dinh, goi L „ L 2 tiidng ting la do to gay ra do am c6

ctidng do I j, I 2 (tinh bang W/m2). Theo dinh luat tren thi. L/2 ~ L j = k Ig (4.65)

trong do he so ty le k phu thuoc vao viec dat ddn vi cho do to va ngoai ra can
ghi nhd rin g k bien thien theo tan so am. Nhti ta da biet do to la mot dai ltidng
hoan toan chu quan, do do ngtidi ta qui tide
- ctidng do ngtidng nghe tai tan so 1000 Hz I 0 =10 12 W/m 2 (hay la 0 decibel)
gay nen cam giac do to la L 0= 0 phon,
- ctidng do ngUdng choi tai tan so nay I = lW /m 2 (hay la 120 decibel) tUdng
ting gay nen cam giac do to la L = 120 phon (nghia la k = 10) .
Qua thtic nghiem tren rat nhieu ngtidi, cac nha khoa hoc da xay diing dtidc
he cac dtidng cong bieu d iin sti phu thuoc do to cua am vao ctidng do va vao tan so
c ia am. Tren hinh 4.38 bieu dien he cac dtidng cong do to 0; 10; 20;... 120 phon
doi vdi mot ngtidi “trung binh” . Tren do th i nay, true toa do co true tung la ctidng
do am do b ln g decibel, tren true hoanh ghi tan so am do b ln g Hz nhting day la
true logarith cua tan so" am (nhlm thu gon dai am tan rat rong).

H inh 4.38

156
 Tat ca cac diem n lm tren moi diidng cong tUdng iing vdi cac cUdng do am va
tan so am khac nhau nhung deu gay nen do to nhii nhau doi vcli tai.
Dudng thap nhat tUdng iing L0=0 phon la ngiidng nghe, diidng cao nhat
tiidng iing L =120 phon la ngiidng choi; giiia hai diidng do la mien nghe. Mot am
nao do co cac thong so' nam diicii mien nghe se khong nghe thay dUdc. Qua do thi
ta co the nhan thay tai “thinh” nhat doi vdi cac tan so' trong khoang tti 1000 Hz
den 2500 Hz.
Chu y : Do cach ta qui lidc ddn vi do to nen tai tan so' 1000 Hz, gia tri cua
ciidng do am do b ln g decibel luon luon bang gia tri do to cua am do b ln g phon. tai
cac tan so' khac hien nhien hai gia tr i nay khong giong nhau. Vi vay ta can tranh
nham lan hai dai liidng hoan toan khac nhau nay. De minh hoa cho do thi he cac
diidng cong nay, ta xet vi du: diem co toa do (76 db; 60 Hz) thuoc dUdng cong 60
phon, dieu do co nghia la am co tan so 60 Hz va cUdng do 76 decibel gay nen cam
giac do to la 60 phon (cung nhii am co cUdng do 60 decibel va tan so 1000 Hz)

Bang 4.2. Do to cua mot so am dien hinh

Cudng do am
Loai am thanh 0 6 to (phon)
(nW/cm2)
Ngirdng nghe 10-10 0

Tieng tim dap (nghe true tiep) 109 10

Noi tham 10-6 40

Noi to 104 60

Radio md to trong phong 10'2 80

Dong cd moto 1 100

Ngirdng choi 102 120

MCrc gay chet vi am 108 180

5.4. Sd ludc ve qua trinh nghe

Khi song am truyen den tai ngoai, sii thay doi ap suat do dao dong lam cho
mang nhi rung dong theo. Dao dong cua mang nhi lam mang cang tren ciia so bau
due dao dong theo thong qua he tho'ng xiidng con (xiidng: bua, de. ban dap) d tai
giiia. Dao dong cua cac phan tii d ciia so bau due lam chuyen dong dich chiia trong
oc tai.
Trong qua trin h lan truyen song am, he tho'ng xiidng con dong mot vai tro
rat quan trong. No vCia co tac dung khuech dai ap luc am thanh viia bao ve tai
trong triidc nhiing am co cUdng do ldn.
De khuech dai dUdc ap liic am thanh, he xiidng con hoat dong nhu mot don
J*
bay (hinh 4.39). He so giiia hai canh tay don d he don bav nay la — = 1,3. Ta
r,

157
thay, neu tai ctia so b lu due co ltic tac dung F2 vk liic F, tac dung d mang nhi, thi
r,
F<= — - F ,

Ngoai ra dien tich S2 cua ctia so bau due nho hdn 17 l&n so vdi dien tich S,
cua mang nhi. Vi vky ap su3ft tac dung len ctia so b£u due se ldn hdn 17 lan ap
suat khong khi (do dao dong am) tac dung len mang nhi. Tong hdp lai ta co ap ltic
am thanh d phia sau ctia sd bau due se ldn hdn d phia trtidc he xUdng con ndi tiep
giap vdi mang nhi 17 x 1,3 = 22 lan. Ngtidi ta cho rin g du bi hao hut nang ltidng
do ma sat sti khuech dai do cung con dat dtidc rat ldn, gan 20 l&n.
Am trd cua mang nhi phu thuoc vao tan sd song am tac dung nhtfng nhin
chung cd gia tr i g&n blng am trd cua khong khi la 4,3.102 kg/m 2.s. Am trd cua ctia
so bau due bln g am trd cua ngoai dich perilympho giap no, ttic la gan nhu am trd
cua ntidc, co gia tri la 1,5.106 kg/m 2.s.
Nhti the nghia la neu nhti khong co he xtidng con m& sdng am trtic tiep tti
tai ngoai tac dung vao ctia sd bau due thi 99,9% nang ltidng sdng am bi phan xa
ma chi con khoang 0 , 1% dUdc lan truyen vao den ngoai dich perilympho (theo
cong thtic 4-31). He thong xUdng con nhti vay dong mot vai tro quan trong trong
viec dan truyen cac sdng am. No loai trti hao hut do sti phan xa sdng am d m&t
ngan cach gitia 2 moi trtidng cd am trd (sdng trd) khac nhau
Tac dung bao ve tai trong cua he xtidng con khi gap nhting am cd ctidng do
ldn la nhd he thong day chlng giti he xtidng con (diem ttia cua ddn bay) co gian
giam chan dong.

bua ban dap

diem ti/a

cifa so bau due

mang nhT

oc tai

ci/a so tron
' • IT

ong Eustachian

Hinh 4.39. Cau true tai ngi/di

158
 Qua trin h tiep nhan vk cam thu am thanh b tai trong xay ra phiic tap hdn
nhieu.. Nhiing nghien ciiu cua Helmholtz va dac biet cong trin h nghien ciiu cd che
cam thu am thanh cua Bekesy gin day da l&m sang to hdn cd che ly sinh thinh
giac. (Nhd cong trin h nghien ciiu cong phu nay, George von Bekesy da nhan diidc
giai thiidng Nobel vao nam 1961)

Hinh 4.40. Sd do thi§'t dien ngang 6c tai

1. Kenh tien dinh 2. Kenh mang nhT

3. Kenh 6c tai 4. Mang tien dinh
5. Mang day 6. The Corti
7. Mang phu 8. Than kinh thfnh giac

Cau tao chinh cua tai trong la oc tai. oc tai co chieu dai khoang 35 mm cuon
theo hinh oc khoang 2,75 vong (hinh 4.39). Ben trong oc tai doc theo chieu dai do
co 3 kenh chiia dich va diidc ngan cach nhau bln g nhiing mang (hinh 4.40). Kenh
tien dinh bat dau t ii ciia so bau due va thong vdi kenh mang nhi qua mot lo nho d
dinh cua oc tai, kenh mang nhi tii dd dan tiep den ciia so tron. Dich perilympho
chiia trong hai kenh nay con goi la ngoai dich. Kenh oc tai khong thong vdi kenh
nao, dich endolympho chiia trong kenh oc tai con goi la noi dich. Mang day ngan
cach giiia kenh mang nhi va kenh oc tai. Mang triidc ngan cach kenh oc tai va
kenh tien dinh. Mang day diidc cau tao bdi mot he vong xoln goi la the Corti bao
gom cac cd quan cam thu cua te bao than kinh thinh giac.
Theo ly thuyet cua Bekesy, dao dong cua ciia so bau due lam cho ngoai dich
perilympho diidi dd chuyen dong xoay do cac kenh di theo hinh oc. Chinh nhiing
chuyen dong xoay nay lam cho ap suat dich perilympho len mang tien dinh doc
theo chieu dai kenh tien dinh khac nhau. Ap suat nay truyen tdi dich endolympho
trong kenh oc tai, truyen tiep tdi mang day va lam mang day "gdn sdng". Mang
day chiu nhiing tac dung ap suat khac nhau theo chieu dai cua no va bang mot cd
che phiic tap, the Corti phan tich diidc tan so” am thanh (hinh 4.40)
Moi sdng am vdi mot tan so” nhat dinh tac dung vao mot vi tr i xac dinh tren
mang day va kich thich nhiing receptor nhat dinh d the Corti. Am cd tan so” cang
cao thi vi tr i kich thich cang gan ciia so bau due, d dd mang rat cang va hep. Am
cang cd tan so” thap th i kich thich cac vi tr i cang gan vdi dinh oc tai.
Bang cd che dd, tai phan tich tan so” sdng am thanh cac xung kich thich. Cac
xung kich thich du'dc ma hoa va truyen ve mot vi tr i nhat dinh d vo nao bdi nhiing
td than kinh xac dinh. Vdi nhiing am phiic hdp th i tao ra sii kich thich d nhieu
diem hdn va do vay gay ra cam giac khac nhau ve am sac.

159
 Than kinh oc tai

Kenh tien dinh

Kenh oc tai
Kenh mang nhi
Mang phu

The Corti
Mang tien dinh
Mang day

Mang nhi Cifa sd tron

Hinh 4.41. So do qua trinh cam thu am thanh d tai

(oc tai duoc phong dai va duoc hinh dung 0 dang keo duoi ra)

Cho den nay ngUOi ta chUa hieu ro het ban chat cua qua trinh ma hoa cac
sdng xung kich thich cua am de dan truyen vao cac te bao than kinh thinh giac.
Cac nghien cUu ve dien sinh hoc 0 cO quan thinh giac xac nhan rang cO che cua
qua trinh ma hoa thong tin 0 day cung la lam xuat hien dien the hoat dong. 0 day
ngUOi ta goi la cac dien the am thanh. Dien the am thanh quyet dinh ca tan so' va
cUOng do am, N gay nay bang cac vi dien cUc ngUOi ta da ghi do dUOc gia tri cua cac
dien the am thanh dd. Dien the am thanh la ket qua cua tat ca cac qua trinh xay
ra d oc tai khi tiep nhan am. M ot dieu dang chu y la hieu dien the giiia
endolym pho va perilym pho cd gia tri khoang 80mV.

5.5. Cd sd vat ly cua phudng phap am trong chan doan

5.5.1. Chan doan go
Khi go vao cac vi tri tUOng Ung cua cac tang (tim, phoi, gan...) tren long ngUc
hay tren thanh bung, cac tang nay se dao dong va phat ra am. D ua vao am phat
ra chung ta co the xac dinh duoc vi tri, kich thudc cua chung, cd the xac dinh duoc
chung binh thUdng hay cd benh.

Ta cd the dung ngon tay hay mot dui nhd go trUc tiep tren da benh nhan. d
vung tUdng Ung vdi cac phu tang can chan doan. PhUdng phap nay it diing vi
nhung chan dong go thudng bi tat dan sau khi qua ldp da, mo cd... do dd ch u n g ta
chi lam cho cac tang dd dao dong vdi bien do nho, am cac tang phat ra nho qua
kho nghe.

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 Chung ta thudng go qua ngon tay hoac qua thanh go mon? dat sat vao ndi
muon go. Tuy theo benh nhan va yeu cau c&n chan doan, chung ta phai go vdi
miic do manh nhe khac nhau: go manh do'i vdi benh nhan qua beo, vdi tre em phai
go nhe. Thiidng chung ta go vdi miic do trung binh vi go nhii the cung du lam cho
cac tang d sau dudi da 5 cm dao dong va dao dong nay co the lan truyen tren mot
dien tich 4 den 6 cm2. Khi muon tim gidi han cua mot tang nao do hay nghien ciiu
mot ph&n cua tang do, can phai g5 nhe.
Am phat ra khi go can phai phan tich mot cach ty mi ve cUdng do, do cao,
am sac... nhu the mdi nhan diidc cac thay doi nho cua am, phan biet dUdc cac
trUdng hdp benh ly va binh thiidng. Thi du nhu am phat ra khi go vao phoi cua
mot ngiidi binh thiidng co tan so" cao, am sac phong phu (co nhieu hoa am) ciidng
do ldn, thdi gian dii am dai.
Am phat ra khi go nhiing tang dac hoac phoi bi voi hoa, mang phoi bi tran
dich,... co tan so" thap (tieng nghe due), ciidng do nho, thdi gian du am ngln. Con
am d o bung, da day phat ra co tan so" cao song am sac ngheo nan (hau nhu khong
co hoa am).

5.5.2. Chan doan nghe

Dd la phUdng phap nghien ciiu nhiing am tti cd the phat ra nhu cua tim,
*) 9
phoi de dinh benh.
Cac am tU cd the phat ra thudng co tan so" khong vUdt qua 1000 Hz. Am d
phoi do khong khi qua lai khi quan, cuong phoi va mo phoi sinh ra. Cudng do cua
am nay manh hay yeu la do ho hap nong hay sau, do cao cua am ty le nghich vdi
tiet dien khi quan, cuong phoi. Khi khi quan, cuong phoi bi hep hay chUa cac dich
nhay do mot qua trin h bi benh nao day th i am phoi se thay doi; co the dua vao su
thay doi do ma chan doan benh.
Am phat d tim ra bien doi do nhieu yeu to": tinh trang cac van tim, van to"c
cua mau, do nhdt cua mau, mieng cua cac van (tiic la cac lo trong tim ma cac van
do day lai)... Bang 4.3 cho biet lien he gitia tan so" va ty le nang ludng cua am
phat ra tti mot tim binh thudng.

Tan so Nang li/d n g

50 - 60 Hz 56%
60 - 70 Hz 27%
7 0 - 8 0 Hz 10%
80 - 90 Hz 4%
9 0 - 100 Hz 2%
1 0 0 - 110 Hz 1%

De nghe cac am phat ra tti trong cd the, ngUdi ta dung ong nghe (stetoscope).
Ong nghe gom 2 day cao su mem hinh tru cd tac dung truyen am noi vdi mot hop
bang sat hinh tru bet, mat cd cang mot mang mong dong vai tro mot hop cong
hudng. Hop cong hUdng co khi la mot loa hinh pheu khong co mang cang. Mat cua

161
hop cong hiidng dat ap sat da (noi muon nghe), dao dong am cua cd th§ truyen tdi
dUOc hop n&y khuech dai, sau do nhting dao dong n&y s€ qua cac day truyen am
de tdi tai.
T^n so' dao dong rieng cua m&ng ty le thuan vdi do cang cua mang. Cac dao
dong am tti co the tdi mang se lam mang dao dong manh nha't (cong hudng) n£u
t£n so' cua chung trung vdi tan so' dao dong rieng cua mang.
Ne'u dung loa de nghe, th i cho da benh nhan bi loa 6 p vko se cang ra va d6ng
vai tro cua mot mang cang. Chung ta co the dieu chinh stic 6 p cua loa vao da d§’
do cang cua m&ng da do cd tan so dao dong rieng trung vdi t£n so cua am muon
nghien ctiu, nhd dd chung ta co the nghe am nay ro hdn am khac. Thudng con
dting cach nay khi am muon nghien ctiu bi cac am khac che lap.

5.5.3. Ph6p th u Rinner

Muc dich ph 6 p thti nay de xac dinh ton thtidng d vting nao cua cd quan thinh
giac: d tai ngoai, tai gitia tai trong hoac nao.
Ph6p thti nay dua vao nhan xet nhu sau: nhting dao dong am cd the truyen
qua xUdng so tdi nhting tan cting cua than kinh thinh giac... va cho ch u n g ta cam
giac am; do dd dti r i n g tai ngoai va tai gitia hdng roi am v l n truyen qua xUdng vk
gay cam giac dUdc.
Neu ta dat mot am thoa dang dao dong gan tai benh nhan sau do de benh
nhan can duoi am thoa dd (dao dong cua am thoa luc nay cung cd bien do giong
luc trUdc). Neu ltic dau benh nhan con nghe dUdc am, luc sau khong nghe dUdc thi
dau hieu Rinner la dUdng, neu ngUdc lai ta cd dau hieu Rinner am.
Mot chting diec co dau hieu Rinner dudng chting to mot ton thudng tai trong
hoac nao. Neu dau hieu Rinner am th i ton thudng khu tru d tai ngoai hay tai
gitia.

5.6. Sd ludc ve ufng dung sieu am trong nganh y

5.6.1. Dac diem lan truyen song sieu am
Song sieu am cd dac tinh truyen thang thanh chtim, mang theo nang ludng
ldn. Sieu am lan truyen trong moi trUdng vat chat theo quy luat chung cua sdng
am, nghia la cting bi hap thu, bi tan xa va phan xa lam cho cUdng do cua chum
sdng sieu am bi thay doi. Su thay doi dd tuy thuoc mat do, tinh chat va cac dac
diem khac cua moi trUdng vat chat no truyen qua. Ghi do dUdc su thav doi do
chung ta co the suy doan dUdc nhting dac diem cua ldp vat chat hap thu va giup
cho cong viec chan doan benh. Y hoc thudng sti dung cac sdng sieu am tan so' tti
100000 Hz den 3.106 Hz. NgUdi ta ldi dung dac tinh truyen th in g cua sieu am va
do hap thu, phan xa phu thuoc vao dac tinh cua moi trUdng de chan doan dinh vi,
xac dinh cau true;
Diem dac biet cua sieu am la khi di qua mat ngan cach gitia hai moi trUdng
khac nhau, sdng sieu am bi phan xa rat manh. He so phan xa dd phu thuoc vao
mat do vat chat va toe do lan truyen cua song am trong dd. Vi vay, ngudi ta dua
ra khai niem am trd (song trd) bieu th i 2 yeu to' do: Z = p.v tudng tu nhu sdng

162
am thiidng, vdi: Z: am trd, p: mat do v&t ch&'t, v: toe do lan truyen song am trong
v&t ch£t.
Sau day \k gia tri am trd cua mot so v&t cha't hay g&p:
Khong khi: 429 kg/m2.s
Nude: 1,48 x 106 kg/m2.s
Mo mem cua cd the ngiidi 1,6 .106 kg/m2.s
Mo xUdng 1,62. 106 kg/m2.s
Mau va nao 1,56. 106 kg/m2.s
Mo md 1,40. 106 kg/m2.s
He so phan xa d mat ngan cach cua song sieu am giiia hai moi trUdng co am
trd Z ! va Z2 se la:

R = Z| ~ Z l (4.66)
Z ,+Z 2

He so” R do giiia nUdc (mo mem cua cd the, v.v ...) va khong khi 1? 0,9 j . Nhu
the nghia la hau het nang lUdng (99%) cua chum sieu am da bi phan xa ;L chi 1%
dUdc lan truyen tiep tuc. He so R cung kha ldn giiia xUdng va mo mem, phoi va
mo, v.v ... Vi vay ngUdi ta co the dung sieu am de chan doan benh.
Khi truyen qua cac moi trUOng, song sieu am bi moi trUdng hap thu nen
cUdng do cua no se giam dan. Gia sii chum sieu am song song khi tdi mot moi
trUdng no co cUdng do I0 khi xuyen vao chieu sau x trong moi trUdng, cUdng do chi
con la I, ta co:

I = I0. e - " x

vdi e = 2,71828... con a ti le vdi f2, — va v3. Khong khi co p be nen a ldn.
P
nghia la I giam nhanh, noi khac di la chum sieu am bi hap thu nhieu.

5.6.2. Tac dung cua song sieu am

Khi tac dung len chat ran hoac long, sieu am gay ra 3 hieu Ung cd hoc. nhiet
hoc va hoa ly. TU do no gay nen tac dung sinh hoc.
- Hieu iing ccf hoc: Song sieu am lam cho cac phan tii cua moi trUdng dao
dong theo. Ap suat dao dong gay ra tuy thuoc mat do vat chat va co the len den
hang van atmotphe. Ket qua la lien ket cua cac phan tii moi trUdng bi dUt gay.
NgUdi ta goi do la hien tUdng tao lo vi mo (cavitation). Tuy vay doi vdi nhting
chtim sieu am co cudng do be va tan so cao It khi xay ra hien tudng nay.
Vdi nhting chat long khong tron lan vao nhau dUdc nhu nUdc va dau. nUdc va
thuy ngan v.v... sieu am co the lam chung hoa vao nhau dUdc. Dua vao do ngUoi ta
tao ra cac nhu tu'dng, cac khi dung vdi nhting hat co kich thudc be. .. Sieu am lai
lam von tua cac bui doc trong cac khoi thai d nha mav.

163
 - Hieu ting nhiet: Ph&n ldn nang liidng diidc hap thu tti sieu am vao moi
trUdng diidc chuyen sang dang nhiet lam tang nhiet do moi triidng. Hien tiidng
cung dac biet xay ra nhieu chat d cac mat ngan cach giiia hai mdi triidng co m&t
do khac nhau.
- Hieu ting hoa ly: Sieu am co the gay ra cac phan iing ma d dieu kien binh
thiidng kho xay ra hoac xue tien cac phan iing hoa hoc. Dac biet sieu am lam tang
cac phan iing phan ly cac hdp chat htiu cd, lam tang sii ion hoa va tao ra nhieu goc
tii do trong moi trUdng. S6 ng sieu am cung lam tang qua trin h tham thau qua cac
mang ban tham.
Nhd vao 3 hieu iing do, sieu am gay nen nhiing tac dung sinh hoc.
Vdi ciidng d6 nhd va vtia (<20 kW/m2) sieu am lam tang tinh tham thau cua
mang te bad, sii dich chuyen bao tUdng. Ciidng d6 ldn (>30 kW/m2) tao ra cac vi lo
trong bao tiidng, lam rach mang va bien dang nhan, do do co the pha huy te bao.
Do'i vdi mo sinh hoc, sieu am lam thay doi nhiing dac tinh cua no nhu pH,
diem dang dien, ap suat tham thau. ap suat keo. Sieu am cung lam thay doi sii
chuyen hoa vat chat va hoat tinh histamin trong cd the.
Sieu am tac dung gian mach, lam tang van mach, chong co that cd, chong
viem va tang ciidng hap thu d ruot. Sieu am co the lam mat Canxi d xUdng, lam
nong cac mo va vdi lieu ldn co the pha huy te bao mau, tuy xUdng va gay hoai tii d
cac te bao than kinh. Sieu am lam cac te bao tuyen noi tie t tang tiet hocmon, lam
hai cd quan th i giac va cc the gay ung thii.

5.6.3. O’n g dung sieu am vao chan doan

f/
C6 2 phiidng phap chan doan bang sieu
r = = > i )
am: \ /
5.6.3.1. Phi/ang phap truyen qua
Do chum sieu am lo ra sau khi di qua mo,
cd the. Can cii vao miic do hap thu cua ldp vat
chat ma ta biet diidc mat dd kich thudc, tinh
chat cua n6 . Kieu A

5.6.3.2. Phi/ong phap phan xa

Day la phiidng phap hien diidc ap dung
nhieu nhat.
Diia vao hai hieu iing thuan, nghich cua
hien tiidng ap dien ngiidi ta tad ra cac dau phat
va dau dd sieu am thich hdp. Cac chum sieu am
d day thiidng c6 ciidng d6 ldn va phat ra trdng
mot thdi gian n gln nen cdi nhii nhting xung
sdng. Xung song cung tao ra cac xung song
phan xa khi gap dieu kien thuan ldi nhii da neu
d tren ve chenh lech am trd.
Kieu B
• o--------------- o
Hinh 4.42. Nguyen ly cua phiidng
phap sieu am: sdng sieu am phan
xa tai cac mat phan cach gay ra
cac xung tin hieu (kieu A) hoac
cac diem sang co cudng do khac
nhau (kieu B).

164
 Ap dung nguyen ly nay vao chan doan ngiidi ta goi la phudng phap song xung
phan xa.
Kieu A (Amplitude mode): trong kieu nay moi khi dau do nhan diidc mot
song xung phan xa se xuat hien mot xung tin hieu. Bien do xung tin hieu dUdc xac
dinh bdi ciidng do cua xung sieu am phan xa va vi tr i cua no diidc xac dinh bdi
thdi gian ma xung sieu am da lan truyen. N hii vay, can cti khoang thdi gian tu:
khi phat xung sieu am den khi thu diidc tieng vong (xung phan xa) ta xac dinh
diidc khoang cach tii mat dau do den mat phan xa da gay ra xung phan xa do.
Kieu B (Brightness mode): moi song xung tin hieu trong kieu A dUdc bieu
hien blng mot diem vdi cUdng do sang tiidng iing vdi bien do xung sieu am phan
xa. Sd di chuyen tien - lui cua mat phan xa tUdng Ung vdi dich chuyen qua lai cua
xung tin hieu trong kieu A va cua diem sang trong kieu B.
Kieu TM (Time Motion): thudng dung trong tham do tim mach. Cac diem
sang thu dUdc theo kieu B tU cac xung sieu am phan hoi dUdc ghi lien tuc theo
thdi gian. Kieu tham kham nay cho biet cac thong so ve sii chuyen dong, vi du, to'c
do dong md van, so" lan co bop cua tim...
Kieu hai chieu (2D - 2 dimentional mode, B- bidimentional mode): Khi co
mot chum xung song sieu am dUdc phat ra va lan truyen qua doi tUdng khao sat,
moi xung se tUdng Ung vdi mot chuoi cac xung song phan xa, va ket qua tren man
hien thi ta se co mot chuoi cac diem sang con dUdc goi la dUdng quet. Tap hdp cac
dudng quet nay se cho hinh anh mat cat cua doi tUdng nghien cUu. Co hai kieu
quet la kieu tuyen tinh va re quat. Tuy theo kich thudc va vi tr i doi '.Udng khao
sat chung ta lUa chon kieu quet phu hdp va tUdng Ung khi do hinh anh sieu am
thu dUdc se co hinh dang “chU nhat” hay “re quat” . Dieu dang lUu y la ldp cat
blng sieu
/ am\ cung n lm trong
•> mat phang cua hudng di chum sieu am, trong khi
do ldp cat bang X-quang thang goc vdi true tia X.
Kieu ba chieu (3D- 3 dimentional mode, TD- tridim entional mode): la he qua
cua viec sii dung cac tien bo cua tin hoc trong tai tao hinh anh khong gian ba
chieu tu: cac thong tin thu dUdc trong kieu hai chieu. Cd the thu tin hieu bln g dau
do dac biet cho sieu am ba chieu (dau dd dUdc sap xep theo hang doc va ngang) vdi
phan mem da gan san trong may sieu am. Gan day ngUdi ta con ndi den sieu am
bon chieu, trong dd 3 chieu (3D) cho biet hinh anh noi trong khong gian va mot
chieu chi ve thdi gian.
Kieu sieu am Doppler: sU dung nguyen ly hieu Ung Doppler (xem phan
2.2.4) trong sieu am de thu tin hieu tu: cac dong chay. Cd cac kieu nhu sau:
+ Sieu am Doppler lien tuc: do chum sieu am phat ra la lien tuc nen lien
tuc cd chum sdng phan xa tU cac cau true di chuyen vdi toe do khac nhau. Chinh
vi vay phudng phap nay chi cho thong tin ve toe do trung binh cua dong chay ma
sieu am di qua va khong cho phep khao sat chon loc d mot vung. Phudng phap nay
cho phep nghien cuu dude dong chay vdi toe do cao cung nhu toe do thap tuy do
phan giai cd han che. Dau doj)hat ra sieu am sU dung trong ky thuat nay gom hai
tinh the: mot tinh the de phat xung sieu am va mot tinh the de thu xung phan xa.
 + Sieu am Doppler xung: chum sieu am phat ra ngit quang nen d&u do c6
the nhan difdc song phan xa sau mot khoang thdi gian phu thuoc vao do sau cfin
khao sat. Vdi ky thuat nay tin hieu dong chay d mot vung nhat dinh se difdc ghi
lai va vi tr i nay cung cd the dieu chinh difdc theo thdi gian tif luc phat den luc thu
chum sieu am phan hoi. Ky thuat nay thiidng ket hdp vdi sieu am cat ldp hai
chieu, nhd dd mach mau de dang nhan thay va vi tr i can khao sat dong chay se
xac dinh diidc chinh xac. Dau dd sieu am dung trong ky thuat nay chi can mot
tinh the vtia lam nhiem vu phat xung sieu am va vtia lam nhiem vu thu sieu am.
+ Sieu am Doppler mau: sti dung nguyen ly Doppler xung de thu tin hieu
Doppler tren mot vung trong mot mat cat. Cac tin hieu nay dUdc ma hoa diidi
dang mau va the hien ket hdp vdi hinh anh sieu am hai chieu tao thanh hinh
Doppler mau con dUdc goi la ban do mau cua dong chay. Can cti vao nguyen tic
ma hoa hinh anh Doppler mau, chung ta se cd thong tin ve chieu dong chay (so
vdi dau dd) cung nhii to'c do dong chay.
+ Sieu am Doppler nang lifdng difdc ting dung chu yeu trong tham kham
cac mach mau nho va cd toe do dong chay thap ma sieu am Doppler mau khong du
do nhay de phat hien.

Hinh 4.43. Sieu am hai chieu o bung de kiem tra thai.

166
 Tuy thuoc vko do'i tudng c£n nghien ciiu tham do (vi tri, kha nang hap thu
sieu am ...) ngUdi ta phai chon chum sieu am phu hdp ve tan so', ciidng do ... va ap
dung cac bien phap ky thuat de co diidc hinh anh sieu am chat liidng tot. Vi du, de
tham do cac bo phan nho va nong (m lt, tuyen giap,...) ngUdi ta thudng sii dung
sieu am co tan so' cao khoang 4-10 MHz, vi chum sieu am nay xuyen sau it do bi
suy giam nhanh, nhung tap trung. Ngiidc lai, chum sieu am tan so' thap suy giam
cham nen co the xuyen sau nhiing phan tan. Trong chan doan, chum sieu am
thiidng dung co ciidng do tti 2-10 mW/cm2 do do an toan, khong gay nguy hiem cho
ngiidi benh.

5.6.4. ifng dung sieu am vao dieu tri

Viec ting dung sieu am vao dieu tri khong dUdc nhieu nhu trong chan doan.
Ngiidi ta Idi dung nang liidng ldn cua chtim sieu am bi hap thu lam tang nhiet do
tai cho de lam dan mach, tang ciidng tinh tham tha'u cua cac mang te bao; Idi
dung hien tiidng sieu am lam dtit lien ket moi trUdng, tao cac lo vi mo de tieu diet
cac te bao benh, cac vi sinh vat gay benh.
Do sieu am co cac tac dung sinh hoc nhii da neu tren nen ta tha'y sieu am co
ket qua trong dieu tr i cac chting dau than kinh nhat la than kinh toa (sciatique),
dau liing, thap khdp, benh viem cac mo lien ket va than kinh.
Luu y khong dung sieu am dieu tri cho nhting ngUdi dang co chtia, dang bi
lao, bi sot va d tre em.
Gan day ngiidi ta da bat dau dting nhting song sieu am co ciidng do ldn (1,4 x
107W/m2) de pha huy cac to chtic benh trong sau nhu soi than, u tuyen, v.v..

6. SONG VA SIJ SONG

Moi triidng song luon luon day ap cac song: cac loai song cd hoc (dong dat,
song niidc...), song am, song vo tuyen dien, anh sang, cac btic xa ion hoa (tia X, tia
gamma...). Co hai van de can xet den lien quan den su song: tac dong cua song
den sU song va cac nhip sinh hoc.

6.1. Sd ludc ve tac dong cua song den su song. Tac dong cua song den sir
song co Idi hay co hai?
- Sii Idi hay hai nay co tinh chat tufdng do'i. Mot chtim song sieu am den mot
do'i tudng chang han soi than co the pha vd soi, nhiing neu khong dung cho
co the gay vd mach mau nguy hiem cho tinh mang; mot chum btic xa ion
hoa co the tieu diet te bao ung th ii d khoi u nhung no cung co the gay hai
cho cac te bao lanh d lan can... Nhac vanxd co the lam con voi du diia cd the
mot cach khoan khoai nhiing co loai am nhac kich dong co the lam cho con
voi hien lanh phat khting, pha phach lung tung. Song bien thiidng co the
bien doi thanh dien nang nhiing song than thi pha hoai khung khiep.
Song co the tac dong tti vi mo den vi mo. Chang han co the dung sieu am
gay chan dong, xoa bop vi mo den tting te bao song con qua trin h xoa bop,
gay dao dong thi co the tac dong len ca bap cd.

167
 - Song tac dong den vat chat song lien quan chat che den sii chd nang liidng
cua song den cho doi tUdng bi tac dong. Nhiing tac dong xau thiidng lien
quan den nang lifting vUdt qua ngUdng nao d&'y; chlng han am qua manh
th i gay nen sii pha hoai cd quan thinh giac.
- Co nhiing song doc hai va song lanh. C hlng co mot tieu chuan ro rang nao
ve cac thong so” vat ly de phan chia ra song nao doc hai, song nao lanh.
Chang han co nhiing thiic nghiem chi co the diia vao hieu qua sinh vat de
danh gia: binh niidc uong ma de lau triidc man anh may thu hinh thi khi
uong nUdc ay cd the co nhting bien doi khong Idi; d nha xay tren nhiing
mach nude ngam khong Idi cho siic khoe; song dtfdi diidng day dien cao
the de bi nhiic dau, roi loan than kinh; phu nii co thai khong nen xem
truyen hinh nhieu; ngUdi dan ong lam viec triic tiep nhieu nam vdi song
ciic ngan (chang han rada) thi mot so” chiic nang sinh ly co the bi anh
hudng... (Ve tac dung cua biic xa ion hoa len cd the song- xem bai 9)
- Song (cd, dien tti, hap d in ...) la phUdng tien chu yeu chd thong tin tti doi
tiidng nay den doi tiidng khac thong qua sii bien doi cac thong so” vat ly
cua song (mat do nang liidng, bien do, tan so, dang pho...). Con ngiidi khai
thac dUdc song la diia vao cac dac diem vat ly nay.
- Thtia nhan khong chting minh la co kha nang ton tai nhting loai sdng ma
ta van dang tiep nhan nhUng ban chat con chiia dUdc lam ro. Cac song
nay mang den cho ta nhting thong tin ve moi trUdng (chang han song cua
trUdng sinh vat, song vdi t&n so” vUdt ra khoi nhting pham vi cua tan so
thong thiidng ma tai nghe mat thay).

6.2. Sd ludc ve nhjp sinh hoc

Ta goi la nhip sinh hoc bat cti qua trin h nao xay ra tren cd the song co tinh
chu ky. Thi du: nhip tim, dien tim, dien nao, kinh nguyet, nhip the chat, nhip cam
xtic, nhip tr i tue... Moi nhip sinh hoc co dac diem rieng, va deu la ket qua tong
hdp cua moi trUdng, vti tru len cd the tra i qua sii hinh thanh con ngUdi, mang tinh
on dinh tUdng do”i va phan anh tinh trang hoat dong ctia cd the ngUdi. Nhting nhip
dien tim, dien nao... dUdc khao sat chi tiet trong cac giao trin h va khoa hoc khac.
O day ta liiu y tdi 3 nhip sinh hoc sau:
- Chu ky the chat: co tti khi sinh ra cho tdi luc chet. Moi chu ky la 23 ngay,
chia lam 2 ban chu ky, moi ban chu ky khoang 11,5 ngay. Ban chu ky d lu diidc
goi la giai doan cao, co tinh tieu hao chu doug. Giai doan nay co tinh tich ciic; cd
the tiidng do'i khoe manh linh hoat, kha nang lam viec va stic chiu diing tot, tang
den ciic dai vao ngay thti nam. thti sau; sau do giam dan; tuy nhien d giai doan
nay stic chong dd vdi benh tat va sii met nhoc ldn. C) ban chu ky sau cd the de
dang cam thay sii met moi va can nghi ngdi; sii liidi nhac de xuat hien; cd thi budc
vao giai doan phuc hoi nang liidng tieu hao do ton tai. Neu tUdng tUdng bieu dien
chu ky nay ta co mot hinh sin khdi xuat tti mtic 0, ciic dai sau 5 ngay. tdi 11.5
ngay ve mtic 0 roi qua ciic tieu sau 17 ngay roi lai trd ve mtic 0 sau 23 ngav.

168
 - Chu ky cam xue la 28 ngay. Ban chu ky dau mang trang thai tich cUc: song
lac quan vui ve, giao tiep nhay ben vdi moi ngiidi, tinh tinh diem tinh. Giai doan
thuan Idi nhat n&m tti ngay thti 8 den thti 12. 6 ban ky sau thich cam giac yen
tinh co doc, de bi quan lo lang.
- Chu ky tr i tue la 33 ngay: d ban chu ky dau hoat dong tr i tue manh me, de
tiep thu kien thtic va van dung sang tao kien thtic san cd, phan xa vdi cac tinh
huoYig phai suy nghi tUdng doi nhanh nhen hdn ban chu ky sau. O ban chu ky sau
sti suy nghi, sU suy luan cung nhu sii ham muon hieu biet deu co phan giam di
chut It.
Van dong vien khi thi dau, th i sinh di thi rdi vao ban chu ky dau (do ng&u
nhien) thi thudng cd thuan Idi hdn mot chtit. Do 3 chu ky khong giong nhau ve
thdi gian cho nen cd nhting giai doan tich cUc thi nhip song that la tot dep, neu
deu rdi ca vao giai doan hai cua moi chu ky thi song cd ve kho khan hdn. 0 mot so
niidc da ap dung khao sat cac nhip sinh hoat nay trong ddi song: dieu ngUdi di
lam nhting viec nang nhoc kho khan theo chu ky the chat, khao sat nang lUc tu
duy theo chu ky tr i tue...

169
 Bai 5

DIEN VA SlTSdNG
■ ■

MUC TIEU HOC TAP

• • •

1. Trinh bay diidc cac hien tiidng dien cd ban xay ra tren te bao song cung
nhu cd che phat sinh va dac diem cua nhiing hien tudng nay.
2. Mo ta cd che dien dieu khien nhip tim va neu ban chat dien the hoat
dong cua tim. Trinh bay phep ghi dien the hoat dong cua tim va mot so to
chiic song khac trong cd the dUdc iing dung trong y khoa.
3. Ke dUdc nhting qui luat chinh cua tac dong dien doi vdi cd the song. Neu
cac ting dung rong rai cua dong dien trong dieu tri va cac kien thtic can
thiet ve an toan dien.
NgUdi ta bat dau nghien ctiu hien tUdng dien sinh vat tti ntia sau the ky 18,
ban dau vdi muc dich tim hieu ban chat dong dien do mot so ca dien phong ra de
tii ve va san bat moi.
Nam 1791 Luigi Galvani, bac si kiem nha vat ly hoc ngUdi Y da lan dau tien
phat hien sU ton tai mot hieu dien the gitia te bao song va moi trUdng ben ngoai.
Tuy nhien trong mot thdi gian dai sau dd cac nha khoa hoc van chUa hieu ro cd
che hinh thanh dien sinh vat. Chi tti khoang gitia the ky 20, nhd nhting tien bo
vUdt bac cua khoa hoc ky thuat ngUdi ta mdi phat hien dUdc cac qui luat ve hoat
dong dien cua te bao va mo song.
Ngay nay chung ta da biet rang trong mo va to chtic song ton tai cac hieu
dien the sinh hoc, cac the hieu nay khong ldn, thudng khong vUdt qua 0,1V,
nhung cac giong ca dien cd the tao ra dUdc nhting xung dien cd 600 V. Khoa hoc
cting ghi nhan hien tUdng mot so” rat it ngUdi cd kha nang dac biet tao ra dUdc
dien the ldn lam sang cac bong den huynh quang.
Nghien ctiu cac qua trin h sinh hoc mang tin h chat dien trong cd the song
cd y nghia rat quan trong doi vdi y khoa: de hieu ro ban chat cua cac qua trinh
nay cting nhu de cd cai nhin toan dien ve trang thai hoat dong cua cac nhom te
bao qua dd cd the tim ra phudng hudng dieu tri. Chung ta biet r&ng ban chat su
d&n truyen cac thong tin theo cac day than kinh la su d in truyen cac xung dien.
May tao nhip tim la vi du ve thiet bi dien tti dat trong cd the de tao ra cac dien
the mo phong va thay the cac dien the sinh vat ma cd the khong con kha nang
tao ra mot cach deu dan, chu&n xac. Con phep ghi do cac tin hieu dien tren cd
the la cd sd cua mot so phudng phap chan doan hien dai nhu khao sat dien tam
do, dien nao do,v.v... Sau day chung ta se tim hieu nhting khai niem cd ban nhat
cua dien sinh hoc.

170
1. 0 |£ n TH§ SINH VAT 6 TE BAO SONG
• •

1.1. Dien the' nghi

Khai niem: Tren te bao song, luon co sii chenh lech giiia dien the mat trong
mang te bao VTR va dien the mat ngoai mang te bao VNG. NgUdi ta qui U6c goi hieu
dien the EM=VTR- V NG la dien the mang. 6 trang thai binh thudng hay trang thai
“tinh”, dien the mang luon la mot gia tri on dinh va mang dau am. Gia tri noi tren
dUdc goi la dien the mang d trang thai nghi hay ng&n gon la dien the nghi (rest
potential). Do'i vdi nhiing te bao khac nhau dien the nghi cd gia tri khac nhau tif
khoang -50mV den -94mV.

1.1.1. Thi nghiem do dien the nghi

De do dien the mang va quan sat sU bien doi cua no dudi tac dong nao dd len
te bao ngUdi ta dung ky thuat vi dien ciic (microelectrode) noi bao. Vi dien cUc la
o'ng pipet cUc nho, dUdc keo tif o'ng mao quan bang thuy tinh dac biet (hinh ve
5.2). Dudng kinh mui nhon khoang 0,l-0,5|im. Ong dien ciic chtia day dung dich
muoi (thUdng la KC1), nhting vao dung dich muoi la dien cUc kim loai noi vdi thiet
bi do. NgUdi ta dting nhting te bao ldn, th i du sdi true than kinh (axon) rat ldn cua
loai mUc de lam th i nghiem. Ket qua th i nghiem cho tha'y:
- Khi 2 dien ciic dat tren be mat sdi than kinh thi khong cd sii chenh lech ve
dien the
- Khi choc 1 dien ciic qua mang vao sau trong te bao, dien ciic kia tren be
mat sdi than kinh, gitia hai dien ciic xuat hien hieu dien the.
- Khi ca 2 dien cUc choc xuyen qua mang, khong cd sii chenh lech dien the
(hinh 5.1)

+ r® ~
r
n goa i

+ ngoai
d u n g d ic h KC1

[>]
o n g ihuy tinh

1r 1r

V ////////, A

rO>n
A ^ ///z v / / v
N h in b a n g
m ai ih u o n g
N h i n q u a kinh
hien vi

H inh 5.1. Thi nghiem do dien the nghi H inh 5.2. Vi dien cuc

171
 Nhd kich thudc vi dien cuc rat be, viec dua dien cuc xuyen qua mang te b&o
h lu nhu khong lam mang te bao ton thudng. Te bao duy tri dUdc dien the nghi
khong doi trong nhieu gid th i nghiem, gia tri dien the nghi nho di khi chiic nang
hoat dong cua te bao giam din.

1.1.2. C a che hinh thanh dien the n gh i

Su ton tai dong dien sinh hoc trong cac mo song lam ngUdi ta lap tiic nghi
den cac dung dich dien ly d k h ip ndi trong cd the song nhu la moi trUdng dim dien
va cac ion vo cd trong dd dong vai trd cac phan tu tai dien (cac phan tii ldn bi ion
hoa tuy cung mang dien tich nhUng khong linh dong). Chinh sU van chuyen ba
loai ion vo cd quan trong N a \ K \ Cl tu: trong te bao ra ngoai va theo chieu ngUdc
lai xuyen qua mang te bao la nhan to chinh tao nen dien the sinh vat. Bang thuc
nghiem ngUdi ta biet rang cd sii khac nhau rat ldn giiia nong do cua tifng ion ke
tren trong dich gian bao va dich noi bao. Thi du doi vdi moi trUdng dac trUng ben
trong cd the ngUdi, nong do ion K + trong dich noi bao cao hdn nong do K* trong
dich gian bao khoang 30 lan. NgUdc lai nong do Na+ va Cl' ngoai te bao cao hdn
ben trong te bao lan lUdt la khoang 13 lan va 25 lan. Su khac nhau rat ldn ve
nong do tren day dUdc tao nen va duy tri bdi cac cd che van chuyen chu dong. Do
la cac “bdm ion” hay con goi la “bdm K+, Na+” . Su van chuyen cac ion qua mang te
bao bi chi phoi bdi 3 yeu to” chinh:
Xu the khuech tan mot loai phan tu tu: ndi mat do phan tu dd cao hdn den
ndi mat do thap hdn tiic la sii chuyen dong theo phudng vectd gradient nong do.
Luc tac dung cua dien trUdng len cac phan tii mang dien tich.
Siic can cua mang te bao len sU chuyen dong cua cac ion. Tuy nhien ngUdi ta
hau nhu chi dung thuat ngU “tinh tham” cua mang te bao doi vdi mot loai ion nao
dd mang y nghia doi ngUdc vdi “tinh can trd” .

[K +]=30
Gradient
nong do

V TO=80m V

V NG= 0

[ K +]=l [cr]=20 [Na+]=10

Hinh 5.3. Hudng tac dong cua gradient nong do va lire dien trudng doi vdi IC , Cl' va Na*
(cac so lieu chi cd y nghia minh hoa)
Trudc het, do su chenh lech ve nong do. cac ion K + khuech tan tii trong te
bao ra ngoai con cac ion Cl khuech tan tii ngoai te bao vao trong. Tinh tham cua
mang te bao d trang thai “nghi” doi vdi W la rat nho so vdi K* va Cl (mang gan

172
nhu khong cho Na+di qua), nen sU van chuyen Na+ qua mang tam thdi cd the bo
qua. Su khuech tan cac ion K+va Cl" se lam mat ngoai mang te bao dan dan tich
dien dudng va mat trong tich dien am. Khi dd gitia hai mat cua mang te bao xuat
hien mot hieu dien the ldn dan goi t it la dien the mang. Khi dd cac ion dudng
chuyen dong qua mang se chiu tac dung cua mot luc dien trudng hudng tti ngoai
vao trong con ion am se chiu luc dien trUdng cd hudng ngUdc lai. Dieu dd cd nghia
la dien trudng nay can trd sU khuech tan cua K + tti trong te bao ra ngoai va can
trd sU khuech tan Cl tti ngoai vao_trong. Hieu dien the tang dan thi luc dien
trudng cung tang len theo.Trang thai tinh cua mang te bao cd the hieu la ket qua
cua sU can bang cac anh hudng do'i khang nhau: luc dien trudng va gradient nong
do (hinh 5.3).
De cho de hieu cd the ndi rang, dien the nghi dUdc thiet lap khi luc dien
trUdng dat do ldn nhat dinh du de ngan khong cho cac ion K+ va Cl tiep tuc
khuech tan qua mang. Ndi mot cach chinh xac hdn, khi dat dUdc mot hieu dien
the on dinh gitia hai mat cua mang (trang thai can bang dong), trong mot ddn vi
thdi gian, tong dien tich dUdc van chuyen qua m ang bang cd che khuech tan theo
gradient nong do tti trong ra ngoai te bao bang tong dien tich dUdc van chuyen
qua mang bdi lUc dien trudng theo hudng ngUdc lai. O day can phai hieu la, mot
ddn vi dien tich am dUdc van chuyen qua m ang theo mot hudng nao dd dUdc coi la
tUdng dUdng mot ddn vi dien tich dudng dUdc van chuyen theo hudng ngUdc lai.

1.1.3. Phifffng trinh Goldmann

Su can b l n g van chuyen dien tich qua m ang khi dien the nghi dUdc thiet lap
cd the dUdc viet dudi dang bieu thtic sau:

J K + J N a ~ J Cl + ^ K ^ i :NA ~ ^C L ~ ^ (5.1)

trong dd:

71a mat do dong khuech tan ion nao dd qua mang theo gradient nong do.

I la mat do dong ion dUdc van chuyen qua m ang bang luc dien trudng.

Mat do dong la dai ltidng vectd, trong (5.1) vectd cac mat do dong cd phudng
vuong goc vdi mang va cd hudng tti trong ra ngoai hoac ngUdc lai.
Chu y: (cac dieu kien cua phudng trinh)
- phUdng trinh tren mdi chi tinh den sU van chuyen thu dong ma chUa tinh
den sU van chuyen chu dong.

- phudng trin h (5.1) bo qua sti van chuyen cua cac ion vo cd khac, th i du
nhu Ca++.
Tam cho rang tat ca cac ion trong moi trudng noi bao va ngoai bao deu cd
the tu do tham gia vao qua trin h khuech tan. Vdi dieu kien bo sung nay, J va 7
cua tting ion trong (5.1) cd the tinh dUdc chi qua cac tham so”: nong do trong va
ngoai te bao cua ion dd. he so tham cua mang doi vdi ion va dien the mang (ma
trong phudng trin h nay chinh la dien the nghi). Tti dd ngUdi ta da dung toan hoc

173
de bien doi phudng trin h (5.1) th&nh phiidng trin h (5.2) g in nhii tiidng diidng de
tinh dien the nghi.

KT . F k I ^ +I t r + ] TR + P c i [ C I ] yvc
£ _ ___ In ____________________________________________ (o.2)

F P kI K ' I ng + P NJ N a * ] NG + P cJCl' 1TR

E0 - dien the nghi F - hang sd' Faraday,

R - hdng sd'khi li tudng, T - nhiet dd theo Kelvin
PK, PNa, Pa - he sd tham cua mang doi vdi cac ion
[K+], [Na*], [Cl] - ndng dd cac ion trong hoac ngoai tebao

Phiidng trin h (5.2) mang ten phiidng trin h Goldmann.

6 day ta can nhlc lai ve he so tham cua mang te bao do'i vdi mot loai ion
nhat dinh. Dd la mot dai liidng dac trUng cho siic can cua mang te bao len chuyen
dong cua ion dd khi di qua mang, gia tri cua no ty le thuan vdi he so khuech tan D
va ty le nghich chieu day cua mang (xem lai bai 3 phan 1.4.2.1). He so” tham cua
mang doi v6i cac ion ngay ca khi khong cd kich thich ben ngoai len mang cung
khong phai la mot dai liidng co dinh ma phu thuoc rat nhieu vao trang thai sinh
ly cua cd the. No con phu thuoc vao sii cd mat cua cac hoa, diidc chat. V i vay dien
the nghi khong phai la gia tri co” dinh, tuy nhien thay doi tiidng doi it (dac diem
cua dien the nghi).
Khi cd cac kich thich tac dong len mang, tinh tham cua mang tuc la cac he
so tham do’i vdi cac ion thay doi va keo theo sii thay doi dien the mang.

De kiem chilng cho tinh dung dan cua phudng trin h Goldmann ngUdi ta da
tinh dien the nghi d axon khong lo cua con miic. Dudi day la bang so” lieu thiic
nghiem ve nong do cac ion K \ Na+, Cl' tai moi trUdng trong va ngoai axon khong
lo cua con mUc

Nong do, m moi/ kg H20

Ion
Trong te bao Ngoai te bao
K* 340 10
Na* 49 463
Cl' 114 562

Doi vdi axon con miic, tUdng quan ty le giiia cac he so” tham cua mang te bao
d trang thai nghi doi vdi cac ion thu dUdc b ln g thiic nghiem nhu sau:
Pk : P \a : Pci = 1: 0.04: 0,45

174
 D l tha'y rSng PN4 ra't nho so vdi PK v& Pa , vi vay cac thanh p h ln lien quan
den Na trong (5.2) c6 the bo qua. Thay cac gia tri tren v&o phudng trin h
Goldmann ta thu dUdc E0 = -59,7 mV. Gia tri n&y r&'t gan vdi ket qua thuc nghiem
\k -60 mV
Cac gia tri dien the nghi khac tfnh dUdc tu: phiidng trin h Goldmann cung
tiidng do'i phu hdp vdi cac gia tri thu diidc tif thuc nghiem. Nhii vay cd the tha'y
rin g sii can bln g van chuyen dien tich cua cac dong ion K+ vk C1‘ qua mang ma
phiidng trinh Goldmann la he qua cua no la nguyen nhan chinh giai thich sii hinh
thanh dien the nghi.

1.1.4. Bam Na* - tC

Tren day chung ta chi gidi han trong viec mo ta cd che quyet dinh tao nen va
duy tri dien the nghi. Van con chiia ro rang cac qua trin h ciic ky phiic tap khac
d iin ra trong te bao. Tren hinh ve 5.3 ta cd the tha'y rin g ca gradient nong do lan
dien trUdng trong mang deu thuc day cac ion Na+ chuyen dong qua mang tif ngoai
vao trong. Mac du tinh tham cua mang doi vdi Na+la rat nho nhung van cd mot so'
liidng nhat dinh ion Na+ khdng ngiing diidc van chuyen vao trong. Cd che van
chuyen chu dong cua mang te bao, thiidng dUdc goi la bdm Na+ - K+ hay ngan gon
la bdm Natri, diidc cho la da day mot liidng Na+ tudng dudng ra ngoai chong lai
liic dien trUdng va xu the khuech tan de duy tri dien the nghi. Bdm N atri khong
chi thai ion Na+ du thtia ra ngoai ma con thu vao ben trong te bao ion K+ de bti
tru: sii thieu hut ion nay do sii khuech tan ra ngoai.
Cac phan iing hoa sinh trong te bao cung cap nang ludng cho hoat dong cua
bdm Natri. Khoa hoc g in nhu da khang dinh rin g , phan tii ATP (adenozin
triphosphat), chat du trti nang lUdng chinh trong te bao, khi bi phan cat bdi cac
enzyme se cung cap nang lUdng cho viec true xuat 3 ion Na+ ra ngoai va dong thdi
thu vao 2 ion K +.
Nhan xet:

Su ton tai cua dien the nghi chinh la dac trUng cua te bao song. Dieu dd ndi
len rang te bao song cd dii trti the nang dudi dang dien. The nang khong the cd
dUdc hay la dien the khdng the dUdc tao ra khi te bao chet.

Dien the nghi cd dUdc la nhd sii chenh lech ldn ve nong do cua cac ion K +,
Na+, Cl d hai phia mang te bao va tinh chat ban tham cua mang. Sii chenh lech
nong do cua cac ion ke tren dUdc tao ra va duy tr i bdi cac bdm ion. Chinh sii hoat
dong cua cac bdm ion la bieu hien “stic song” cua te bao.

1.2. Dien the hoat dong

Trong th i nghiem vdi axon khong lo cua con muc, khi klch thich du manh
mang te bao, dien the mang se thay doi dot bien. Dien the ben trong te bao tang
rat nhanh, tti khoang -60 mV chi sau cd 1 ms da dat den khoang 50 mV. Ngay
sau dd dien the ben trong giam xudng nhanh chong va trang thai phan ciic cu
dUdc lap lai gan nhu ttic thdi chi sau vai ms.

175
 Khai niem: Kich thich du manh co the lam cho dien the mang bien doi dot
bien trd nen cd dau ngiidc vdi dien the nghi va chi ton tai trong thdi gian vo cung
ngin. Xung dien the hinh thanh (hieu dien the ton tai trong khoang thdi gian r£t
ng&n) dUdc goi la dien the hoat dong (action potential). Dudng cong dac trUng cua
mot dien the hoat dong hay con goi la xung dien dong dUdc bieu dien tren hinh 5.4

1.2.1. Ghi do dien the hoat dong

- Trong ky thuat ghi ngoai bao hai dien ciic dUdc dat tren be mat mot te bko
to ldn nao dd (te bao than kinh hay sdi cd) va noi vdi von ke nhay tii ghi.
Khi te bao d trang thai tinh, dien the ben ngoai tren tat ca be mat te bao
la nhu nhau nen khdng cd hieu dien the gitia hai dien ciic. Nhung neu ta
dting mot kich thich nao dd tac dong len te bao canh mot dien ciic thi
trudc tien dien ciic gan ndi bi kich thich hdn se cd dien the thap hdn. Sau
mot thdi gian ng&n hieu dien the giam xuong khdng va sau dd den lUdt
dien ciic d xa hdn lai trd nen cd dien the thap hdn.
- Trong ky thuat ghi noi bao thi cting dting mot vi dien ciic noi bao cam
xuyen qua mang te bao nhu trong th i nghiem do dien the nghi. Hai dien
ciic dat tai cting mot vi tr i dUdc noi vdi dao dong ki tu ghi va ta cd the
quan sat sii thay doi dien the mang theo thdi gian qua cac giai doan khac
nhau (hinh 5.4).

Hinh 5.4. Xung dien the hoat dong

Pha dau tien cua dien the hoat dong, trong dd hieu dien the gitia mat trong
va mat ngoai nhanh chong bi trie t tieu va dien the mat trong tiep tuc tang len va
trd nen dudng so vdi mat ngoai. dUdc goi la pha khti ciic (depolarisation). Khi dien
the mang trd nen dudng, ta ndi rang mang te bao bi dao phan ciic. Sau khi dat
den mot gia tri tdi han EP. dien the ben trong giam nhanh chong tdi gia tri dien

176
the nghi, pha nay goi la pha tai phan ciic (repolarisation). Thdi gian keo dai cua
xung dien the nhon tif 0,5 - 3 ms. Tuy nhien, dien the nghi on dinh chua dUdc
thiet lap ngay. Sti bien doi cua dien the mang xay ra tiep theo sau xung dien
the nhon triidc khi trd v i gid tri dien the nghi on dinh con dtidc goi la pha
phan citc vitat miic (hyperpolarisation).

1.2.2. C a che tao ra dien the hoat dong

Hai phia cua mang te bao dUdc tich dien tra i dau cung tUdng tu nhu hai ban
tich dien trai dau cua mot tu dien sau khi dUdc nap dien. Neu nhu noi hai ban cua
tu bang mot day dan dien thi hieu dien the giiia hai ban cua tu se nhanh chong bi
triet tieu. Trong qua trin h phat sinh dien the hoat dong cung xay ra mot sii kien
tudng tii nhu the. Sii khu ciic mang da dUdc chiing minh la do xuat hien dudng
d in truyen ion Na+ qua mang te bao von gan nhu khong cho ion Na+di qua khi d
trang thai tinh. Chung ta se cung phan tich lan lUdt cac pha khii ciic va pha tai
phan ciic.
Pha khit ctic : Nhu da de cap b tren (hinh ve 5.3), ca dien trUdng lan
gradient nong do deu trd giup cho chuyen dong cua Na+ tii ngoai vao trong. Dau
tien kich thich lam cho dien the mang thay doi tii E0 (dien the nghi) tdi mot gia tri
Et goi la ngUdng khu ciic ma tai dd tinh tham cua mang te bao do'i vdi ion Na+bat
dau tang vot va dong ion Na+“ao at” di vao ben trong te bao, tii day qua trin h khu
ciic mang bat dau (hinh 5.5). Su tang dot bien tinh tham doi vdi Na+ dUdc giai
thich bang sii md ra cac "kenh" N atri cd ban chat protein tren mang.
Nhd gradient nong do cac ion Na+tiep tuc tran vao ben trong te bao ca sau
khi dien the hai phia cua mang can bang, vi vay so vdi ben ngoai ben trong se cd
dien the dudng tang nhanh - mang te bao bi dao phan ciic. Dien trUdng xuat hien
khi dd se can trd dong Na+ di vao ben trong dong thdi thuc day cac ion K + chuyen
dong ra ngoai. Dien the dUdng ben trong se dat tdi mot gia tri tdi han EP ma d dd
dong Na+ di vao bang dong K + di ra. Cung bat dau tii day tinh tham cua mang doi
vdi Na+ giam di nhanh chong (cac kenh N atri bat dau dong lai), dong K +trd nen
vUdt troi dong Na+ di vao, sii tai phan ciic bat dau.
Pha tdi phan ctic : Sii van chuyen rat manh ion K + tuf trong te bao ra ngoai
la tac nhan chu dao cua qua trin h tai phan ciic. Bay gid th i ca gradient nong do va
liic dien trUdng deu ho trd sii van chuyen K + ra ngoai. Them vao dd tinh tham cua
mang te bao doi vdi ion K + trong qua trin h tai phan ciic lai tang len rat nhieu (cac
"kenh" Kali md) va giup tang cUdng sii van chuyen K + ra ngoai. Tren hinh 5.5
cung dong thdi bieu dien mot cach tudng doi sii thay do°i tinh tham cua mang doi
vdi cac ion Na+, K+ trong qua trin h phat sinh dien the hoat dong.

177
 pha khu cuc pha tai phan cuc

ddng Net
/ \
ngoai ngoai
+ + -- + + + + + + 4 + +

+
+ + + + + + + + f +

t
trong trong
/
ddng I C

Sau mot xung dien the hoat dong, sii van chuyen mot liidng ldn ion Na+ v&o
trong te bao cung nhii mot liidng ldn ion K + ra ngoai te bao da pha vd sii chenh
lech nong do can cd cua cac ion nay. De duy tr i sii chenh lech nong do can thiet
cho hoat dong song cua te bao, cac bdm N atri trong mang te bao phai hoat dong
manh de bai xuat Na+ dii thtia tu: trong ra va thu vao K + thieu hut. Do dd dien the
hoat dong keo theo sii tieu hao nhieu nang liidng.

Hinh 5.5. Sii thay do’i he so tham cua mang doi vdi Na+ va K" trong qua trinh
phat sinh dien the hoat dong

1.2.3. Dac diem cua dien the hoat dong

Bien do va diidng cong bien thien cua dien the hoat dong gan nhu khong phu
thuoc vao ciidng do cung nhu ban chat cua tac nhan klch thich ma chi phu thuoc
vao tinh chat te bao bi kich thich.
Chi can kich thich tao nen dUdc mot gia tr i dien the mang goi la "ngiidng
khii ciic” ma tii dd tinh tham cua mang doi vdi Na+ b it dau tang dot bien (xem
hinh ve). Sau dd xung dien dong se la qua trin h “tii liic” cua te bao va khong the
du'ng lai, cd nghia la mot xung dien dong dac trUng chac chan se phat sinh.

178
 Khong the phat sinh mot xung dien the hoat dong mdi trUdc khi ket thuc
pha tai phan ciic. Thdi gian ton tai cua xung dien the nhon la giai doan trd cua
m&ng te b&o, cd nghia la trong thdi gian nay mang te bao gan nhu khong dap ting
lai vdi moi kich thich dti manh den dau. Trong sU dap ting lai mot klch thich
manh k6o d&i lien tuc, vai tram xung dien the hoat dong giong nhau co the dUdc
san sinh trong mot giay.
Dien the hoat dong cd tinh chat tai cho, sii md cac kenh N atri chi xay ra d
ndi chiu anh hudng cua klch thich, cac vting khac cua mang te bao tam thdi van d
trang thai “nghi” ttic la van “ddng” do’i vdi Na+. Su phat sinh cac xung dien dong
tre hdn d cac vting khac tren mang te bao se dUdc de cap rieng ngay sau day.

1.3. Sir lan truyen dien the' hoat dong

Khai niem: Trong trUdng hdp nhting te bao ldn, th i du nhu te bao than kinh
vdi nhting sdi true keo dai (axon), dien the hoat dong cd the dUdc san sinh tai mot
vung nao dd cua te bao va dUdc truyen den nhting vting khac. Su klch hoat mot
vting nao dd cua mang te bao keo theo sii klch hoat noi tiep cac khoang canh nhau
tren mang va xung dien dong lan truyen theo suo't ca te bao. Cac xung dien cting
cd the dUdc truyen di qua cac mo khi mot te bao bi klch hoat keo theo sU klch hoat
te bao ben canh.

1.3.1. Cor che lan truyen dien the hoat dong

Khi ta klch thich len mot vting nao dd tren mang te bao du de tao ra xung
dien dong thi sii klch hoat mang khdi diem chi mang tinh tai cho trong pham vi
vting bi klch thich. Nhu vay khi ma mot vting cua mang bi dao phan ciic, trong ca
hai moi trUdng dien ly noi bao va ngoai bao deu se xuat hien sii chenh lech ve
dien the gitia vting dang hung phan dd vdi nhting vting gan nhat dang yen tinh
cua mang. Sii chenh lech dien the nay lam phat sinh nhting ddng dien dUdc
truyen theo moi trUdng dien ly d hai phia cua mang te bao. Nhting sii kien dd
dUdc minh hoa tren hinh 5.6. Chinh nhting ddng dien “tai cho” nay da klch hoat
mang tai nhting vung lan can ndi tren. Nhting xung dien dong phat sinh tai
nhting vting nay van nhd cd che tren lai keo theo sU hung phan nhting vung yen
tinh ben canh nhUng khong phai la vting vtia bi klch hoat trUdc dd do vung nay
van dang con trong giai doan trd (xem dac diem cua dien the hoat dong). Nhu vay
sU lan truyen.se theo hudng tien ra xa vting bi klch hoat dau tien.

/ / moi trudng
ngoai bao
+ + + + + + + + + + +

Vung “ tinh” Vung bi kich hoat Vung “ tinh” Mang te bao

+ + + + + + moi trudng
noi bao
I I
Cac ddng dien tai chd

Hinh 5.6. Su phat sinh cac dong dien tai cho

179
1.3.2. S u la n truyen dien the hoat dong theo soi than kinh
Sii d in truyen cac thong tin trong cd the thuc hien dUdc la nhd vao sii lan
truyen cac xung dien dong theo sdi th in kinh. Dac diem cua sii lan truyen nay:
Ta co the goi mot hoac chuoi cac xung dien dong tai diem phat sinh ban dau
tren sdi than kinh la song hung phan. Qua trin h lan truyen khong lam thay doi
dang cung nhu bien do cua song hung phan. Dang cua song hung phan bao ham
ca thdi gian keo dai cua mot xung cung nhu: mat do chuoi cac xung cua song. Sd di
song nay khi truyen trong moi trUdng khong bi yeu di vi no lay nang liidng tif
chinh moi trUdng (d day la the nang dudi dang dien cua mang te bao).
Trong nhulng dieu kien sinh ly khong doi, toe do lan truyen cua xung dien
dong doi vdi sdi than kinh nhat dinh la khong doi. Cac ph6p do chi ra rang doi vdi
sdi than kinh trdn khong cd bao myelin, toe do truyen gan nhu ty le thuan vdi can
bac hai cua ban kinh sdi.
Doi vdi cac sdi than kinh cd diidng kinh nhii nhau, toe do truyen trong cac
sdi cd bao myelin ldn hdn trong cac sdi khong cd bao myelin.
Sii dan truyen xung dien dong nay trong sdi than kinh cd ban chat hoan
toan khac vdi sii lan truyen dien trUdng trong moi trudng dan dien cua cd the
(ddng dien). Sii dan truyen xung dong dien la sii kich hoat noi tiep cac vung canh
nhau tren mang te bao. Dong dien truyen trong moi trUdng dan dien nhin chung
nhanh bang toe do anh sang, con cac xung dien dong diidc truyen doc theo cac sdi
than kinh vdi toe do trong khoang 1 -100 m/s. Xung dien dong truyen nhanh nhat
trong cac te bao than kinh ldn nhu la trong tuy song va cham nhat trong cac sdi to
than kinh be nhat.

1.3.3. Dac thu cua s i/d a n truyen trong axon cd bao myelin
Tren be mat axon dUdc boc myelin co cac eo Ranvier dai khoang vai |im ma d
dd khong cd bao myelin. Bao myelin co dien trd suat ldn va be day 1 - 3 urn gan
nhu la ldp cach dien ngan moi trUdng trong va ngoai axo».

Ddng dien girfa cac eo Eo Ranvier Bao Mielm

ngoai
-------- ------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------- v 7

+ + +.
+ + +

trong A xon

,+ + +

Eo ” lucng phan ” Eo ” yen tinh ”

Hinh 5.7. Su kich hoat noi tiep cac eo Ranvier canh nhau d axon cd bao myelin

180
 Nhting vung tren mang difdc boc myelin khong co sU van chuyen cac ion qua
mang do do khong the phat sinh dien the hoat dong. Su d i n truyen xung dien
dong do do dUdc nhay tif eo Ranvier nay den eo Ranvier tiep theo. Dieu do xay ra
nhd cac dong dien “ tai cho” difdc noi d tren truyen theo moi trUdng dien ly trong
va ngoai axon giiia hai eo Ranvier canh nhau va gay nen hung phan d eo dang yen
tinh (hinh 5.7).
Su d i n truyen xung dien dong theo cach nhay bifdc nhif tren co Idi the ve toe
do truyen va tiet kiem nang lifdng.

Bang thuc nghiem cac nha khoa hoc con phat hien ra mot dieu dac biet la,
chinh dong dien truyen theo moi trUdng dien ly ngoai bao myelin mdi la nhan to"
quyet dinh sU lan truyen xung dien dong. Neu khong co moi trUdng dien ly ngoai
bao myelin thi dien the hoat dong khong lan truyen difdc.

Su ton thudng bao myelin se lam hon loan sU lan truyen xung dien dong
theo sdi t h in kinh ma he qua cua no nhieu khi la cac benh nghiem trong ve t h in
kinh.

2. DIEN THE HOAT DONG CUA TO CHLfC SONG

Cd the khong phai la mot moi trUdng dang the, ngUdi ta ghi nhan dUdc
nhting the hieu tuy rat nho nhUng on dinh va mang tfnh chu ki ro ret gitia cac
vung nhat dinh tren cd the. Nhting the hieu nay khong bat nguon tti ben ngoai
ma do cac to chtic song trong cd the sinh ra khi thuc hien nhting hoat dong sinh ly
chtic nang binh thudng, do vay ngUdi ta goi chung la dien the hoat ^ong cua to
chtic song. Dien sinh vat co the la nguyen nhan, co the la ket qua cua cac hien
9 v

tUdng sinh ly trong cd the. Thi du: cd co khi nhan dUdc xung dien do than kinh
van dong dan tdi, nhung khi cd co, to chtic cd cting sinh dien goi la dong dien cd.

Dien the hoat dong ghi ditdc tren cd the cua mot to chtic song nao do la ket
qua cua dien trU&ng do to chtic song do tao ra trong qua trinh hoat dong cua no.

Dien the hoat dong cua to chtic song va dien the hoat dong tren te bao song
la hai khai niem khac han nhau. NhUng chinh nhd cac xung dien dong d cac te
bao va sU lan truyen cua chung trong mo hay cd quan trong qua trinh hoat dong
chtic nang da tao ra dien trUdng tong hdp cua cua mo hay cd quan do.

NgUdi ta da ghi lai dUdc dien the hoat dong cua cac to chtic cd the nhu tim.
nao, cd, ruot, da con, day mat. Ttiy thuoc vao klch thUdc va hoat dong cua to chtic
song, dien trUdng cua no manh yeu rat khac nhau, thi du nhu dien nao rat yeu,
dien tim tUdng doi manh.

2.1. Dien the hoat dong cua tim

Nhting the hieu ldn nhat (co the hdn lm V ) va cung quan trong nhat doi vdi
y khoa dUdc ghi do tren cd the la nhting the hieu sinh ra bdi hoat dong cua tim.

2.1.1. C a che ly sinh dieu khien nhjp tim

He than kinh trung Udng khong dieu khien trUc tiep hoat dong cua tim. Su
co bop tu dong nhip n hang cac ngan cua tim dUdc klch thich va dieu hoa bdi mot

181
he mo cd “dac biet” nam trong tim. He nay bao gom hai nut mo va mot he thong
d in truyen xung dien kich thich va dtidc cau thanh tif cac te bao cd “dac biet” . Nut
mo quan trong nhat n lm tren thanh tam nhi phai ndi do vao cua tinh mach chu
tren goi la nut SA (sinoatrial: xoang). Nut mo thti hai la ntit AV (atno-ventricular:
nhi-that) n lm tren day cua tam nhi phai. Tti ntit AV xuat phat bo cac sdi cd dac
biet goi la bo His, bo_nay chia lam hai nhanh di ve hai tam that. Tti cac nhanh cua
bo His lai tach ra cac sdi cd Purkinje nho hdn dan den tat ca cac phan cua he cd co
tren thanh tam that. Day chinh la he d in truyen xung dien kich thich.

Hinh 5.8

Tai nut SA cac xung dien dong lien tiep dtidc phat ra, dieu nay co diidc nhd
cac te bao cd “dac biet” cua nut SA co kha nang tti kich hoat dong loat deu dan
khong nghi. Cac thong tin tti cac vung cua cd the (nhting thong tin mang yeu clu
tang hay giam ltidng mau hay 0 2 ,...) qua he than kinh thtic vat den tim va dtidc
nut SA dap ting lai b ln g nhip phat cac xung dien dong cua minh. Sti tiet mot so
hormone vao mau(ket qua cua cac cam xtic) cung anh htidng manh den nhip tim.
Trong trtidng hdp khong co nhting thong tin nay nut SA co nhip rieng cua no.
Co the noi rang nut SA la “nhac trtidng” dieu khien nhip dap cua tim. Mot
chu ky co bop cua tim dtidc khdi nguon bdi xung dien dong tai nut SA. xung dien
nav phat tan ra khap he cd tam nhi. trtidc tien la tam nhi phai, sau den tam nhi
trai va kich hoat sti co cd. Mat mot khoang thdi gian tti 120 -220 ms de xung dien

182
dong truyen tif nut SA den nut AV va kich hoat nut nay. Sau do xung dien tif nut
AV lan truyen theo bo His vh cac sdi Purkinje den he cd co cua tam that vdi mot
to'c do lan truyen nhanh gap 10 lan so v6i theo mo cd tim binh thtidng va tao ra
mot sif kich hoat g in nhti dong thdi tat ca cac cd co cua tam that. Chinh dac tinh
d in truyen xung dien rat nhanh cua bo His va cac sdi Purkinje lam cho cac tam
that co bop manh va hieu qua. Sau khi cac cd cua tam that phuc hoi trang thai
“nghi” , xung dien dong tiep theo lai dtidc phat ra tif nut SA va chu ky hoat dong
m6i cua tim b it d lu . Cac sti kien tren dtidc minh hoa tren hinh ve 5.8
Nut SA, nut AV, bo His va mang ltidi cac sdi Purkinje deu co kha nang tti
kich hoat deu dan. Neu vi li do nao do nut SA ngting hoat dong thi nut AV se thay
nut SA nhting vdi nhip phat xung cham hdn. Neu cat mot mieng cd tim va cho vao
moi trtidng dinh dtidng thi no van tiep tuc co gian mot thdi gian vi khi do mang
cac sdi Purkinje trong mieng cd lai tti kich hoat deu dan.

2.1.2. Mo hinh dien don gian cua tim

Dung dich dien ly gitia cac te bao tim (vung gian bao) tao nen mot moi
trtidng dan dien tho'ng nhat. Khi tat ca cac te bao tim d trang thai “tin h ” , dien the
tai moi diem trong do nhti nhau. Khi mot vung nao do cua tim bi kich hoat thi moi
trtidng dan dien nay se khong con dang the ntia, vung bi kich hoat co dien the am
so vdi cac vung khac (he qua cua sti dao phan ctic). Vung gian bao noi tren mot
cach qui tide ta phan ra vung nhi va vung that.
De p h ln nao lam sang to nguon goc cua nhting dien the hoat dong cua tim
ta hay xet thdi ki dac biet nhat trong chu ki hoat dong cua tim la tam that thu.
D lu thdi ki nay nut AV bi kich hoat, sau do xung dien tif nut AV lan truyen rat
nhanh den cac cd co cua tam that. Mot vung ldn bi kich hoat g in nhti dong thdi
nhti the nen cd the hinh dung dtidc la tim bi phan ctic manh, ca vung that ndi d
tren d trang thai hting phan con ca vung nhi da phuc hoi trang thai “nghi” , hai
vung se tich dien trai dau. Ta ndi rang tim co stic dien dong dang ke. Ltiu y rang
toan bo cd the bao quanh tim (chat dich dien ly trong cd the,cac mach mau, day
th in kinh, v.v.) tao nen moi trtidng dan dien tho'ng nhat tiep giap va bao quanh
hai vung nay. Vi vay chung ta hoan toan cd the mo hinh hoa qua tim nhti mot
may phat dien cong sua't rat nho co stic dien dong thay doi vdi hai ctic la tam nhi
va tam that. Toan bo cd the bao quanh tim dtidc mo hinh hoa nhti la mot mach
dien phtic tap gan vdi may phat nay. Mot mo hinh dien pho bien khac cua tim la
coi tim nhti mot ltidng ctic dien tao ra dien trtidng thay doi trong moi trtidng xung
quanh. Du la theo mo hinh nao th i tai moi diem tren cd the deu co mot dien the
nhat dinh.
Neu tren be mat tim ta dat hai dien ctic tai tam nhi va tam that va noi vdi
dao dong ky thi ta cd the chd ddi sti xuat hien mot xung dien the rat ro ret trong
thdi gian ngan ngui d lu ky tam thu that, dd chinh la dien the hoat dong ctic dai
cua tim. Nhting suy luan d tren ttidng do'i phu hdp vdi thtic nghiem (hinh 5.8).
Trong thdi gian tam nhi thu, vi xung dien tti nut SA phat tan ra k h lp tam
nhi cham hdn theo cac mo cd tim thtidng nen sti phan ctic tim rat phtic tap va
khong ro ret. Tuy nhien d pha nay cung nhti d cac pha khac trong mot chu ki hoat

183
dong cua tim, ket qua sti phan ctic tim v in la sti hinh thanh ctic nhi va ctic th&'t
tich dien tra i dau (de y rang tam nhi va tam that luon co bop lech pha nhau).

2.1.3. Ghi dien tim va dien tam do

2.1.3.1. Dien tam do

Tti mo hinh tren ta co the thay rang, tai mot diem bat ki cua mach dien bao
quanh tim (d day la toan bo cd the) deu cd mot dien the nhat dinh. Thong thtidng
ngtidi ta do hieu dien the gitia hai diem nao dd tren cd the cd chenh lech dien the
dang ke.
Do thi bieu dien sti bien thien hieu dien the gitia hai diem dtidc ltia chon
tren cd the theo thdi gian dtidc goi la dien tam do (ElectroCardioGram -ECG).
Tren hinh ve 5.9 minh hoa mot doan dien hinh cua ECG ttidng ting vdi mot
chu ki hoat dong cua tim khoe manh.Tren do th i nay chung ta thay co cac ddn
sdng dtidc dat ten bang cac chti cai P, Q, R, S, T, cd the con cd ddn sdng U nhting
hiem thay. Ta nhan thay cac sdng khac nhau ve hinh dang, bien do va thdi
khoang. Nhting dti kien dd deu phan anh trang thai hoat dong cua tim. Song P, T,
U cd the am hoac dtidng, d tim khoe manh th i dtidng. To hdp QRS gan nhti luon co
mat vdi Q am, R dtidng va S am.
Dong nhat dtidc cac net cua mot doan ECG dien hinh vdi cac sti kien dac thu
trong mot chu ki hoat dong cua tim lam cho ECG trd thanh mot cong cu chan
doan vo cung qui gia. Cach chan doan tinh trang hoat dong cua tim qua ECG dtidc
de cap ki trong cac sach chuyen mon sau, nhting binh luan khai quat ve cac dtidng
net tren ECG d day chi mang y nghia minh hoa cho tm h ting dung cua ECG.

Hinh 5.9. Mot doan dien hinh cua dien tam do d tim khoe manh

184
 Ddn song P dac trting cho sti phat sinh xung dien tai nut SA va sti kich hoat
tiep theo ca tam nhi, pha nay k6o dai 0,08 - 0,1s. Khi nghi ngdi, song P d cac van
dong vien co bien do thap hdn nhting ngtidi ldn khac. Bien do song P cao hdn mtic
binh thtidng co the lien quan den sti kich thich bi roi loan cua tam nhi.
Dtidng din g the" gitia song P va Q phan anh toe do truyen xung dien tti nut
SA den nut AV, pha nay keo dai 0,12 - 0,22s.
Tiep theo sau do, to hdp song QRS phan anh sti kich hoat nut AV va sti lan
truyen xung dien dong den he cd co cua tam that. Pha nay keo dai khoang 0,12s.
Bien do qua ldn cua song R noi len sti phi dai cd tam that. Trong trtidng hdp rung
that, song R khong ro ret.
Dtidng dang the gitia S va T keo dai khoang 0,12s.
Ddn song T phan anh sti trd ve trang thai nghi cua tam that. Bien do tang
cua song T phan anh sti trao doi chat tang cao tai cd tim.
Dtidng dang the gitia T va P cua chu ki sau la giai doan toan bo tim 6 trang
thai nghi.

2.1.3.2. PhUOng phap ghi dien tim

Mac du cac dien ctic ben trong doi khi dtidc
dung de ghi dien tim, nhting trong chan doan
thong thtidng ngtidi ta dung cac dien ctic dat
trtic tiep tren da. Khi tim co bop, tat ca moi
diem tren be mat cua cd the deu co sti thay doi
dien the. Hinh 5.109 cho biet sti phan bo dien the
v <)

tren be mat cd the tai thdi diem stic dien dong

cua tim ldn nhat (ting vdi dinh song R). Ta thay
trong do bieu dien nhting dtidng dang the.
Dtidng MN chi htidng cua true dien tim - htidng
cua stic dien dong phan ctic cua tim, binh
thtidng true nay song song vdi true giai phau
cua tim. Dtidng thang vuong goc vdi true dien
tim tai mot diem nhat dinh co dien the bang 0.
Tat ca nhting diem nam phia dtidi dtidng nay co
dien the dtidng. phia tren co dien the am. Gitia
hai diem bat ki d hai phia true 0 deu co the ghi
dtidc dien tim. De ghi dtidc dien tim, ta chon
nhting diem ma gitia chung co hieu dien the 16n
nhat. Neu cac dien ctic dtidc dat tren ngtic thi
cac tin hieu thu dtidc se ldn hdn va it co kha
nang bi “nhieu” bdi cac tin hieu dien sinh vat
khac. Tuy vay trong phep do pho bien nhat, cac Hinh 5.10. Phan bo cac
dien ctic dtidc dat tren hai tay va chan trai. Ba dUdng ding the tren cd the
dien ctic nay tao nen mot tam giac rat hieu dung
goi la tam giac Einthoven. Hieu dien the ghi

185
diidc giiia hai diem cua cd the goi la chuyen dao dien tim (hoac dao trinh). Tam
giac Eithoven se cho ba chuyen dao lan ltidt la:
Chuyen dao D[ ghi hieu dien the giiia tay trai va tay phai
- Chuyen dao Dn ghi hieu dien the giiia tay phai va chan trai
- Chuyen dao Dm ghi hieu dien the' giiia tay tra i va chan trai.
Mgoai ra con co cac chuyen dao khac niia. Ngtidi ta can den cac chuyen dao
khac nhau de xac dinh ttidng do'i hinh chieu cua vec td stic dien dong tim len mat
trtidc cd the, mot dti lieu cung dtidc dung trong chan doan.

2.1.4. May tao nhip tim (pacemaker)

Vi nhieu qua trin h sinh ly dtidc kich hoat bdi cac xung dien dtidc tao ra
trong cd the bang cd che sinh hoc nen da xuat hien y ttidng rang, co the phat dong
dtidc cac qua trinh nay bdi cac xung dien nhan tao ttidng dtidng. May tao nhip tim
la mot th i du khong xa la ve sti thanh cong cua y ttidng nay.
Nut SA la mot “ may tao nhip tim ” thien nhien, tuy nhien khi no khong phat
huy chtic nang hoac khi he dan truyen xung dien den cac tam that bi "ket” , hoat
dong nhip nhang cua tim bi pha vd. Nguyen nhan pho bien nhat van la do cac
xung bi “ket” tren dtidng dan truyen. Khi do tam nhi van co bop tuan theo nhip
cua nut SA, nhting tam that thi co bop theo nhip doc lap cua nut AV, nhip nay
cham hdn, khoang 30 - 40 nhip/phut .
May tao nhip tim, dtidc nuoi bdi pin, tao ra cac xung dien kich thich theo
mot nhip da dtidc dinh trtidc. Bien do dien hinh cua xung dien -10 mV, thdi gian
keo dai xung khoang vai mi li giay, tan so' xung khoang 60 -70 xung/phut. Cac
dien ctic dtidc gan vdi cd tim. Cac may tao nhip tim tinh vi lam viec trong che do
“trtic chien”(standby), co nghia la no chi hoat dong khi nhip dap tim xuong tha'p
hdn mtic do nao do.
Tuy goi la “ may” nhting no rat nho va dtidc ca'y dtidi da d vung bung hoac
ngtic, cac day dan se no'i no vdi tim. Phan “hop dien tti” nay co the d l dang lam
nho va co tuoi tho cao. Van de chinh la nguon cung cap nang ltidng rat can phai
nuoi dtidc may that lau. Mot so' loai pin dac biet co the nuoi may 10 -20 nam. Neu
pin het, se can den mot tieu phau thuat. Phau thuat ldn la khi dat cac dien ctic va
day dan den tim.
Mot trong nhting htidng giai quyet van de nguon nuoi la, nang ltidng cho
may se dtidc cung cap bdi chinh cac hoat dong cd hoc trong cd the. Con co nhting
htidng di khac day htia hen. tat ca deu nham lam cho benh nhan dtidc dat may tao
nhip tim hoan toan khong cam giac co mot thiet bi dien tii trong ngtidi ho.
Ban chat dien cua nhieu cd che dieu khien trong cd the md ra nhting kha
nang to ldn trong viec ting dung cac xung dien nhan tao de kich thich hay dieu
hoa cac qua trin h sinh ly. Ngay nay khoa hoc da thanh cong trong viec che tao cac
dung cu thay the cho nhting ngtidi tan tat dtidc dieu khien bang cac y nghi cua ho.

186
2.2. Cac dien the hoat dong khac difdc dung nhieu trong chan doan
2.2.1. Ghi dien nao va dien nao dd
Nao ngudi co mot cau tao phiic tap, gom khoang 1010 te bao than kinh
(ndron). Moi te' bao nao giong nhu mot nguon dien ty hon ma dien the hoat dong
luon luon bien doi. Cac te bao nao lien he chat che vdi nhau nen moi bien doi ve
dien cua mot te bao lai keo theo nhutng bien doi ve dien d cac te bao khac. Ket qua
la nhieu te bao nao co the hdp nhat dong dien hoat dong cua chung trong trang
thai dong bo (synchronized). Qua trin h nay tao nen cac song dien nao, cac song
nay co kha nang truyen qua xUdng so va da dau.
Tinh chat cua dien nao do do nhieu thong so' quyet dinh, tuy nhien tren thuc
te chu yeu ngUdi ta dUa vao tan so' cua chung.
Co nhieu tac gia phan loai theo quan niem va kinh nghiem cua minh, nhUng
nhin chung khong co sai lech nhau nhieu lam, du6i day la sU phan chia pho bien
cac nhom song
Song delta (8): 0,5 -j- 3Hz
Sdng theta (9) : 4 -s- 7Hz
Song alpha (a): 8-s- 13Hz
Sdng beta (P): 14 -5- 30Hz
Song gamma (y): 30 -r 50Hz
Song dien nao la nhiing dao dong co tan so', bien do va hinh dang khac nhau
(hinh 5.11)
- Song delta thudng xuat hien d dien nao do trong trUdng hdp dang ngu sau
hay benh ly nhu hon me, song nay thudng ghi dUdc d phan sau cua nao.
- Song theta thudng gap tren dien nao do cua tre em, nhung d liia tuoi ldn
hdn 10 th i bien do va so' lUdng cac song theta giam di nhieu. 0 ngUdi khoe manh
khong phai luc nao cung ghi dUdc song theta. Bien do cua song theta vao khoang
20 -r 50)uV. Tren dien nao do co the nhin tha'y cac song theta rieng le hoac tap hdp
thanh tiing cum.
- Song alpha xuat hien d da so' trUdng hdp ngUdi ldn khoe manh trong dieu
kien thu gian ve giac quan va tinh than. Bien do co the trong khoang 20 + 100|j.V.
- Sdng beta ghi dUdc tren dien nao do cua da so' ngUdi, nhung tren ngUdi
khoe manh chi chiem mot ti le rat nho. Tuy theo tiing tac gia, bien do song beta d
trong khoang 3 h- 5pV. Sdng beta cd the xem la dac trUng cho phan trudc cua nao
(vung tran va vung trung tam), nhUng tren mot so' ngUdi song beta dUdc the hien
nhieu d vung thai dudng.
K hi ghi dien nao. ngUdi ta cho do'i tUdng doi mot cai mu dac biet trong do co
cac dien cUc nho bang kim loai cd the tiep xue vdi da dau qua mot loai sap d§n
dien. Tuy theo vi tri dat dien cUc ma ta cd cac chuyen dao khac nhau.

187
 - Chuyen dao don cUc: Trong trUdng hop nay mot dien ciic dUdc dat 6 vung
co hoat dong dien nao, goi la dien cUc hoat dong, dien cUc kia dat xa ndi phat dong
dien nao, goi la dien cUc trung hoa (thudng dat 0 dai tai, hoac d mui).
- Chuyen dao ludng cUc: Doi
vdi chuyen dao ludng cUc ca hai
dien cUc deu dUdc dat tren vung
hoat dong cua nao. Ca hai dien cUc
deu dUdc goi la dien cUc hoat dong.
Dien the thu dUdc trong chuyen
Alpha
dao ludng cUc la tong dai so dien
the cua hai dien cUc.
He thong phan bo dien ciic
quoc te:
De kh^c phuc tinh trang sai
lech cac ket qua nghien ciiu thu Beta
dUdc cua cac tac gia va de giup cho
viec theo doi dien bien benh tat
qua dien nao do tren mot ngUdi
benh dUdc dong nhat, hoi nhUng
ngUdi nghien ciiu dien nao quoc te
da dUa ra he tho'ng phan bo dien
cUc dat tren dau theo mot ti le D elta

khoang cach va mot trin h tu nhat

dinh phu hdp vdi vi tr i giai phau
cua nhiing phan khac nhau trong
bo nao.
Dien nao do (EEG: electro -
encephalogram) rat cd gia tri trong Theta

chan doan dong kinh, khoi u, mot

so dang nghien ma tuy va cac benh Hinh 5.11.
khac nhau lien quan den nao.

2.2.2. Ghi dien co

Chung ta da biet ddn vi chiic nang cua bo may than kinh van dong dUdc goi
la ddn vi van dong. Thanh phan chu yeu la te bao than kinh van dong va mot
nhom sdi cd ma no dieu khien. 0 trang thai nghi ngdi, dien the mang cua sdi cd
ngudi trung binh khoang 80mV. Khi cd kich thich, xung dong dUdc truyen tu day
than kinh den sdi cd. sdng khu cUc cua mang dUdc truyen theo sdi cd va chung ta
ghi dUdc dien cd dudi dang dien the hoat dong. Dang cua dien the hoat dong phu
thuoc vao cau true cua ddn vi van dong, loai dien cUc va vi tr i cua dien cUc (xuyen
vao trong hay tiep xue be mat).
0 ngudi khoe manh, dung dien cUc kim xuyen vao cd cd the dan dUdc dien
the hoat dong cua mot ddn vi van dong khi cd co chu dong. No la ket qua cong
dien the hoat dong cua nhung sdi cd gan dien cuc kim thuoc ddn vi van dong dd. vi

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nhting s d i cd d gan cung dtidc kich thich bang chinh xung dong tif day than kinh
den. Dien the hoat dong cua ddn vi van dong la mot chudi cac xung giong nhau ve
hinh dang va bien do (hinh 5.12)

50 ^ '

ICO f l i t

Hinh 5.12. Dien the dong cua ddn vi van dong (cd bap tay)
1. Dien cUc dong tam 2. Dien ci/c ludng cUc

Trong thuc te cd la mot cd

quan tho'ng nhat, cac ddn vi van
dong lam viec dtidi sti dieu khien
cua than kinh. Sti phoi hdp va
lam viec cong dong cua cac don
vi van dong dtidc the hien qua Hinh 5.13. Sir chuyen tCr dien the dong cua
dien cd do giao thoa. Khi dung cac ddn vi van dong rieng biet sang dien cd do
dien ctic kim de nghien cUu dien giao thao
cd do, ta thay khi cd co yeu chi
mot vai ddn vi van dong lam
viec, dien the hoat dong cua no thUa thdt; khi cd co manh tren dien cd do thay
hinh anh day dac cua cac dien the hoat dong chting to cd nhieu ddn vi van dong di
vao hoat dong. Ket qua cho ta dien cd do giao thoa, luc nay chung ta khong the
phan biet dtidc dien the hoat dong cua tting ddn vi van dong (hinh 5.13).
Dien cd do (EMG: electromyogram) dtidc dung trong chan doan nhting roi
loan than kinh-cd va de theo d5i sti phuc hoi day than kinh sau ton thtidng cd.

3. TAC DUNG CUA DONG DIEN LEN CO THE

3.1. Phan umg cua cd va than kinh doi vdi kich thich dien
Chung ta cd the dung cac yeu to' cd, nhiet, dien, hoa de kich thich cd va than
kinh. Tuy nhien trong cac th i nghiem khao sat tinh dap ting cac kich thich cua te
bao va mo ngtidi ta thtidng dung ddng dien lam tac nhan kich thich do cac tiu
diem rd ret cua no. Thti nhat, te bao cd va than kinh nhay cam nhat do'i vdi cac
kich thich dien. Thti hai, ctidng do va thdi gian tac dong cua kich thich dien la cac
dai ltidng do dtidc va de dieu tiet. Kich thich dien thtidng dung la xung vuong.

3.1.1. Dinh luat tat ca hoac khong

Thtic nghiem xac nhan r£ng vdi nhting kich thich dien cd thdi gian keo dai
nhat dinh, neu ctidng do nho, phan ting cua cd va than kinh chi xuat hien tai chd

189
dat dien ctic kich thich, bieu hien bang mot xung the hieu co dac tinh la bien dp
tang d£n theo ctidng do cua kich thich (hinh 5.14). Do la phan ting tai cho. Neu
kich thich co ctidng do du ldn, nghia la vtidt qua mot gidi han xac dinh goi 16
ngtidng kich thich thi no tao dtidc tren te bao cd hay than kinh trang thai hting
phan bieu hien bang mot dien the hoat dong, sau do lan di doc theo te bao va c6
bien do khong doi trong suot qua trin h lan truyen (hinh 5.14). Kich thich tren
ngtidng du ldn den dau cung chi tao ra xung dien dong giong nhau (xem dac diem
dien the hoat dong)

/N
NgUdng kich thich

Hinh 5.14. Su dap ung cua dien the mang vdi ci/dng do kich thich dien

3.1.2. Mdi lien quan giua s i/x u a t hien hung phan va cac thong so cua kich thich
De xac dinh mtic do de hting phan cua te bao cd hay than kinh, nha sinh ly
hoc Phap L.Lapicque de xuat ghi lai hai thong so' cua kich thich dien: ctidng do
kich thich va thdi gian keo dai kich thich. Mot kich thich bat ki vdi hai thong so
tren dtidc cho ting vdi mot diem trong mat phang (I, t). Tren do thi d hinh ve 5.15
bieu d iln dtidng cong ngtidng dac trting cua mo hay te bao nao do. Dtidng cong
nay ngan mat phang (I, t) ra hai mien: mien tren ngtidng va mien dtidi ngtidng.
Moi kich thich thuoc mien dtidi ngtidng khong the gay nen hting phan va moi kich
thich thuoc mien tren ngtidng se gay dtidc hting phan. Qua dtidng cong dang
hyperbol do co the thay rang, de cho kich thich gay dtidc hting pha'n tren te bao
hoac mo, ctidng do kich thich cang nho th i thdi gian kich thich doi hoi cang dai va
ngtidc lai.

190
 Hinh 5.15
Tti do thi 5.15. Chung ta co khai niem ve cac dai ltidng sau:
- Ngtidng thdi gian C
Do la khoang thdi gian ngan nhat ma xung dien kich thich phai keo dai de
co the gay nen hting phan tren te bao. O dong vat co xtidng song, gia tri C cua te
bao than kinh vao khoang fas. Ta thay rang neu thdi gian keo dai cua xung dien
ngan hdn C th i du xung dien co ctidng do ldn den dau cung khong co kha nang gay
nen trang thai hting phan cua cd hay than kinh.
- Ngtidng kich thich hay reobazd (Rheobase) ky hieu la b
Do la ctidng do nho nhat ma xung kich thich phai dat dtidc de gay nen trang
thai hting phan tren cd hay than kinh. Theo hinh 5.15 ta thay khi t-» co thi I —> b
vi vay co the xac dinh b theo do thi. Ta thay rang neu ctidng do cua xung kich
thich nho hdn b th i du co keo dai bao lau xung dien cung khong the gay hting
phan tren cd hay than kinh. Reobazd cang nho, te bao hay mo cang de hting phan.
- Thdi tr i hay cro-nac-xi (Chronaxi)
Do la khoang thdi gian ngan nhat ma mot xung dien co ctidng do gap hai lan
ngtidng kich thich (2b) can phai keo dai de gay nen dtidc hting phan tren cd hay
than kinh. Cro-nac-xi cang ngan, hting phan tren doi ttidng xuat hien cang nhanh.
Ngtidi ta do thdi tri bang thdi tri ke (chronaximeter). Viec xac dinh thdi tri
pho bien trong thtic nghiem va trong lam sang, th i du do thdi tri de xac dinh mtic
do ton thtidng cua day than kinh van dong.
Hdp cac kich thich: Hai kich thich dtidi ngtidng co the gay nen hting phan
tren te bao (hien ttio'ng cong tac dung hai kich thich dudi ngtidng) neu nhti:

191
 - Hai kich thich dtidi ngtidng cung tac dung vao mot vi tr i cua te bao cach
nhau khoang thdi gian du ngan.
- Hai kich thich dtidi ngtidng dong thdi tac dung vao hai vi tr i du gan nhau
cua te bao.

3 .2 .Cac thong so dien cua cd the

Viec nghien ctiu cac thong so' dien cua te bao va mo nham hai muc dich
chinh. Thti nhat la tim hieu mot so' dac tinh vat ly cua vat chat song. Thti hai la
nghien ctiu sti bien doi cua cac thong so' dien lien quan vdi trang thai chtic nang
cua he, vi trong nhting dieu kien nhat dinh cua cd the cac thong so nay thtidng co
gia tr i ttidng do'i co' dinh.

3.2.1. Do dan dien cua cac mo doi vdi ddng dien khong doi
Thong so dien cd ban cua mot doi ttidng la do dan dien L va dien trd R cua
no. Gitia chung co moi lien he ddn gian sau:

i= I
R

Thong thtidng R dtidc xac dinh qua cong thtic:

R=P 1
s
trong do: p la dien trd sua't; Cla chieu dai cua do'i ttidng va S la be mat tiet
dien ngang cua do'i ttidng.
Viec xac dinh gia tr i dien trd sua't cua cac he tho'ng song la mot van de het
stic kho khan va phtic tap. Trtidc het, cac do'i ttidng nay la mot he tho'ng khong
dong nhat, da pha. Thti hai la tren be mat tting te bao bao gid cung co mot ldp
chat long vdi do dan dien rat cao va binh thtidng khong the tach ldp vo dd ra
dtidc, vi neu tach ldp vd do te bao se chet. Khi xac dinh do d in dien cua mo hoac
cd the da bao ta cung gap phai nhting kho khan tren. Trong trtidng hdp nay,
dong dien chu yeu di qua vung gian bao cd do dan dien kha ldn, vi tai dd cd
nhieu loai ion vd cd cd nong do cao. Mat khac khoang gian bao khong phai la mot
dai ltidng co' dinh ma thay doi tuy theo trang thai cua cac te bao, chang han nhti
khi te bao bi trtidng hoac bi teo. Hdn ntia nong do cac ion trong gian bao cung
thay doi. Tuy vay ngtidi ta cung xac dinh dtidc ttidng do'i do d in dien cua cac mo
khac nhau trong cd the
- Cac mo md va md cd cd dien trd sua't nhd nhat, p =10 Qm.
- Da kho va xtidng cd dien trd sua't ldn nhat, p =106Qm
- Cac chat dich trong cd the nhti tuy song, mau dan dien rat tot. p =lQm
Do dan dien cua cac md va cac cd quan phu thuoc vao tinh trang hoat dong
cua chung, do dd cd the dtidc dung trong chan doan. Thi du khi mot to chtic bi
viem. cac te bao trtidng len. khoang gian bao hep lai va do dan dien giam xuong.

192
3.2.2. Tong tra (impedance) cua te bao va mo
Trong cd the song ton tai vo so" cac mang sinh vat, cac mang nay co tinh chat
tiidng tii nhii cac tu dien, g in nha khong cho dong mot chieu di qua nhiing cho
dong xoay chieu di qua. Chinh vi vay dien trd cua cac mo do"i vdi ddng mot chieu
r&"t ldn. Con doi vdi dong xoay chieu thi ngoai thanh p h ln dien trd th u ln cua mo,
he dien dung tren cung gop phan vao sii dan dien. N hii vay dien trd cua te bao va
mo la tong trd (impedance) cua dien trd thuan va dung khang cua chung. Sii co
mat cua thanh phan dien dung trong he thong song con diidc chiing minh qua
tinh chat quan trong khac la sii lech pha. Co nghia la khi hieu dien the xoay chieu
diidc dat vao mo song la
U - Umax cos cot
thi dong dien chay qua mo se bien thien nhii sau
I = I max cos ( cot -cp)
Goc lech pha cp 0 noi len tinh chat “song” cua mo, khi mo chet th i cp- 0
C) cac he sinh vat, ngiidi ta thay dac triing bdi gia tr i goc lech pha rat ldn.
Dieu do chiing to rang vai tro cua dien dung trong cac he nay rat cao. Thi du d tan
so 103Hz goc lech pha cua mot so" do"i tiidng th i nghiem do diidc nhii sau:
Than kinh ech 64° Cd thd 65°
Da ech 55° Da ngiidi 55°
Can phai noi luon la gia tri cua goc lech
pha nay cung nhii tong trd cua mo song rat co" Z
dinh trong vung tan so" dong dien kha ldn. Dieu
nay co the giai thich nhii sau: cac doi tiidng
sinh vat deu la he “dien trd thuan, dien dung”
song dien dung khong phai la dien dung tinh
ma la dien dung phan ciic. Ta biet rin g doi vdi
dien dung tinh C= const thi khi tan so" tang,
dung khang Xc= l/C co giam, tong trd giam va
goc lech pha tang. Con doi vdi dien dung phan
ciic, dung khang cua no trong mot khoang tan 0 lgco
so" nao do se khong thay doi.
Tren hinh 5.16 bieu dien sii thay doi Hinh 5.16
tong trd Z vao lg co cua mo song, khoe (diidng
cong 1) va cung cua mo do nhiing da bi chet
(diidng thang 2). Trong mo chet cac mang te"
bao von dong vai tro cac “tu dien song” da bi
pha huy, do dd mo se chi gom dien trd thuan. _
Sii bien thien tong trd vao tan so" cho phep R1 C

danh gia siic song cua cac mo, trong cay ghep
cac cd quan ngiidi ta cung co ap dung dieu R2
nay. Ngoai ra goc lech pha cp cung cung cap
cac thong tin bo ich ve trang thai cua mo.
Hinh 5.17

193
 De danh gia kha nang dan dien cua te bao v& mo, ngtidi ta thudng xav dting
nhiing sd do vat ly tiidng diidng, nghia la mo hinh hoa tinh dan dien cua he thong
song. Hinh 5.17 ve sd do vat ly ttidng diidng do mot so' nha nghien ciiu de xu&'t.
Trong hinh, la dien trd thuan p h in noi bao, R2 la dien trd thuan phan gian b^o.
C la dien dung phan ctic, khong co dinh ma phu thuoc tan so dong dien.

3.3. Nguy hiem do dien. Cac bien phap an toan dien

3.3.1. Nguy hiem do dien

Dong dien khi di qua cd the gay nen cac hieu iing sinh ly khac nhau tuy thuoc
vao cac yeu to' cua dong dien. Cac hieu iing sinh ly nay co the la cac ton thtidng hay
cam giac dau ddn va nang thi co the d in den tti vong. Mtic do gay ton thtidng cho cd
the cua dong dien phu thuoc chu yeu vao ctidng do, thdi gian di qua va dtidng din
truyen dong dien trong cd the. Thi du ve anh htidng cua dtidng d in truyen:
- trong cac th i nghiem tren cho, dong dien qua vung tim lam chet con v&t
nhanh hdn dong dien qua trung khu than kinh
- d ngtidi, quan sat tha'y tai nan nghiem trong hdn khi dong dien noi hai chi
khac phia nhau di qua long ngtic, ching han tti tay phai den chan trai
Tuy nhien, trong cac yeu to' tren thi ctidng do dong dien la yeu to' quyet dinh
do nghiem trong cua tac hai. Kho co the tong quat dtidc, the hieu bao nhieu thi
nguy hiem cho con ngtidi, vi ctidng do dong dien truyen qua cd the phu thuoc
khong chi vao the hieu ma con vao dien trd cua cd the va cac vat trung gian noi cd
the vdi cac dien ctic nhti giay dep, quan ao,...
Khi cac dien ctic dtidc dat trtic tiep tren be mat cd the th i do ldn cua dong
dien chu yeu dtidc quyet dinh bdi dien trd cua da. Dien trd cua da ve phan minh
lai bi anh htidng rat manh bdi do am da. Thi du dien trd cua cd the dtidc do tti tay
nay sang tay kia bien thien tti 106 Ohm do'i vdi da rat kho xuong 1000 Ohm doi
vdi da tidt, ttic la bien thien hang nghin lan. Ben trong cd the dong dien dtidc dan
truyen chu yeu theo cac mach mau va mach bach huyet, cac cd, mang bao boc cac
true than kinh.

The hieu tao nen dong dien,

Cudng do ung vdi dien trd cd the
Hieu ung sinh ly
dong dien
10.000 n 1000 n

1 mA NgUdng cam giac 10 V 1V

5 mA MCrc do “vo hai" cao nhat 50 V 5V
10 - 20 mA Bat dau hien ti/png “co cting cd" (ngUdng “khong 100-200 V 10 -2 0 V
buong”)
50 mA Cam giac dau, co the ngat choang va kiet sire. Tim, 500 V 50 V
phoi van hoat dong.
100-300 mA Rung that, tif vong neu keo dai them. Ho hap van 1000-3000 V 100-300V
tiep dien
6A Co "cung" co tam that, tiep theo sau la nhip dap tim 60.000 V 6000 V
binh thudng. Ho hap te Net tam thdi. Cd the bi bong.
------

194
 Ngtidi ta da khao sat rat nhieu tren nhting ngtidi tinh nguyen ve cac hieu
ting sinh ly ma dong dien gay ra tren cd the. Bang d tren cho ta biet cac hieu ting
sinh ly m& dong dien 60 Hz (tin so cua ltidi dien dan dung) d cac ctidng do khac
nhau gay nen tren cd the khi truyen qua than ngtidi trong mot giay qua cac dien
ctic dat tren da.
Thu^t ngti ngtidng “khong buong” (don’t let go) b it nguon tti hien ttidng sau,
dong dien tren mtic nay gay ra sti co cting cd nam ban tay ma khong the duoi ra
dtidc theo y muon. Vi vay trong cac tai nan ve dien, neu tay tiep xue vdi vat dan
dien xoay chieu (thtidng co trong da so' trtidng hdp) ngtidi bi nan thtidng bi giti
chat vao vat dan dien, tti minh khong the ru t tay ra dtidc, do do lam tr im trong
them hau qua. Ngtidng “khong buong” la mot thong so' quan trong, dong dien tren
mtic nay dtidc coi la nguy hiem doi vdi con ngtidi.
Do'i vdi dong xoay chieu, t in so' la mot yeu to' quyet dinh do ldn ngtidng
“khong buong” . Do th i tren hinh 5.18 bieu dien mot cach ttidng do'i sti phu thuoc
ngtidng “khong buong” va ngtidng cam giac cua ctidng do dong dien vao lg f (f la
tin so' dong dien truyen tti tay nay qua tay kia). Nhti ta co the tha'y tren do thi,
dong xoay chieu 50, 60 Hz dung rong rai khap ndi trong cuoc song co ngtidng nguy
hiem thap nhat. Ngtidc lai dong xoay chieu t in so ldn hdn 10.000 Hz ctidng do
phai rat ldn mdi nguy hiem do'i vdi cd the. Dong dien co t in so' rat ldn iai co xu
htidng gay bong.

Hinh 5.18
Moi nguy hiem ldn nhat cua dien la tac dung kich thich cd va th in kinh. Doi
vdi ddng dien mot chieu. tacTlung nay chi xay ra khi dong, ngat mot mach dien co
ctidng do cao. Trong cac tai nan do dien mot chieu va ctidng do dong dien tdi hang

195
chuc ampe, ngtidi bi dien giat co mot cam giac dau ddn dot ngot, co the bi choang
tham chi co the ngat di mac dau nao chua trtic tiep bi kich thich.
Nhting tai nan chet ngiidi vi dien thiidng xay ra dot ngot, ngiidi bi nan nga
xuong khong kip keu, sau vai giay, it khi tdi vai phut, ngiidi bi nan se chet. Trong
da so' triidng hdp chet vi dien giat, ngiidi ta thay xuat hien mot sti tang ap liic
khong khi dot ngot trong diidng ho hap, co the dan den lam vd cac phe nang.
Ngoai ra con thay xung huyet day dac d phoi va co khi phu phoi ntia. Cac bo ph&n
khac cung it nhieu bi xung huyet. Tuy vay trai vdi quan niem triidc kia cho rang
nguyen nhan chinh gay tii vong trong tai nan dien la do te liet ho hap. quan diem
y hoc hien nay cho rang nguyen nhan gay tii vong pho bien la rung that. Tim dac
biet nhay cam vdi “giat dien” vi hoat dong bdm mau cua tim diidc dieu khien bdi
cac xung dien sinh vat, cac xung dien co nguon goc ben ngoai cd the lam dao Ion
sii dieu khien nay va gay ra hoat dong hon loan cac buong tim (rung that). Nhieu
tac gia cd nhiing y kien khac nhau ve cd che tong quat cua tai nan dien.
Mot nguy hiem khac cua dien la tac dung nhiet cua ddng dien. Ta biet rang
toan cd the va moi doan cd the deu cd mot tong trd vdi ddng dien mot chieu va
ddng dien xoay chieu. Vi vay khi ddng dien chay qua cd the, nhiet liidng toa ra
trong tiing doan cd the phu thuoc vao ciidng do ddng dien va tong trd cua doan cd
the dd. Chinh vi vay tinh trang bong cd the xuat hien trong doan cd the nay ma
khong xuat hien d doan cd the khac.

3.3.2. De phong tai nan do dien

3.3.2.1. Nguyen nhan bi giat dien

Dieu kien bat buoc de cd ddng dien truyen qua cd the la hai dien ctic co
chenh lech dien the cung tiep xue vdi cd the. Nhiing con chim dau tren day dien
cao the khong bi dien giat vi ca hai chan deu tiep xue vdi cung mot dien the. Ngoi
trong xe o to neu bi day cao the rdi vq.o xe cung khong sao vi lop xe cach dien xe
vdi dat. Trong ky thuat dien ngudi ta diing thuat ngii day “nong” de chi day din
cd dien the khac khdng, day “nguoi” la day trung hoa, con “dat” de chi mat dat
cung cd dien the b&ng khdng. Thong thudng day “nguoi” cua nguon dien dtidc noi
dat. Da so cac tai nan xay ra do sti tiep xue cua nan nhan vdi day "nong’ cua
nguon va ca vdi “dat” . Thi du nhti chan tran di tren dat, con tay do vd y cham phai
day “nong” .

3.3.2.2. An toan dien trong sinh hoat va lam viec

Ngay nay trong cuoc song quanh ta, cac may moc, thiet bi sti dung dien da
rat pho bien. Vi vay viec n im vting nhting nguyen tic de phong tai nan do dien la
rat can thiet do'i vdi moi ngtidi.Cac nguyen tic chinh de de phong va giam bdt miic
do nguy hiem cua tai nan do dien la:
- Khong de tinh cd tao nen mach: day “nong” - cd the - “dat” . Cu thi la,
khdng lam viec chan tran tren nen dat, san am, can chu y rang day dep bang da
cung dan dien, nhat la khi da am tidt, hoac giay, dep cd ddng nhieu dinh kim loai.
Vi vay giay, dep can giti kho va khong ddng dinh kim loai vao de. Giay hoac dep

1Qfi
cao su tot hdn ve mat an toan dien. Tiidng am ddng vai trd “dat” hoac day “nong”
neu nhu cd sii rd dien.
- Khdng cung luc cham hai tay (hay hai phan cua cd the) vao vo kim loai cua
mot hay hai thiet bi dien. Khi dang lam viec vdi thiet bi dien khdng cham tay vao
cac vat kim loai xung quanh, lutu y rang tay lidt d in dien tot, tay khd van dan
dien nhiing kem hdn. Dung cac dung cu cd boc cach dien, cd the di gang cao su
nhiing khdng diidc dung gang qua mong, de rach, gang cao su qua day lai lam
giam chinh xac khi thao tac.
- Thiic hien noi dat tot cho cac thiet bi dien va cd kem cau chi. Khi dien tu:
bo phan ben trong cua may truyen vao vd kim loai cua may thi vo may trd thanh
day “nong” , neu vd nay khdng noi dat thi khi mot bo phan cua cd the tiep xue vdi
vo may cd the dan den tai nan. Vi vay can phai noi vd kim loai cua may vdi dat de
khi cd dd dien ra vd nay, dien truyen xuong dat qua cau chi bao ve hoac bo phan
cat dien til dong lam ngat dien vao may.
- Thiic hien cac bien phap cach ly cac cho nguy hiem cua mach dien bang
cac vat cach dien hoac bang lildi kim loai cd noi dat.
- Tang ciidng giao due rong rai y thiic de phong tai nan do dien bang cac
hinh thiic van hoa quan chung, thong tin tuyen truyen. Chu y dat cac bang tin
hieu bao sii nguy hiem tai cac ndi trong yeu. Kiem tra, nhac nhd can bo, cong
nhan vien thiic hien tot cac bien phap de phong tai nan do dien.

3.3.2.3. An toan dien trong benh vien

Ngoai cac kien thiic ve nguy hiem do dien nhii da ndi d tren, chung ta rat
can biet them mot dac thu khac cua nguy hiem dien trong linh vile y te. Ngiidng
nguy hiem cua ddng dien diidc de cap den trong (3.3.1) la do'i vdi triidng hdp ddng
dien qua da vao cd the, ddng dien do dd diidc phan bo rong theo cd the. Trong
triidng hdp cd day dan den thang tim thi ngiidng gay nguy hiem cua ddng dien se
nhd hdn khoang mot nghin lan. Trong th i nghiem vdi chd chi can 20 jiA da du gay
nen sii rung that. N hii vay cac benh nhan cd cac vat dan cam vao trong ngiidi, thi
du nhii cac ong thdng, hut (catheter), cac kim truyen dich, va nhat la cac benh
nhan diidc dat may tao nhip tim (pacemaker) la nhom “dac biet nhay cam” vdi
dien. Ngoai ra trong benh vien thiidng xuyen phai thiic hien cac phep ghi do,
chieu chup dien nhii ECG, chup X quang va thiic hien cac lieu phap dien khac
nhau tren ngiidi benh nhan, vi vay an toan dien trong benh vien cang phai dac
biet coi trong.
Sau day la mot so' qui tac an toan dien trong cac cd sd kham chiia benh:
1. Tat ca cac thiet bi dien, chinh xac la cac vd dong cd dien. may X quang. may
dien lieu phap, may ghi dien tim, may ghi dien nao,... phai diidc noi dat. Ngay nay
h iu het cac thiet bi dien deu cd phich cam ba day de noi dat. Tuy nhien phai kiem
tra luon luon day ndi dat vi thiet bi van hoat dong diidc khi day noi dat hd.
2. Benh nhan khdng diidc tiep xue vdi dat, nhat la phai chu y de cac day d in
va cac vat kim loai tren ngiid^ benh khdng cham dat. Giiidng sat phai cd chan hay
banh xe cao su each dien.

197
 3. Cac vo kim loai tran cua cac thiet bi dien phai cach xa tim vdi cua benh
nhan.
4. Khi dang thtic hien cac phep do dien hoac lieu phap dien. cac day tiep xue
vdi benh nhan phai dtidc cach dien rat tot vdi nguon.
Chu y: Bien phap thti nhat la quan trong nhat vi ba bien phap sau cd the de
dang bi vi pham do bat can.
Doi vdi nhom benh nhan “dac biet nhay cam” vdi dien nhti da noi d tren, cac
nhan vien y te can ltiu y them:
5. Khdng cham mot tay ban vao vat dan cam vao ngtidi benh, con tay kia
cham mot vat kim loai khac. Nhd rin g luc dd mot ddng dien rat nhd (-5 0 jiA ) c6
the qua ban vao benh nhan ma mac du ban khdng cam giac dtidc nhting lai gay
nen nguy hiem (rung that) cho benh nhan.
6. Dat toan bo cac thiet bi dien dang lien quan den cac benh nhan “dac biet
nhay cam” vdi dien vao trong cac hop chtia hay tren cac de cach dien. Trong cac
benh vien hien dai cd loai gitidng chuyen dung danh cho nhom benh nhan nay, co
bang dien rieng de phuc vu cac thiet bi dien. Bien phap nay la toi tiu.

3.4. Tac dung tich circ cua dong dien len cd the va ting dung trong y khoa
Dien cung giong nhti nhieu yeu to' vat ly khac, neu tac dung vao cd the con
ngtidi vdi mtic do thich hdp, dtidc theo doi va dieu chinh than trong se dan den
nhting ket qua dtidng tinh, phu hdp vdi muc dich va Idi Ich cua con ngtidi.

3.4.1. Hieu ung ly-hoa-sinh trong cac mo khi cd ddng m ot chieu di qua

Cac dung dich sinh ly chiem ty trong rat ldn trong cd the song, dd la moi
trtidng dan dien vi trong dd hoa tan mot so' ltidng ldn cac i-on (chu yeu la vd cd):
Na+, K+, Cl', ... Dtidi tac dong cua dien trtidng cac ion chuyen dong cd dinh htidng
vdi cac to'c do khac nhau. Cac phan tti htiu cd cd cau true ltidng ctic dien thi sip
xep lai theo htidng dien trtidng. Mat khac ton tai ra t nhieu mang ngan (mang te
bao, mang cd, cac vach ngan gitia cac cd quan,...) nen cac ion khdng di chuyen tu
do dtidc, vi the tai vung lan can cac mang ngan xuat hien sti tap trung cac dien
tich, ket qua la tao thanh dien trtidng phan ctic d nhting vung chiu tac dung cua
dien trtidng ngoai.
Sti phan bo lai cac dien tich nhti vay lam thay doi dien the mang va tinh
tham cua mang te bao, anh htidng den qua trin h khuech tan va tham tha'u. Nhieu
chat binh thtidng khdng the qua mang thi nay de dang di chuyen qua. Cac hoat
dong trao doi chat cung dien ra manh hdn.
Tai cac ctic dien dat tren cd the xay ra cac phan ting dien phan. Thi du nhu
cac phan ting sau cua cac ion Na+ va Cl tai ctic am va ctic dtidng ttidng ting:
Na+ + H 20 + e = NaOH + 1/2H2?
2C1 + HoO - e = 2HC1 +1/2CK

198
 3.4.2. Ung dung cua ddng dien m ot chieu trong vat ly tri lieu
x 9
Trong vat 11 tri lieu ting dung cua dong dien mot chieu co the chia ra thanh
hai nhom chinh dtia theo dac diem dong dien dtidc sti dung.

3.4.2.1. Dung ddng dien mot chieu khong doi

- Lieu phap Galvani (galvanisation): Cho dong dien mot chieu deu di qua
nhting vung can thiet tren cd the
Hieu ting cuc bo tai vung cd the co dong dien di qua: cac mao mach dan ra,
tinh tham cua cac mang te bao va cac thanh mao mach tang len, nhd do cac hoat
dong trao doi chat dtidc tang ctidng, trtidng ltic cd giam, tuan hoan mau va bach
huyet tang, ngoai ra sti tie t dich tai cac tuyen cung tang, tinh phan ting cua than
kinh cam giac giam,...Pham vi ting dung lieu phap Galvani la: chong viem, giam
dau, gian mach, thuc day cac qua trin h tai tao, dieu hoa tiet dich, tang dinh
dtidng, thti gian cd,...
Ngtidi ta thtidng dung hieu dien the trong khoang 60-80 V, vdi dieu kien
phai tuan thu gidi han ctidng do ddng dien cho phep do'i vdi cac vung khac nhau
tren cd the. Thi du do'i vdi cac chi, ctidng do toi da I MAX =20-30 mA trong khi tai
vung mat I MAX = 3-5 mA, con do'i vdi niem mac mui va mom la 2-3 mA. Thdi gian
cho ddng dien di qua cd the keo dai nhieu phut.
- Dien di (electrophoresis) cac dtidc chat:
Cac dtidc chat trong dung dich bi phan ly thanh cac ion, khi dat cac dung
dich dd trong dien trtidng cac ion chtia trong dung dich se chuyen dong ve phia
dien ctic tra i dau.Trong dieu tri ngtidi ta dung ddng dien mot chieu deu de dtia cac
dtidc chat qua da va niem mac vao cd the. De lam dieu nay ngtidi ta tam dung
dich dtidc chat can thiet vao ldp boc cua mot dien ctic xac dinh trong so' hai dien
ctic va thtic hien giong nhti trong Galvani lieu phap. Dtidc chat se dtidc dtia vao tti
ctic dien cd dau trung vdi dau ion thanh phan tac dung cua thuoc.
Thi nghiem co dien sau cua
Leduc minh hoa rat ro rang viec
cac dtidc chat cd the tham nhap
vao cd the qua da manh hdn nhieu
dtidi tac dung cua ddng mot chieu.
Hai tho T 1( T2 dtidc cao sach long
hai ben stidn, dat tiep xue gitia hai
thd mot khoi bong C tam dung
dich dtidc chat khao sat. Hai ben
stidn con lai cua hai thd dat hai
dien ctic rong noi vdi nguon dien
H in h 5.19 m9t chieu nhti tren hinh 5.19.
*
strychnin, cho ddng dien cd 50-100 mA di qua trong vai phut, thd T] khdng sao con
thd T2 co giat chet vdi cac bieu hien dac trting bi nhiem doc chat strychnin. Goc
strychnin la ion dtio'ng dich chuyen ve ctic am lam thd T2 chet ma khong lam thd
T, chet

199
 * Neu C tam dung dich Kalicyanua (KCN), bay gid th i thd T2 khdng sao con
thd Tj chet vi goc cyanua la ion am di ve ctic dtidng
Phtidng phap dien di cac dtidc chat hdp nh&'t dtidc ca tac dung cua ddng mot
chieu trong lieu phap Galvani, ca tac dung cua dtidc chat, hdn the ntia ddng dien
lam dtidc chat tham nhap sau hdn, tac dung lau hdn va cd mtic do hoat dong
manh hdn nhieu so vdi binh thtidng.

3.4.2.2. Dung ddng xung dien

Xung dien la ddng dien hoac hieu dien the ton tai trong thdi gian rat ng&n
con ddng xung dien la mot chuoi noi tiep cac xung dien giong nhau. Ddng xung
dien dtidc dac trting bdi cac dti kien sau(hinh 5.20):
- Thdi gian ton tai xung dien x: la khoang thdi gian keo dai cua mot xung.
- Chu ky ddng xung dien T: la khoang thdi gian tti khi b it dau mot xung
cho den khi bat dau xung tiep theo.
- Tan so' ddng xung dien f = 1/T do bang ddn vi Hec (Hz)
- Bien do xung dien hay ctidng do xung dien: do ldn ctic dai cua xung, do
b in g ddn vi mA, jjA.,... hay la mV, j^V
- Dang cua xung dien, th i du nhti xung vuong (a), xung rang ctia (b), xung
hinh thang (c), xung ham mu e (d), xung hinh chuong (e),...

M U ^ T ^

U m ax x T

----------- >
o /

Hinh 5.20
Ngtidi ta dung cac loai ddng xung dien rat khac nhau theo cac chi so' tren
cho cac muc dich tri lieu khac nhau. Cach sti dung ddng xung dien mot chieu
trong vat ly tri lieu ve cd ban cung giong nhti trong lieu phap Galvani. Trong lieu
phap nay cd them mot so nhting tac dung dieu tr i khac vdi lieu phap Galvani thi
du nhti : an than, gay ngu, chong co that, klch thich cd va than kinh (trong phuc
hoi chtic nang cac cd quan va mo),... Ngtidi ta con ket hdp dting ddng xung dien
mot chieu vdi cham ctiu trong dien cham va thu dtidc ket qua to't.

200
3.4.3. M gt ung dung ddc biet cua ddng m ot chieu . M ay k h i/ru n g
Mot trong nhiing trang bi thiet yeu cua mot phong hoi siic cap ciiu tieu
chuan la may khii rung ma thtidng dtidc biet den dtidi ten goi pho thong hdn -
“may soc dien” .
Mot dong dien nho di qua tim co the gay nen rung that, nhting mot dong
dien ldn hdn nhieu co the gay nen mot sti co “cting” tam that (co nghia la mot sti
co cd dtidc bao toan). Khi rung that dang de doa sti song, mot dong dien ldn trong
khoanh khac truyen qua tim se chan rung that lai va nhip dap tim binh thtidng
dtidc phuc hoi khi dong dien ket thuc. Bien phap kha “soc” nay da chting minh
dtidc hieu qua cua no trong viec chan dting hoat dong hon loan cua cac buong tim
va du lau de cac xung dien tim tti nut SA lay lai sti kiem soat. Bien phap “soc” nay
con dtidc dung trong cap ctiu ngting tim.
May khii rung (defibrilator) thtic chat la mot tu dien ldn. Dien tich dtidc nap
va ltiu giti trong cac ban tu tao nen mot hieu dien the rat cao -7500 V, nhting doi
khi cao tdi 10.000 V. The hieu mot chieu rat cao nay dtidc nap tti nguon xoay
chieu qua mot may bien the va mot diode (den dien tii hai ctic). Hieu dien the tti
bien the ra la xoay chieu nhting diode chi cho dong dien di qua theo mot chieu, do
do cac ban cua tu da dtidc tich dien trai dau mot cach ben vting. Noi vdi hai ban tu
la hai dien ctic phang, rong (8 -12 cm dtidng kinh). Hai dien ctic rong co tac dung
phan phoi dong dien rat ldn de tranh bong. Sd do mot may khii rung dtidc bieu
dien tren hinh 5.21

Hinh 5.21 May khu" rung

Neu co dtidng dan truyen dien gitia hai dien ctic cua may th i tu se phong
dien. Doi vdi benh nhan ngting tim hoac rung that, trtidc het ngtidi ta boi ldp gien
(jely) dan dien len hai vung d hai phia tren ngtic benh nhan. Tiep theo ngtidi ta ap
hai dien ctic vao hai cho do va dong mach cho tu phong dien. Dong dien rat ldn
nhting chi keo dai vai miligiay. Sau khi phong dien. tu can dtidc nap lai trong
vong vai giay trtidc khi co the dtidc dung lai.

201
 C in luu y rang, dong dien diidc san sinh cao hdn miic nguy hiem nhieu nen
benh nhan khong diidc tiep xue vdi cac vat noi dat th i du nhii gnidng sat va cung
khong diidc tiep xue vdi ngifdi khac.
Sii phong dien cua tu co the difdc phat dong theo y muon bang tay. nhung
trong dieu tri mot sd" roi loan tim ngifdi ta dung phoi hdp vdi mot may ghi ECG
hien dai va sii phong dien difdc dieu khien bang cd che khdp nhip (synchronized)
vdi tin hieu cua dien tim. Trong che do phoi hdp nay, sii phong dien cua may khu
rung khong dien ra tiic thdi khi nut phong dien difdc bat ma se tri hoan cho den
pha xuong cua song R (song ldn nhat cua ECG). Che do nay khong dung difdc neu
nhif sdng R vang mat trong ECG.

3.4.4. Ifng dung cua ddng dien xoay chieu trong vat ly tri lieu

3.4.4.1. O’n g dung cua ddng dien xoay chieu ha tan, trung tan

Trong y hoc con goi cac dong dien xoay chieu la cac dong xung dien thay doi
chieu (cd the thay doi ca bien do), trong so" dd dang tieu bieu nhat la ddng dien
bien thien dieu hoa hinh sin quen thuoc.
I —I MAX COS CO t

Trong dd: co la t in so goc; f la tan so" cua dong dien.

2/r
Ngifdi ta phan loai ddng dien theo tan so" cua no nhif sau:
- Ddng dien xoay chieu ha tan cd tan sd" nho hdn 1000Hz
- Ddng dien xoay chieu trung tan cd tan sd" trong khoang 1000Hz den
300 000Hz
Khac vdi ddng dien mot chieu, ddng dien xoay chieu khi tang khi giam; lam
cd co va met nhanh do dd tao len sii tap luyen va liic cd diidc tang ciidng. Tac dung
nay the hien rd ret nhat d ddng dien xoay chieu cd xung n g in va tan so" tif 40 den
180Hz. Trong cac benh thoai hoa than kinh van dong, cac cd lien quan trd nen bat
dong. Sii hoi phuc trong qua trin h dieu tri than kinh thoai hoa doi hoi thdi gian
kha dai (nhieu thang) vi cac cd de bi teo di. Ddng dien ha tan difdc iing dung de
kich thich cac cd trong triidng hdp ke tren de chong teo cd. Ngoai ra khi cac cd bi
co giat thi sii lifu thong mau cung diidc tang ciidng, do dd sii dinh diidng cd cung
diidc hoi phuc.
Ddng dien trung tan cd kha nang kich thich van dong yeu hdn ddng dien ha
tan, do dd phai dung ciidng do cao hdn. Dieu thuan Idi la vdi nhiing t in so vao
khoang 5000Hz trd len, tac dung kich thich van dong trd nen tiidng doi rd ret hdn
tac dung kich thich cam giac. Ndi khac di cd bi co nhiing khdng cd cam giac dau.

3.4.4.2. Ong dung cua ddng dien xoay chieu cao tan

Ddng dien cao t in la ddng dien xoay chieu vdi t in so f >300 000Hz. Ngoai ra
ngifdi ta con dung dai liidng biidc sdng X de dac triin g cho ddng cao tan. >.=V/f
trong dd V = 3.108 m/s la tdc do ddng dien. Ngiidi ta chia ddng dien cao t in ra:

202
 - Song ngan co budc song khoang 10m, tan so khoang 30MHz
- Song sieu n gin co bade sdng khoang 70cm, tan sd" khoang 400MHz
- Sdng ciic ngin cd bade sdng khoang 10cm, t in sd" khoang 2500MHz
De tao ra ddng dien cao t in trong cO the, ta khong c in phai dung day dan
triic tiep. Nang lUdng dien cao t in d dang sdng dien tir cd the truyen di xa trong
khdng gian ma ft bi mat mat. Vi vay khdng phan biet trong vat ly tr i lieu cac khai
niem: ddng dien cao tin , sdng cao t in hay dien tu: triidng cao tin .
Trong viec dieu tri bang sdng cao tin , thiic chat ngiidi ta dat cO the benh
nhan theo each nhat dinh trong mot dien trUdng manh va bien thien vdi t in so"
hOn 300 KHz (cung g in giong nhii viec dat thiic pham vao lo vi sdng). Day la
phudng phap dieu tr i bang dien cd tii sdm nhat.
Khi ddng dien cao t in tac dung vao cO the ta thay khdng cd hien tUdng dien
phan, cO va th in kinh cung khdng bi kich thich.
Nang ludng cua ddng dien cao t in dufOc bien thanh nhiet nang trong khu viic
cO the cd ddng dien di qua, theo dinh luat Joule. Sii phan phoi nhiet trong c0 the
khdng dong deu va phu thuoc vao tan sd" ddng dien. Vdi sdng ngan nhiet giU nhieu
d to chiic md va it d to chiic cO, theo ti le 9/1. Vdi sdng sieu ngan ti le nay la 1/4
hoac 1/3, tac dung nhiet sau hdn nhiing chiia tdi mang xUdng. Vdi sdng ciic ngan,
ti le nay la 1/1, trong triidng hdp nay c in de phong tac hai den mat.

3.4.5. Phau thuat dien va dot cat dien

Cac dung cu phau thuat dien ngay nay diidc dung rong rai, de cat cung nhii
de “han” cac md. Nhiing dung cu nay tao ra cac ddng cao t in bang the hieu tdi
15.000 V.
Nhii da ndi trong 3.3.1, d t in sd" rat cao ngiidng nguy hiem cua ddng dien rat
ldn, do dd trong phau thuat hay dot cat dien, benh nhan tham chi khdng cam nhan
diidc ddng dien. Hieu iing chu yeu se la tac dung nhiet. Khi the hieu cao tin diidc dat
vao cac dien ciic rat mong, nhon thi mat do ddng dien ciic ldn tai ndi dat dien ciic se
lam “chay” md va vi vay trd thanh cong cu cat rat tot. Phau thuat dien cd nhiing Uu
the" nhat dinh so vdi phau thuat cd dien.
Tan sd" cd khoang 500 - 600 KHz diidc xac dinh la hieu qua cao trong viec
cat. Cac t in sd" cao hdn nhieu, khoang 2 - 4 MHz, hieu qua hdn trong viec lam
ddng (cung cd nghia la noi md) va dot.
Diem mau chot cua phiidng phap nay la mot mat tap trung ddng dien “di
vao” tai mot vung rat hep tai ndi c in cat, noi, b in g cach dat vao dd dien ciic rat
manh, nhon. Nhiing mat khac dien ciic con lai th i lai rat rong de phan tan ddng
dien “di ra” , tranh gay bong. Thiidng ngiidi ta dung mot tam dan dien lot ap deu
mong cho ddng “ra” . Cac tii “di ra” , “di vao” chi de cho de hinh dung, con ddng
dien la xoay chieu nen khdng cd khai niem ddng ra, ddng vao.

203
 Bai 6

CAC DjNH LUAT QUANG HINH CU BAN - MAT

MUC TIEU HOC TAP

• • •

1. Trinh bay cac dinh luat quang hinh cd ban va ve dung diidng truyen
cua cac tia sang qua cac dung cu quang hinh chinh.
2. Mo ta he quang hinh cua m it va trin h bay diidc nguyen ly chung cua
cach siia tat quang hinh (tat khuc xa) cua mat b&ng kinh mat.
Nguon nang liidng chu yeu cua muon vat tren tra i dat la tii biic xa mat trdi.
Diidi tac dung cua anh sang mat trdi, sii song da phat sinh duy tri va phat trien.
Anh sang mang lai cac thong tin tii moi triidng song cho sinh vat noi chung
va con ngiidi noi rieng. Cac quy luat quang hinh hoc ap dung kha chinh xac cho
viec giai thich sii tao anh d vong mac.
Quang hinh hoc sU dung phiidng phap gan dung coi tia sang la rieng re. doc
lap vdi nhau va tuan theo cac quy luat phan xa va khuc xa de khao sat sii tao anh
cua cac he quang hoc.
Khai niem ve tia sang hinh thanh tii mot chum sang thiic, truyen qua mot Id
hep. Ta se co cam giac rang, lo cang hep thi chum sang cang gan vdi tia sang,
nhiing nghien ciiu hien tUdng nhieu xa anh sang ta lai thay rang, lo hep den mot
miic nao do thi chum sang chang nhting khong bi thu hep ma con trd nen rong ra.
Vi vay khong the bang cach giam klch thiidc lo de tach rieng biet mot tia sang. Do
do tia sang chi la mot khai niem toan hoc, khong phai la mot khai niem vat ly.
Tuy nhien, mot chum sang song song du hep co the coi gan dung la mot tia sang.

1. CAC DjNH LUAT CO BAN CUA QUANG HiNH HOC VA MOT SO DU^G CU
QUANG HINH
1.1. Cac djnh luat cd ban cua quang hinh hoc
1.1.1. Djnh luat truyen th in g cua anh sang
“Trong mot mdi triidng trong suot, dong tinh vd dang hiidng anh sdng
truyen theo diidng thang".

Khi nghien ciiu hien tiidng nhieu xa ta se thay dinh luat nay cd gidi han iing
dung cua no. Trong triidng hdp anh sdng truyen qua nhiing lo that nho hoac gap
nhiing vat can cd kich thiidc nho vao cd biidc sdng anh sdng thi dinh luat tren
khdng con dung niia.

1.1.2. Djnh luat ve tac dung doc lap cua cac chum tia sang
“Tdc dung cua chum tia sdng khac nhau thi doc lap vdi nhau. Dieu nay cd
nghia la tac dung cua mot chum tia sdng nay khdng phu thuoc vd sii cd mat cua
chum tia sdng khac\

204
 Dinh luat nay cung chi g in dung. Khi lo nho, do roi d mot diem tren man
anh co the thay doi ro ret theo kich thiidc cua lo vi cac chum sang khong con doc
lap veil nhau ma co the giao thoa vdi nhau, do do tang ciidng lan nhau hoac lam
yeu nhau. Tuy nhien, khi tao anh nhd cac quang cu, chung ta thudng sii dung
churn sang rong nen khi tao anh khong co sii giao thoa hay dung hon sii giao thoa
khi dd cho ta anh diem cua tting vat. Vi vay trong quang cu ta hoan toan cd the ap
dung dinh luat ve sii doc lap cua cac chum tia sang.

1.1.3. Dinh luat phan xa anh sang

Neu tia sang truyen tif moi triidng
quang hoc nay sang moi triidng quang hoc
khac thi tai mat phan gidi cua hai moi
triidng, tia sang bi phan xa hoan toan hay
mot phan va tuan theo dinh luat phan xa anh
sang sau day:
- Tia tdi vd tia phan xa cung nam
trong mat phang vdi phap tuyen cua
mat phan xa ve tit diem tdi.

- Goc phan xa bang goc tdi i, = i ’,

Tia tdi vd tia phan xa co tinh thuan Hinh 6.1

nghich (Hinh 6.1).

1.1.4. Djnh luat khuc xa anh sang

Neu mot tia sang tdi mat phan gidi cua hai moi triidng dang hiidng ma
truyen sang moi triidng th ii hai thi no tuan theo dinh luat khuc xa anh sang sau
day:
• Tia tdi vd tia khuc xa nam trong cung mot mat phang vdi phap tuyen cua
mat phan gidi ve tit diem tdi.

• Ty so giiia sin cua goc tdi vd sin cua goc khuc xa la mot dai liidng khdng
doi doi vdi hai mdi triidng quang hoc cho triidc:

s in h
— n2 \ ( 6 . 1)
smi~>

Dai liiOng n21 diidc goi la chiet

suat ti doi cua moi triidng th ii hai
doi vdi moi trudng th ii nhat.
- Khai niem chiet suat:
Chiet suat cua moi triidng so
vdi chan khong (CK) du'Oc goi la
chiet suat tuyet doi cua moi
triidng dd (thiidng don gian goi la
chiet suat).
Hinh 6.2

205
 Dat n10 = n1( n20 = n2 ta co the de dang tim moi lien he gitia chiet suat ti doi
n21 cua hai moi trUOng vdi chiet suat tuyet doi nt va n2cua chung (Hinh 6.2)
sin i
= nw = ni
sin ii

sinz-
= " 20 = ” 2
sin/2

Chia hai bieu thiic tren cho nhau va chu y i j = i 2 ta cd:

sini, n7
---- - = — = n21 ( 6 . 2)
sini-
l2 n,
'*/
Thtic te neu day moi triidng hai lai gan moi triidng mot, khi tiep sat nhau
th i i! trung I2.
Vay chiet suat ti doi cua hai moi triidng bang ti so" gitia cac chiet suat tuyet
doi cua chung. Moi triidng cd chiet suat tuyet doi ldn hdn goi la moi triidng chiet
quang hdn.
Cd the viet bieu thtic (6.2) diidi dang doi xting nhti sau:
n,.sini, = n2.sini2 (6.3)

- Phan xa toan phan:

Tti cong thtic (6.2) ta thay rang khi mot tia sang truyen tti mot moi triidng
(1) chiet quang hdn vao moi triidng (2) kem chiet quang hdn th i tia khuc xa bi lech
xa phap tuyen cua mat phan gidi hdn (Hinh 6.3a). Cang tang goc tdi i 1( goc khuc
xa i 2 cang tang nhanh va khi i1dat den gia tri:

igh = arcsin (6.4)

7T
thi l2 = ~
2 2
Goc i gh diidc goi la goc
gidi han. Theo dinh luat bao
toan nang ltidng, nang ltidng
cua chum tia tdi dtidc phan
bo" cho chum tia phan xa va
chum tia khuc xa. Khi goc tdi
cang tang th i ctidng do cua
chum tia phan xa cang tang
va ctidng do cua chum tia
khuc xa cang giam va giam
den 0 khi goc tdi bang goc
Hinh 6.3a
gidi han.

206
 Khi goc tdi ldn hdn goc
gidi han, anh sang khong di
vao moi triidng thti hai,
ciidng do cua chum tia phan
xa bang ciidng do chum tia
tdi. Hien tiidng nay diidc goi
la sii phan xa toan phan va
diidc iing dung rong rai Hinh 6.3b
trong cac dung cu quang
hoc. Ong dan sang (sdi dan quang) diidc dung trong thiet bi noi soi la mot th i du
dien hinh. Diidng di cua tia sang trong long sdi dan quang dac bang polymer diidc
minh hoa d hinh 6.3b.
Trong ky thuat truyen tin hieu cua biiu dien thi sdi cap quang ddng vai trd
quan trong trong viec truyen tin hieu di xa. Trong y hoc dac biet trong ky thuat
noi soi ngiidi ta dung ong dan anh sang de dan anh sang cua cac hinh anh noi
tang ra ngoai cd the giup thay thuoc quan sat de dang doi tiidng can quan sat.
Nguyen ly Fermat iing dung cho quang hinh hoc cho rin g anh sang di tii
diem nay den diem khac theo diidng doi hdi thdi gian ngan nhat. Hoan toan cd the
chiing minh de dang rang dinh luat phan xa va dinh luat khuc xa anh sang cd the
suy ra tif nguyen ly Fermat.

1.2. Mot so dung cu quang hinh

1.2.1. G i/ang phang - Girting cau

1.2.1.1. GifOng phang

Giidng phang la mot phan mat /
/
phang, phan xa diidc hau nhii hoan /
toan anh sang chieu tdi no.
// \N
Chum sang phan ky tif nguon
sang diem S sau khi phan xa tren
giidng p hing (Hinh 6.2) van la mot a
chum sang phan ky. /
7^ s'
Diem S’ la anh ao cua nguon
diem S vi no dude tao ra bdi phan keo / ^
/s '
dai cua chum tia phan xa chti khong 7
/
phai chinh chum tia phan xa. Diidng /
SS’ vuong goc vdi mat phang giidng va
a = a’ trong dd a va a’ lan liidt la
khoang cach tif nguon diem S va anh Hinh 6.4
S’ cua no tdi giidng.
Kich thiidc hinh hoc cua nguon sang va anh cua no la nhii nhau vi anh cua
mot vat doi xting vdi vat qua giidng.

207
1.2.1.2. G trong cau

(b)

Hinh 6.5

Gtidng cau la mot chom c iu phan xa anh sang. Khi mat phan xa lom (quay
ve phia tam cua mat cau) ta co gtidng cau lom. Khi mat phan xa loi (quay ve phia
tam cua mat cau) ta co giidng cau loi.Tam cua mat cau C goi la tam giiOng; dinh
cua mat cau O goi la dinh giidng; diidng thang noi tam va dinh giidng OC goi la
true chinh cua gtidng; cac dtidng thang khac di qua tam gtidng goi la true phu.
Goc tao bdi true phu di qua mep giidng dtidc goi la goc md cua giidng khi no chtia
true chinh cua gtidng (tat ca nam trong tiet dien thang cua gtidng). 0 day ta chi xet
triidng hdp goc md cua gtidng rat nho.
De ve anh cua mot diem qua gtidng cau ta co the dung 2 trong 4 tia sau:
- Tia di song song true chinh cua gtidng khi phan xa di qua F la trung diem
cua OC goi la tieu diem chinh cua giidng (OF = FC =R/2). OF = f goi la tieu cti
cua gtidng.
- Tia di qua F gap gtidng, phan xa thanh tia song song true chinh.
- Tia di qua dinh gtidng 0 khi phan xa thanh tia doi xting vdi tia tdi qua
true chinh.
- Tia di qua tam giidng C khi phan xa lai qua chinh tam gtidng.
Anh cua mot diem la anh that khi no la giao cua cac tia that, la ao khi no la
giao cua cac dtidng keo dai them cua cac tia that ve phia tia that khdng truyen
den. Xem hinh 6.5a va 6.5b.

1.2.2. Ban m at song song

Doi vdi ban mat song song (hinh 6.6) goc tdi vd goc lo cua cac tia sdng la
bang nhau. Ban mat song song lam dich chuyen tia sdng song song vdi chinh tia
sang do mot khoang A.

208
 I 1 - sin2 z
A = d.sini 2 • 2• (6.5)
b V n - s in i
y
V
Trong do d la chieu day ban, i la goc tdi cua tia sdng do, n la chiet suat ti doi
cua vat lieu lam ban doi vdi moi tritdng chtia ban.
Vi vay khi nhin qua ban mat song
song se thay diem S cua vat hinh nhti nam
tai diem S' (diem S' chinh la do anh cua
diem S khi nhin qua ban) ttic S' co ve gan
vdi be mat cua ban hdn S mot khoang:

A' =
sin/

1- sin2i
Hoac A ' = d (6.6)
2 • 2■
V Vn -s in i y
Hinh 6.6
n -1
Khi goc tdi i *• 0 , A & 0 vd A ' = d . Tinh dong quy cua chum tia ditdc
n
bao toan khi chum tia tdi lech vdi phap tuyen cua ban nhting goc nho.

1.2.3. Lang kinh

Lang kinh
9
ba mat la mot khoi dong nhat trong suot*> diidc gidi han bdi tting
cap mat phang lam vdi nhau mot goc nao dd. Cac mat phang nay diidc goi la mat
lang kinh. Goc gitia hai mat lang kinh la goc chiet quang cua lang kinh. Giao
tuyen cua hai mat la canh lang kinh. Mat doi dien vdi canh la day lang kinh.
Bay gid ta se dung dinh luat khuc xa anh sang de khao sat sii truyen cua tia
sang qua lang kinh.
Gia sti tia SI dap vao mat
AB cua lang kinh bi khuc xa va
truyen theo phtidng II' nam trong
tiet dien ABC cua lang kinh. Den
I ’ tia sang lai bi khuc xa tai mat
AC va ra khoi lang kinh.
Nhti vay sau hai lan bi
khuc xa tai hai mat AB va AC tia
sang di ra khoi lang kinh da bi ^
lech so vdi phtidng cua tia tdi mot
goc 5 nao dd, goi la goc lech (Hinh
6.7). Do ldn cua goc lech 5 cd lien
he vdi goc tdi i,. goc khuc xa i 2 cua
tia ra khoi lang kinh va goc chiet l_Un^ g y
quang a bdi he thtic

209
 5 = ix + i2- a (6.7)
Neu ta thay doi goc tdi ij dan d in cho den khi tia tdi va tia ra khoi lang kinh
do’i xting nhau qua mat p hing phan giac cua goc chiet quang A, th i goc lech 5 se
cd gia tri ctfc tieu (5 = 5min). Khi dd tren hinh (6.7) ta cd A l = A l’ va = i 2 = i. Tti
(6.7) ta cd:
+a
sini - sin -----------
2
Nhting theo dinh luat khuc xa anh sang th i sini = n . s i n i trong dd i ’ = i ’, = i’2
do dd:
8 +a
n .sin i' - s i n - ^ ------ (6.8)

cc
Theo hinh ve th i i ’ = — cho nen (6.8) dtidc viet lai la:
2

n. sin — = sin —— ------ (6.9)

2 2
Vdi goc lech ctic tieu 5min thoa man dieu kien (6.9) lang kinh lam sai lech
chum tia sang truyen qua no it nhat, ttic la anh quang hoc cho bdi lang kinh khi
dd cd chat ltidng tot nhat.
Neu goc chiet quang a be th i 5 cung be, vi vay cd the dat:
ex cc S + cc S + cc
sin — - — va sin —^ ------
2 2 2 2

va (6.9) trd thanh: 5min = (n-l)a

Lang kinh cd goc chiet quang a be dtidc goi la nem quang hoc.
Cong thtic (6.9) cho phep ta xac dinh chiet suat cua chat cau tao nen lang
kinh, khi biet goc chiet quang va do dtidc goc lech 5min. De do goc chiet quang a
cung nhti goc lech § ngtidi ta dung giac ke.
Lang kinh diidc dung rong rai trong cac may quang pho de phan tich chum
btic xa phtic tap thanh cac thanh phan ddn sac. Muon the lang kinh trong may
quang pho° phai diidc dat sao cho phan gitia cua quang pho nghien ctiu di qua lang
kinh dtidi goc lech ctic tieu. Ngoai ra lang kinh con diidc dung de doi phtidng tia
sang, dac biet la lang kinh phan xa toan phan. Hinh 6.8 bieu dien cac lang kinh
phan xa toan phan. Trong trtidng hdp (a) anh bi quay di mot goc 90°. Trong
trtidng hdp (b) anh bi doi chieu do hai lan phan xa toan phan tren hai mat ben
cua lang kinh. Trong triidng hdp (c) anh cung bi doi chieu do phan xa toan phan cl
mat day cua lang kinh.

210
 Hinh 6.8

1.2.4. Mat cau khuc xa

1.2.4.1. Khai niem m$t cau khuc xa

Mat cau khuc xa la mot phan mat
cau phan cach hai moi triidng trong
suot co chiet suat khac nhau. Do la
dang quan trong nhat trong tat ca cac
mat gidi han cua thau kinh. Sii khuc xa
anh sang qua mat cau la hien tiidng cd
ban dan den sii tao anh cua cac he
quang hoc.
Gia sii ta cd mat cau khuc xa ban
kinh R, tam C ngan cach hai moi
triidng cd chiet suat n (ben trai) va n’
(ben phai). True doi xiing cua mat cau
di qua tam C cua no la quang true
chinh. Giao diem cua quang true chinh
vdi mat cau la dinh 0 cua mat cau khuc Hinh 6.9
xa. Diidng thang bat ky di qua C la
quang true phu (hinh 6.9)
He cac mat cau cd tam cung nam tren mot diidng thang tao thanh mot he
quang hoc dong true.
De tien Idi cho viec chiing minh cong thiic sau nay, ta diia vao khai niem
chum tia gan true. Chum tia gan true diidc xem nhii mot chum dong quy di rat
gan quang true chinh hay cac tia trong chum lam vdi quang true chinh nhiing goc
be. Trong triidng hdp nay cd the coi sin cua cac goc giiia tia sang va quang true
bing tang cua chung va bang chinh cac goc dd. N hii vay cong thiic tim diidc vdi
dieu kien chum tia sang gan true se cd dang toan hoc ddn gian.

1.2.4.2. Qui udc ve dau trong quang hinh hoc

t
Trong quang hinh hoc de tim cac cong thiic cd tinh chat tong quat hdn. ngiidi
ta thiidng dung quy lidc ve dau cho cac doan thang va cac goc.

211
 A O

(c)

i A'
<

A'
-y'
V

(b) (e)

Hinh 6.10

Neu coi chieu diidng la chieu truyen anh sang tif tra i sang phai va chon cac
goc tai dinh th i ta co quy lidc ve dau sau day:
- Do dai cac doan thang theo true chinh diidc xem la diidng neu co chieu
trung vdi chieu truyen anh sang, neu ngiidc lai la am (Hinh 6.10a)
- Do cao cua vat va anh diidc xem la diidng neu chung hiidng len phia tren
quang true chinh, la am neu hiidng xuong diidi (Hinh 6.10b).
- Ban kinh chinh khuc cua mat cau difdc xem la diidng neu tam chinh khuc
d ben phai mat cau, la am neu tam chinh khuc d ben tra i mat cau (Hinh 6.10c).
- Do day cua thau kinh va khoang cach giiita hai mat khuc xa luon diidc xem
la diidng (Hinh 6.10d).
- Goc giiia tia sang va quang true chinh hay phap tuyen cua mat khuc xa
diidc xem la diidng neu ta quay quang true hay diidng phap tuyen den gap tia
sang theo chieu kim dong ho, neu theo chieu ngiidc lai la am (Hinh 6.10e).
- Khi cd sii phan xa th i doi dau chiet suat n’ va khoang cach giiia mat phan
xa vdi mat tiep sau.
Sau day chung ta se dung dinh luat khuc xa anh sang va cac quy ifdc ve dau
de tim cong thiic cua mat cau khuc xa doi vdi cac chum tia gan true.

1.2.4.3. Cong thCfc cua mat cau khuc xa

Gia sii mat cau khuc xa EE’ cd ban kinh R ngan cach 2 mdi triidng quang
hoc cd chiet suat n (ben trai) va n’ (ben phai). Chiing ta hay xet mot tia sang trong
chum tia gan true phat ra tii nguon diem P n im tren quang true chinh CO. ching
han tia PM. Tia nay den mat cau tai diem M, diidi goc tdi i, khuc xa qua mat ciu
theo phiidng MP’ diidi goc khuc xa i va cat quang true chinh tai diem P' (xem
hinh 6.9).

212
 Ta hay xac djnh vi tr i cua P’ doi vdi dinh 0 cua mat cau.
Ta hay dat OP = s, OP’ = s’, OC = R va goc M OC = cp. Tren hinh ta ghi tri so
sd" hoc cua doan th in g va goc.
Theo dinh luat khuc xa doi vdi chum tia sang gan true ta cd:
ni= n’i ’ (6.10)
Tit cac APMC vd AP’M C ta co:

(■i) = (-u) + (p hay i - u - q>

(-i’) = <p - u' hay V = 11 - cp

Thay cac gid tri cua i vd i vao (6.10) ta ditdc:

n(u - <p) = n'(u' • <p) (6.11)

Ve ditdng M H vuong goc vdi true chinh. Vi ta dang xet chum tia gan true nen
co the coi :

H P = s ; H P ’ = s '; H C = R
Cac goc u, u' vd (p deu be nen ta co:

tg (-u ) = (~ii) = — hay u —— (6 . 12)

-s s

t ' =U ' = —
tgu h (6.13)
S

tg(p = (p = — (6.14)
R

Tit ( 6 .1 2 ) vd ( 6 .1 3 ) thay cac gid tri u, u' vd cp vao (6 .1 1 ) vd ddn gian h, ta

ditdc:

1 1\ 1
n —n
\s Rj R'

Ta cd cong thiic mat cau khuc xa

n' n _ n n
(6.15)
s' s R
Cac dai liidng s, s’ va R trong cong thiic nay deu la nhiing do dai dai so". Bieu
thiic (6.15) la cong thiic cd ban cua mat cau khuc xa. No cho phep tim diidc
khoang cach s’ = OP' neu cho biet s = OP tiic la xac dinh diidc vi tr i cua diem P’
tuy theo vi tr i cua diem P. Doi vdi hai mdi triidng va mat cau cho triidc (n. n’ va R
cho triidc) s’ chi phu thuoc vao s. N hii vay tat ca cac tia trong chum tia gan true
phat ra tif nguon diem P sau khi khuc xa qua mat cau se cat nhau tai cung mot
diem P’. Do dd P’ la anh diem cua nguon P.

213
 Cong thiic (6.15) dung vdi mat cau co be loi hiidng ve phia nao cung diidc,
mien la trong do phai chu y den dau cua R. Neu la mat cau loi (be loi hiidng ve
ben trai) thi R > 0 neu la mat cau lom (be loi hiidng ve phia ben phai) thi R < 0.
Cong thiic (6.15) con cho thay neu nhii vat dat tai P’ thi anh cua no se nam
tai P, nghia la cd tinh chat thuan nghich.

1.2.4.4. Do tu. Tieu cu cua m$t cau khuc xa

Tut cong thiic (6.15) ta suy ra:
n’R
Khi s — -oo thi s’ = f=- (6.16)
n - n
-n R
Khi s’ = oo thi s = f = (6.17)
n -n

Nghia la f va f chi phu thuoc

vao ban kinh R cua mat cau, chiet
suat n va n’ cua hai mdi triidng. Neu
n, n’ va R cho triidc thi f va f la cac
dai liidng khdng doi dac triin g cho
Y
cau khuc xa, f va f diidc goi la hai p " " —
tieu cii chinh cua mat cau khuc xa, f °
f;
la tieu cii chinh th ii nhat, con goi la
tieu cii vat va f la tieu cii chinh th ii
hai con goi la tieu cii anh. Cac diem E’
F va F’ (O F = / ; 0 F ' —f ) diidc goi
Hinh 6.11
la tieu diem chinh th ii nhat va th ii
hai tiidng iing (Hinh 6.11)
Nhu: vay tieu diem chinh cua mat cau khuc xa la diem hoi tu cua chum tia
tdi song song vdi quang true chinh sau khi khuc xa qua mat ciu.
Neu chum tia tdi khong song song vdi quang true chinh ma song song vdi
quang true phu, th i diem hoi tu cua no la tieuj diem 9phu.* Doi vdi chum tia gin
9

true, th i mat chiia cac tieu diem chinh th ii nhat cd the xem la mat vuong goc vdi
quang true chinh va di qua tieu diem chinh th ii nhat F. M at nay diidc goi la tieu
dien chinh th ii nhat. Tiidng tii nhii the mat vuong goc vdi quang true chinh va di
qua tieu diem chinh th ii hai F’ diidc goi la tieu dien chinh th ii hai cua mat ciu
khuc xa.
Neu chia (6.16) cho (6.17) ta cd:
n
L - (6.18)
f '
n

Vay hai tieu cii cua mat cau khuc xa ty le vdi chiet suat tiidng iing cua hai
mdi triidng va bao gid hai tieu diem cung nam hai ben mat cau.
 Khi n, n’ va R cho triidc th i bieu thiic diing 0 ve phai cua (6.15) la mot dai
liidng khong doi. Dai liidng nay diidc goi la do tu cua mat cau khuc xa.
, n -n
<P= -------
R

m n' n
Ta co d = — = ----
r f
T ii cong thiic cua mat cau khuc xa ta co the suy ra cong thiic cua giidng cau
(mat cau phan xa tot anh sang) bang cach thay doi n’ = -n trong (6.15). Khi do ta
co:
1 1 2
—+- =— (6.19)
s' s R

Do la cong thiic quen thuoc cua giidng cau dung diidc cho ca giidng cau 15m
cung nhii giidng cau loi mien la phai chu y den dau cua R (R < 0 doi vdi giidng cau
lom, R > 0 doi vdi giidng cau loi).
T ii cong thiic cua giidng cau (6.19) ta suy ra cong thiic cua giidng ph&ng,
bang cach cho R = oo. Khi dd ta cd : s’ = -s
Nghia la neu vat dat triidc giidng phang th i anh cua no se n im doi xiing vdi
vat qua giidng. Anh cho bdi giidng phang la anh ao. Tieu cii cua giidng cau diidc
xac dinh tii (6.16) hay (6.17):

/ - *
2
Do dd (6.19) cd the diidc viet lai:

—/ + - = —
1 1

rt
1
(6.20)
s s f

1.2.4.5. Dinh ly Lagrange - Helmholtz

Tren day chung ta mdi
xet tdi sit tao anh cua mot diem
\

sdng nam tren quang true

chinh bdi mat cau khuc xa.
Bay gid ta hay khao sat sit tao y
anh cua mot doan thang ngan
AB vuong goc vdi quang true
chinh (Hinh 6.12). Gid sit A B '
la anh ditng ditdc cua A B vdi
chum tia gan true.

Ky hieu chiet suat cua

Hinh 6.12
mdi tritdng ben trdi vd ben

215
phai cua mat cau tiidng ting la n vd n\ Tren hinh (6.12) ta ghi cac tri so so hoc cua
do cao cua vat AB = y, do cao cua anh A'B' = y \ OA = -s, OA' = s' goc tcti cua goc
khuc xa la i vd i, goc md ciic dai cua chum tia tdi mat cau la -u (khdu do) vd goc
md cua chum tia khuc xa tiidng ting (chum tia anh) Id u'.

Bay gid ta tim moi lien he gitia u, y vd u\ y\ n’:

Tii AABO vd AA'B'O ta co:

tgi = — tgi = (6.21)

-s s

Vdi gid thiet y vd y' deu be vd chu y tdi dinh luat khuc xa anh sdng co the
viet:

tgi sini n’
( 6 . 22 )
tgi ' sin i ' n

Phoi hdp (6.21) vd (6.22) ta co:

^ =^ (6.23)
sy ' n

Mat khac tti AAMO vd AA'MO ta co:

/ v /
tg (-u ) = ( -u ) = —
v ^ / h
tgu = u = —
-s s

s u
Do do: —=— (6.24)
s u

Tti (6.23) vd (6.24) ta dtidc :

ynu = y ' n ' u ' (6.25)

He thtic (6.25) bieu dien dinh ly Lagrange - Helmholtz. Bieu thtic nay co
dang mot dai ltidng khdng doi nen con goi la bat bien Lagrange - Helmholtz.

Cong thtic nay co the viet tong quat cho mot he quang hoc phtic tap gom
nhieu mat cau. Khi do:

y \ = y 2 • • •y \ - i = y k
n ' j = n 2 . . . n'kl = nk

u 1 = u2 . . . uk l = uk
ta co:

W ' l =>2"2»2 = (6.26)

Cac he thtic (6.25) vd (6.26) chi dung vdi tia gan true.

Khi dung chum tia rong vd muon co anh rd net thi phai thoa man dieu kien:

216
 ynsinu = y ' n' sinu' (6.27)
He thiic nay diidc goi la dieu kien sin Abbe. Bat bien Lagrange - Helmholtz
vd dieu kien sin Abbe gidi han sii tii do bien doi cac chum tia sdng bang cac he
quang hoc. Chung lien he khau do vd kich thiidc cua vat vdi khau do vd kich thiidc
cua anh.

1.2.4.6. Do phong dai dai

Ti so giiia do cao cua anh va do cao cua vat diidc goi la do phong dai dai P
(hay do phong dai ngang):
/
P =— (6.28)
y
Tif dinh ly (6.25) ta co:
y' nu
P = ^ = - r -§ (6.29)
y n u

Thay u/u tif cong thiic (6.24) ta diidc:

ns'
P = ----- (6.30)
n' s
Bdi vi n va n’ la nhiing dai liidng diidng nen dau cua P diidc xac dinh bdi dau
cua ti so" s’/s. Neu s < 0 va s’ > 0 thi P < 0, ta co anh thiic va ngiidc chieu vdi vat.
Neu s va s’ cung dau, th i P >0 ta cd anh ao va cung chieu vdi vat. Doi vdi giidng
cau thi n/n’ =-1 do dd:
/
P = ~— (6.31)

Trong triidng hdp cho anh thiic, s va s’ cung dau do dd P < 0 anh va vat
ngiidc chieu nhau. Trong triidng hdp cho anh ao thi s < 0 va s’ > 0 nen P > 0. anh
cung chieu vdi vat.
Doi vdi giidng phang s’ = -s do dd P =1 tiic la anh ao cung chieu vdi vat va
bang vat.

1.2.5. Thau kinh mong

1.2.5.1. K hai niem thau kinh m ong
Thau kinh mong la mot khoi trong suot dong chat bang thuy tinh hay thach
anh diidc gidi han bdi hai mat trong dd cd mot mat cau. con mat kia cd the la mat
cau hay mat phang. Goi 0 ! va 0 2 la dinh cua hai mat cau cd ban kinh Rj va Rv, thi
khoang cach d = C^Oo diidc goi la do day cua thau kinh. Neu d rat nhd so vdi R, va
R2 th i thau kinh coi la mong. Khi dd cd the coi O! va 0 2 trung nhau va ki hieu la
0, diem 0 diidc goi la quang tam cua thau kinh. Dudng thang di qua quang tam

217
cua thau kinh diidc goi la quang true. Neu quang true di qua ca 2 tam cua m§t
cau goi la quang true chinh, cac quang true khac la quang true phu.
Bay gid ta se khao sat sii khuc xa cua anh sang qua thau kinh mong va cung
chi gidi han xet nhiing tia gan true.

1.2.5.2. Cong thtic tao anh qua thau kinh mong

Gia sii ta xet sii khuc
xa anh sang qua thau kinh
mong 2 mat loi (Hinh 6.13).
Ta dung cac ky hieu sau day:
chiet suat cua moi triidng
ben trai thau kinh la n! d ben p
phai thau kinh la n2, con
chiet suat chat lam thau
kinh la n; cac khoang cach tii
vat va anh den thau kinh la s
va s’ tiidng iing (diidc tinh tii
quang tam). Hinh 6.13
Muon tim cong thiic
thau kinh mong ta ap dung cong thiic (6.15) lan liid t cho hai mat cau. Khi xet sii
khuc xa qua mat cau th ii nhat, ta coi nhii khong cd mat cau th ii hai, va khi dd coi
chiet suat cua moi triidng th ii hai la n. Anh cua nguon diem P nam tren quang
true chinh cho bdi mat cau 0 ! la P^ Theo (6.15) th i s, va s’, la khoang cach tii vat
va anh den dinh 0 , cua mat cau th ii nhat lien he vdi nhau bdi he thiic:
n n. n —n.
' - 1 (6.32)
s\ s, R,

Chi so' 1 chi cac dai liidng thuoc mat cau th ii nhat.
Anh P \ se la vat ao doi vdi mat cau th ii hai 0 2. Khi xet sii khuc xa qua mat
cau 0 2 ta coi nhii khong cd mat cau th ii nhat, tiic la coi chiet suat cua moi triidng
triidc mat cau 0 2la n, sau mat cau 0 2la n2. Anh cua P \ cho bdi mat cau 0 2la P’2
n im cach dinh 0 2 mot khoang s’2 cd lien he s2 = s^ (vi thau kinh mong) bdi he
thiic:
n w, - n
~ 2 (6.33)
S2 s\ R2

Chi so' 2 chi cac dai liidng thuoc mat cau th ii hai. Cong (6.32) va (6.33) ta
diidc:
n7 n, n-n, tu-n
— ------ L = ------ + ^ — (6.34)
s'2 /?, R2

Neu goi khoang cach tii nguon diem P den quang tam 0 cua thau kinh la s
(s, = s) va khoang cach tii anh P’2 den 0 la s’ (s’2 = s’) thi (6.34) se cd dang:

218
 n. n, n-n, n2-n
(6.35)

Day la cong thiic tong quat cua thau kmh mong. Thong thiidng thi thau
kinh difdc dat trong moi triidng dong tinh tiic la n, = n2 cho nen ta cd:
( I
(I 1 I
n, - - \= ( n - n . )
v*.
R2 J

Hay: (6.36)
s s n, v*. R2 J

n
Neu diia chiet suat ti do'i N = — thi cong thiic (6.36) se viet lai thanh :
n ,

\
(6.37)
V R\ ^2 J

Cong thiic (6.37) chi dung vdi thau kmh mong cd dang bat ky va dat trong
moi triidng dong tinh bat ky. Can chu y rin g cac dai liidng s, s’, R, va R2 diidc tinh
tii quang tam cua thau kinh va tuan theo cac quy lidc ve dau. Neu thau kinh diidc
dat trong mdi triidng khdng khi (n, = 1) th i N = n do dd (6.37) trd thanh:
r
I
1 1 / n (6.38)
s s R2

1.2.5.3. Tieu c i / - Do tu cua thau kinh mong

Tif (6.37) ta thay :
Khi s = - oo th i

r rI 1 (6.39)
5 = f = ---------

(N-l) L - L
V R\ *2j

tiic la khi nguon diem P d vo ciic, cac tia sang den thau kinh la chum song
song vdi quang true chinh, thi anh cua no se nam tai diem F’ each quang tam cua
thau kinh mot khoang s’ - f va f difdc goi la tieu cii chinh th ii hai (tieu cii anh)
cua thau kinh con F’ difdc goi la tieu diem chinh th ii hai (tieu diem anh) cua thau
kinh.
1
Khi s’ = oo t h i : s = f = (6.40)
1 J
(N-l)
I* . R2 y

219
 diidc goi la tieu cii chinh th ii nhat cua thau kinh (tieu cii vat). Diem F cach
quang tam cua thau kinh mot khoang s = f diidc goi la tieu diem chinh th ii nhat
(tieu diem vat) cua thau kinh (hinh 6.14)
9

Cac mat phang vuong goc vdi

quang true chinh va di qua cac
tieu diem chinh diidc goi la tieu
dien (hay cac mat phang tieu) cua
thau kinh. Giao diem cua bat cii
quang true phu nao vdi tieu dien
deu la tieu diem phu. T ii (6.39) va
(6.40) thay:
f = -f ‘ (6.41)
Vay neu thau kinh diidc dat
trong mdi triidng dong tinh se cd cac tieu cii bang nhau ve do ldn nhiing ngUdc
dau tiic la hai tieu diem F va F’ nam d hai ben thau kinh.
Tuy thuoc vao dau cua R,, R2 va (N -l) ma
tieu cii f cd the diidng hoac am. Neu tieu diem F
la thiic, nghia la chum song song sau khi khuc xa
qua thau kinh trd thanh chum hoi tu, thi thau
kinh dd goi la thau kinh diidng hay thau kinh hoi
tu. Neu tieu diem F’ la ao, nghia la chum tia song
song sau khi khuc xa qua thau kinh trd thanh
F'
chum phan ky, thi thau kinh diidc goi la thau kinh
am hay thau kinh phan ky (Hinh 6.15). Neu chu y den
(6.39) thi (6.37) cd the viet lai:
1 1 Hinh 6.15
s /'
Cong thiic nay goi la cong thiic Gauss. Trong cong thiic nay s va s’ diidc tinh
t ii quang tam O.
Neu khoang cach tii vat va anh khdng phai diidc tinh tii quang tam O. ma tii
cac tieu diem F va F’ (FP =x va F’P’ = x’) thi cd the chuyen cong thiic Gauss thanh
dang khac, bang cach thay s = x + f va s’ = x’ + f
1 1 1
Ta cd: (6.42)
x '+ f x+f f
Chu y rin g f = - f va sau khi ddn gian (6.42) ta diidc:

x.x' = / . / ’ = - / ' ■ (6.43)

Do la cong thiic Newton.
Tuy bai toan cu the. cd the chon cong thiic Gauss hay cong thiic Newton cho
ddn gian khi tinh toan.

220
 Ta trd lai bieu thiic (6.37). Neu th&'u kinh cho triidc (n, Rl5 R2 cho triidc) va
mdi trudng dat th iu kinh cho triidc (nj cho triidc), th i bieu thiic d ve phai la mot
djnh luat khdng doi va diidc goi la do tu (j>cua thau kinh mong:

1 _ 1_
(6.44)
R2 y /'
Vay do tu cua thau kmh cd gia tri bang nghich dao cua tieu cii.
Ddn vi de do do tu la diop (D). Diop la do tu cua mot thau ki'nh mong dat
trong khdng khi cd tieu cii bang 1 met:
1 D = 1/m

1.2.5.4. Cac dang thau kinh

Tren hinh (6.16) bieu dien cac
dang thau kmh hoi tu va phan ky khac n
nhau. Cac thau kinh cd dang 1, 2, 3 la
cac thau kmh hoi tu (thau kinh hai mat
loi (1), thau kinh phang loi (2), thau
kmh loi -lom (3)). Cac thau kmh cd / LA 11
dang 4, 5, 6 la cac thau kinh phan ky 4
l
(thau kinh hai mat lom (4), thau kinh
phang - lom (5), thau kinh loi lom (6)). Hinh 6.16
Ta thay rang kmh hoi tu cd mep mong
hdn khoang giiia con thau kinh phan ky cd mep day hon khoang giiia.
Neu mdi triidng dat thau kinh cd chiet suat ldn hdn chiet suat cua chat lam
thau kinh (n, > n th i cac thau kinh 1, 2, 3 trd thanh thau kinh phan ky con cac
thau kinh 4, 5, 6 trd thanh cac thau kinh hoi tu.

1.2.5.5. Cach di/ng anh. Do phong dai dai

Hinh 6.17 Hinh 6.18

Gia sii ta diing anh cua mot doan th in g AB vuong goc vdi quang true chinh.
Trong triidng hdp ddn gian naychi can diing anh B’ cua diem B.
De diing anh cua diem B ta thudng chon 2 trong 3 tia sau:

221
 - Tia tdi song song vdi quang true chinh sau khi khuc xa qua thau kinh
mong se di qua tieu diem chinh th ii hai F’.
- Tia tdi di qua tieu diem chinh th ii nhat F sau khi khuc xa qua thau kinh
mong se di theo phUdng song song vdi quang true chinh.
- Ngoai ra neu thau kinh dat trong moi trudng dong tinh th i tia tdi di qua
tam O se khdng bi khuc xa.
Hinh (6.17) va (6.18) bieu dien each dung anh v&t AB cho bdi thau kinh hoi
tu va phan ky, A’B’ la anh cua vat AB.
Anh A’B’ cd the be hdn, ldn hdn hay b&ng vat AB tuy thuoc vao khoang each
tu! vat den thau kinh va loai thau kinh. De tinh do cao cua anh ta tim do phong
dai dai.
T ii hinh (6.17) va (6.18) ta cd the de dang tim dUdc cong thiic cua do phong
dai dai p. That vay tii cac tam giac dong dang AABF, I ’OF, IO F’ va A’B’F ta dUdc:
f r i
p = l - = - L = x (6.45)
y x /'
Xet hai tam giac dong dang ABO va A’B’O th i cd the bieu dien P theo s va s’:

(6.46)
y s
Dau va do ldn cua P se cho biet chieu va do ldn cua anh so vdi chieu va do
ldn cua vat.

1.2.5.6. Thau kinh tru

True True

x
day
X

— ___ _
Anh
----

6
/ B
x’

222
 Thau kinh tru la tap hdp cac thau kinh c iu mong giong nhau ghep chong
k h it len nhau (Hinh 6.19). Dudng th in g xx’ th in g goc vdi hai mat phing day va
di qua quang tam cua cac thau kmh c iu mong goi la true cua thau kinh. Chum
tia sang song song chieu th in g goc vdi mat day khdng bi khuc xa, chum tia sang
song song chieu theo phudng vuong goc vdi true thau kinh bi khuc xa va sau khi
di qua thau kinh se hoi tu tren dudng thang song song vdi true thau kinh (do'i
vdi thau kinh tru hoi tu) hoac se phan ky sao cho dudng keo dai gap nhau tren
dudng thang song song vdi true d phia trUdc thau kinh (do'i vdi tha'u kinh tru
phan ky). Nhu vay anh cua mot diem qua thau kinh tru se la mot doan nam tren
dudng tieu cU.

2. m At v a d u n g c u b o t r o

2.1. Quang hinh h<?c cua mat

2.1.1. S o luge ve cau tao cua mat
Mat con goi la nhan cau, co dang hinh cau, diidng kinh do theo true triidc
sau khoang 22mm. Mat ngoai cua mat co sau bo cd van dong bdm vao de giup cho
mat co the quay diidc nhieu phia khac nhau vd dinh hiidng khi nhin. Vo cua con
mat diidc cau tao bdi cac ldp mang ddn hoi, bao gom ba loai, tinh tii ngoai vao
trong (Hinh 6.20) la:

- Cung mac la mang ngoai cung, bao kin 3 / 4 phia sau con mat. La ldp xd
day, dai, trang nhii sii, anh sdng khdng lot qua diidc.

- d 1 / 4 phia triidc la ldp md trong suot, anh sdng xuyen qua diidc goi la giac
mac. Giac mac co ban kinh cong nho hdn ban kinh cong cua cung mac.

- Mach mac con goi la

mang mach, nam trong cung
mac. Mang mach chiia nhieu
mach mau de nuoi diidng mat
vd co nhieu sac to den giii cho
ben trong nhan cau nhii mot
buong toi. Ngay phia sau giac
mac, mang mach co mot phan
ru xuong tao thanh mang chan
co mau den hoac nau, mang
chan co mot 16 hd hinh tron co
diidng kinh thay doi diidc, lo hd
nay goi la ddng tii. Anh sdng
sau khi xuyen qua giac mac se
di qua dong tii vao phia trong.

Do ddng tii tit thay doi ditdc ban kinh nen co kha nang tit dieu chinh thong
liidng cua anh sdng tdc dung vao vong mac. Vdi anh sdng co do roi ldn tdc dung
vao mat thi dong tit tit dong co lai de lam giam liidng anh sdng tdc dung vao mat,
vdi anh sang co do roi nho thi dong tit tit gian rong ra, do do thong litdng anh
sdng vao mat se tang len.

223
 Vdng mac la ldp mang trong cung, ditdc cau tao bdi nhieu ldp te bao nhitng
quan trong nhat la ldp te bao than kinh thi giac. Cac te bao nay tap trung thanh
cac sdi than kinh nho noi lien vdi day than kinh thi giac. Co hai loai te bao than
kinh cam thu ditdc anh sdng, do la te bao non vd tebao que. O mat ngitdi co chitng
7 trieu te bao non vd 130 trieu te bao que. Sit phan bo cua hai te bao than kinh
nay tren vong mac la khac nhau, te bao non tap trung vao vung gan diem vdng
(phan vong mac nam gan giao diem giiia true chinh cua mat vdi vong mac). 0
diem' vdng vong mac mong hdn d cho khac do do bi lom xuong tao nen ho trung
tam, d day mat do te bao non rat cao (khoang 150.000 te bao / mm2). Khi nhin vat
thi anh cua vat se hien len d ho trung tam. Cang xa diem vdng thi mat do te bao
non giam dan vd mat do te bao que tang len, d vung xa diem vdng thi d vdng mac
chi con tebao que.
Dac diem vd chiic nang cua hai loai te bao than kinh nay khdng giong nhau.
Te bao non cam thu ditdc anh sdng co do roi ldn vd cd kha nang phan biet diidc
hinh the, mau sac vd chi tiet cac vat. Te bao que cam thu anh sdng co do roi nho
(co do nhay ldn hdn so vdi te bao non). Do vay vung xa diem vdng ta chi co cam
giac sang toi.

Mdi triidng ben trong nhan cau ditdc chia lam hai phan ngan cach nhau bdi
thuy tinh the. Thuy tinh the trong suo't, hai mat loi, mat cong phia triidc co ban
kinh ldn hdn mat cong phia sau. Nhd sit thay doi site cang cua day chang treo thuy
tinh the vd tinh ddn hdi cua ban than thuy tinh the md no cd kha nang thay doi ban
kinh cong mat triidc, sau ddn den sit hoi tu cua mat thay doi khi ta quan sat cac vat
d xa hoac gan. Thuy tinh the cd chiet suat khoang 1,43 vd do tu khoang 12+14 diop.

Khoang giiia giac mac vd thuy tinh the chiia dich trong suot. Khoang giita
thuy tinh the vd vdng mac chiia thuy tinh dich hay con goi la dich kinh. Do cac the
dich trong mat luon litu thong nen dp suat cua mat giit khdng doi d gid tri
12 + 2 5 mmHg.

2.1.2. Quang hinh hoc cua mat

Theo cau tao cua mat, ve
phUOng dien quang hinh thi
mat dUOc cau tao bdi cac mdi
trudng chiet quang ngan cach
nhau bang mat cau khuc xa
tao nen ba ludng chat cau:
- Ludng chat cau giac
mac la quang he tao nen do
giac mac ngan cach mdi trudng
khdng khi vdi thuy dich. Giac
mac cd do day khoang 1mm.
ban kinh cong 8mm. chiet suat
thuy dich 1,336 va do tu cua
quang he la 45 diop. Hinh 6.21

224
 - Ludng chat cau thuy tinh the trUdc do mat cong triidc thuy tinh the ngan
cach thuy dich vdi thuy tinh the. Ban kinh cong mat triidc thuy tinh the khoang
10mm, chiet suat trung binh 1,388 va do tu cua he la 7 diop.
- Ludng chat cau thuy tinh the sau do mat cong phia sau thuy tinh the ngan
cach thuy tinh the vdi dich thuy tinh. Ban kinh cong mat sau thuy tinh the
khoang 8mm, chiet suat dich thuy tinh la 1,36 va do tu cua quang he khoang 12
diop.
Ba ludng chat cau tren cd cung true chinh va hop lai thanh mot he quang
hoc. He nay coi nhu dUdc ghep bdi ba he quang hoc cd chiet suat khac nhau. Anh
sang xuyen vao mat, no se bi khuc xa khi truyen qua ba ludng chat cau va cuoi
cung se tac dung len cac te bao than kinh d vdng mac. Nhu vay he quang hoc cua
mat se cd mot tam diem duy nhat. Do dac diem nay ma chung ta cd the thay the
ba he quang hoc gom ba ludng chat cau bang mot ludng chat cau tong hdp con goi
la con mat udc lUdc (Hinh 6.21).
Ludng chat cau tong hdp cd mat ciu ngan cach mdi trudng khdng khi vdi moi
trUOng ben trong mat. Mat cau khuc xa cd mat loi quay ra phia trUdc, ban kinh
cong 5mm, dinh cach giac mac 2mm, quang tam cach giac mac 7mm va cach vong
mac 15mm, chiet suat cua quang he la 1,333.
Do he quang hoc nay cd mdi trUOng th ii nhat la khdng khi, mdi trudng thU
hai la mdi trUOng ben trong mat cd chiet suat xac dinh la n nen tieu cU cua ludng
chat cau tong hdp dUdc tinh theo cong thUc sau:

/ = — = 1,333x5 = 20mm (6.47)

n -1 1,333-1
trong dd f la tieu cU, R la ban kinh cong cua mat cau tong hdp, n la chiet
suat mdi trudng, chiet suat cua khdng khi bang 1.
Tii cac thong so quang hinh cua ludng chat cau tong hop va do ldn tieu cU ta
thay vong mac cua mat nam tren mat phang tieu cua ludng chat cau tong hdp.
Dudng thang di qua dinh mat cau va quang tam goi la true chinh, dudng thang di
qua quang tam va diem vang goi la dudng nhin thang. Khi nhin mot vat thi mat
hudng dudng nhin thang di qua vat ay. Neu dudng nhin thang hudng vao diem cd
dinh d phia trUdc thi khoang khdng gian ma mot mat nhin thay la mot hinh non
cd goc md ngang 160°, goc md dUng 130°. Khoang khdng gian nay goi la thi
trudng. ThUc te thi trudng rong ho'n nhieu do mat cd the xoay trong hoc mat lam
cho dudng nhin thang thay doi. Mat khac do luon nhin bang hai mat phoi hdp vdi
dong tac quay dau nen thi trudng dUdc md rong hdn. Viec ve anh cua vat qua 3 he
ludng chat cau tong hdp se trd nen ddn gian hdn nhieu.

2.1.3. Kha nang dieu tiet cua mat

M ilt binh thudng. khi nghi. cd tieu diem d dung tren vdng mac. Khi mat nhin
mot vat AB d vd cuc. thi anh A'B’ cua AB cung d dung tren vdng mac.
Cho vat AB tien dan lai gan mat, neu quang he cua mat khdng thay doi gi.
thi anh cua vat se lui dan ra sau vdng mac, va mat khdng trong rd vat nUa. De

225
nhin ro v&t, tiic la anh van hien dung tren vong mac, m it phai t&ng do tu cua
quang he: cac cd giii thuy tinh the bop lai v& n6n cho thuy tinh the phong them
len. Do tu cua quang he tang, tieu diem anh F’ tien ra trUdc vong mac mot chut,
va anh A’B’ ve dung tren vong mac. Hoat dong n&y cua m it goi la sU dieu tiet.
Thong thudng, mat dieu tiet mot cach tu dong, kha nhanh va mat co xu hudng tu
nhien la dieu tiet vao cho sang n h it tren v&t. Tuy nhien, neu co gang cung c6 th£
chu dong b it m it minh dieu tiet vao mot diem tuy y. Nhd kha nang dieu tiet, m it
m6i nhin r5 ca nhiing vat d xa, lin vat d gin. Tuy nhien kha nang nay khong phai
la vo han.
Gia sii ta cho vat AB chuyen dich tif vo ciic lai g in m it. Khi vat d vo ciic,
m it khong phai dieu tiet, anh cua vat v in d dung tren vong mac, nhung rat nho.
Vat tien lai gin, m it phai dieu tiet de giii cho anh v in d dung tren vong mac. Vat
tiep tuc lai g in hdn, th i m it lai dieu tiet them. Cuoi cung, khi vat tdi diem
Cc, cach m it chiing 20 cm, thuy tinh the da phong len miic toi da, mat khong the
dieu tiet them niia. Neu vat tien lai g in m it hdn, th i mat khong nhin ro ntia.
OCc = t c la khoang n gin nfiat phai dat vat cach m it, de nhin ro no, goi \&
khoang nhin ro ngan nhat. Diem Cc goi la can diem cua mat.
Diem xa nhat Cv, ma mat nhin ro mot vat dat d do, khong phai dieu tiet goi
la vien diem, va khoang cach OCv = t y goi la khoang nhin ro ldn nhat. M it binh
thudng co vien diem Cv d vo cUc va t y = 00. Khoang cach tif Cv den Cc, giCta vien
diem va can diem goi la khoang nhin ro cua mat, vi co the dat vat d bat ky diem
nao d trong khoang ay, mat cung nhin thay r5 vat.

Hieu so ------------ —R (6.48)

ly lc
goi la bien do dieu tiet cua mat. Neu i y va I q dUdc do b in g met, thi R
dUdc tinh ra di-op.

Do'i vdi con mat binh thUdng, th i t y = 00, i q chiing 20 cm, ta co:

R = ---------- = 5 di-op
00 0 ,2

Mat cua nhUng ngUdi cung mot liia tuoi, siic khoe binh thudng co bien do
dieu tiet xap xi bang nhau, khong phan biet m it can th i hoac vien thi.

2.2. Kha nang phan ly cua mat

2.2.1. Hien twang nhieu xa cua chum tia sang song song qua m ot lo tron
Bo' tri thi nghiem nhu hinh 6.22. Cac tia sang xuat phat tif nguon sang diem
S (dat d tieu diem cua thau kinh hoi tu Lj), sau khi qua Lj trd thanh chum tia song
song va di qua khe hd cua man chan E1; khe hd la lo tron co dudng kinh AB =2R,
sau E, dat tha'u kinh hoi tu L2, man chan E2 dat d tieu dien cua L2. Quan sat tha'y:

226
 - Khi R 16n thi anh sang truyen qua lo ma khong bi lech phtidng, tren E2 thu
dtidc mot vong tron sang.
- Khi R kha b6 tren E2 thu dtidc hinh tron gom cac vanh khan sang, toi xen
ke nhau. Hien ttidng nay chiing to anh sang khi truyen qua khe hep khong hoan
to&n tuan theo dinh luat truyen th in g cua quang hinh, ngoai tia truyen th in g con
co cac tia bi lech khoi phudng ban d&u. Hien ttidng nay goi la hien ttidng nhieu xa.
Anh thu dtidc tren man E2 la anh nhieu xa; cac vong tron sang, toi xen ke nhau
goi la cac van nhieu xa. 6 gitia cac van nhieu xa la van sang trung tam co ctidng
do ldn nhat, cang xa tam van sang co ctidng do giam dan va be rong cua van cung
giam dan. 6 khoang cach kha xa van trung tam la bong toi.
Neu goi X la btidc song cua anh sang, R la ban kinh lo hd, f la tieu cti cua L2
thi ban kinh van sang trung tam dtidc xac dinh theo cong thtic:

p —0,61 (6.49)

E2

E. l2
L. t

A.
o
/ 1
\'

Hinh 6.22

2.2.2. Kha nang phan ly cua mat

Gia sti co mot diem sang A phia trtidc mat d khoang cach nhin ro. qua mat
ta se thu dtidc hinh anh A’ cua A tren vong mac. Do dong tii cua mat co ban kinh
kha be nen A’ se la mot anh nhieu xa va ban kinh p cua van sang trung tam cung
dtidc xac dinh theo cong thtic (6.49). Do anh sang vao mat la anh sang hon hdp co
btidc song tti 0.40 - 0.76fim nen thtidng cho btidc song mot gia tri trung binh /. =
0,50 fim. tieu cti cua mat f = 20 mm, dong tii co ban kinh 2.5mm. ap dung cong
thtic 6.49, ta co:

„ = 0 .61'° 4 f .1(r = 2.44,,,,, ( 6 . 50)

2,?. 10"
 Gia sii khi ta quan sat mot vat sang co kich thudc AB 6 khoang nhin ro cua
m it thi tren vong mac se co anh A’B’ cua AB (Hinh 6.23) ngUdc chieu va nho hdn
AB nhieu lan. Do co sU tham gia cua y thiic ma ta van danh gia dung kich thiidc
va vi tr i cua vat
Goc AOB = a goi la goc phan ly cua mat, kich thiidc cua A’B’ cung nhii do ldn
cua a phu thuoc vao kich thudc cua AB va khoang cach OH tii quang tam den viit
AB.
- Vdi OH xac dinh, kich thtidc AB nho thi goc a nho dan den A'B’ cung nho.
- AB cd kich thudc xac dinh, khi AB cang xa mat thi a cang be do vay kich
thudc cua A’B’ se cang nho di. Hai anh A’, B’ cua A, B se tien den gan nhau va den
mot luc nao do A’ se trung len B’. luc do m it se khong phan biet dtidc khoang cach
gitia A va B ntia. Muon phan ly dtidc hai diem A, B thi goc nhin a phai ldn hdn
hoac bin g mot goc nhin gidi han nao dd goi la goc phan ly toi thieu amin. ammcang
nho thi kha nang phan ly cua m it cang tot. Ngnjch dao cua amm dac trUng cho

kha nang phan ly cua mat dUdc goi la thi lUc T cua mat: T = ------------------------------------------------- (6.51)
j p hi">

Hinh 6.23

Bang 6.1. Thi luc cua mat phu thuoc vao amin (phut)

^■min 0.1’ 0.2’ 0.5’ 1’ 2’ 5’ 10’

TI 100 50 20 10 5 2 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 1 10

Vi amin be nen ta co the cac dinh amln theo do dai cua AB = d va khoang cach
OH = t

«„„„ * j ratlian

228
 1 r a d i a n = 3 3 9 4 , 2 8 p h u t n e n a min - 3 3 9 4 , 2 8 . — phut

Vay thi luc T dUdc xac dinh nhu sau:

T= 1 1 (6.52)
3 3 9 4 ,2 8 d

Tif cong thiic 6.52 ta cung co hai phUOng phap danh gia thi lUc cua mat:

- Co dinh d, thay doi £.

- Co" dinh P., thay doi d.
PhUOng phap thU nhat cho phep danh gia chinh xac thi luc cua mat ke ca
trUdng hop mat co sU thay doi nho ve thi lUc, tuy nhien phudng phap nay khong
thuan loi va nhanh chong bang phUOng phap thii hai. Khi khong can do chinh xac
cao se dung phUOng phap thii hai de danh gia thi luc cua mat, bang cach dung chU
cai hay bang mau vat co kich thudc nho dan khi dat chung cach mat mot khoang
khong doi OH = 1 - 5 m.
Kha nang phan ly cua mat phu thuoc vao trang thai sinh ly, benh ly, tinh
chat cua cac te bao than kinh cam thu anh sang cua mat, vao do roi va bUdc song
cua anh sang. Neu chung ta chi quan tam den yeu to" nhieu xa cua anh sang khi
anh sang xuyen qua dong tu thi theo Rayleigh d dieu kien chieu sang vdi A = 0.5
fim, mat con phan biet dUdc khoang cach giUa A va B khi khoang cach anh A ’B’
16n hdn hoac bang ban kinh moi anh tUc A ’B’ > p, ta co:

p 2,44 a _4 33 . ,
« m in =
---------- = 1,6.10 radian = — phut
OH 15.103 60

_ 33
oc. "6 0 "To
Ket qua cua nhieu phep do cho
thay mot mat binh thudng d dieu A \
kien chieu sang bUdc song trung /Otmin \
binh thi goc phan ly toi thieu a min = H |
1 phut. Khi cho anh sang co do roi
nho, ldn chieu vao mat va kiem tra
thi lUc d nhieu vung khac nhau tren X /
vong mac ngUdi ta thay rang te bao
non co kha nang phan lv tot hdn te Hinh 6.24
bao que.

2.3. Cac tat quang hinh cua mat va dung cu bo tro

2.3.1. Hien tuqng quang sai
NhUdc diem cd ban cua loai thau kinh cau mong la sU sai sot ve quang hinh
khi chum tia song song di qua thau kinh la chum tia rong. cac tia gan true chinh

229
se hoi tu 0 diem xa quang tam hdn cac tia 6 g&n m6p th&'u kinh. Hien ttidng n&y
goi la c iu sai (hinh 6.25).
Vi anh sang trin g la anh sang hon hdp bao gom cac btidc song tti 0.39 -5-0,76
fim, mat khac n = f(X), do do khi qua thau kinh cac tia sang co budc sdng khac
nhau se hoi tu hoac phan ky d cac diem khac nhau tren true chinh cua thau kinh
do tan sic anh sang. Hien ttidng nay goi la sic sai (hinh 6.26).
De khti bo cac sai sot ve quang hinh hpc nay ngtidi ta thtidng su dung
phtidng phap ghdp cac thau kinh phan ky, hoi tu cung mot true chinh. Sau khi
ghep thich hdp th i tat cac tia se hdi tu tai mot diem do dd anh se phan anh dung
tinh chat cua vat. Muon khti bo sic sai phai ghep cac loai thau kinh khac nhau ve
ban ch^ft.

Hinh 6.25. Hien tiidng cau sai Hinh 6.26. Hien ti/png s3c sai

2.3.2. Ccic tat quang hinh cua mat vd dung cu bo trp.

Vdi con m it binh thtidng (khong cd tat) th i anh cua vat luon luon hien dung
tren vong mac d vung diem vang, anh r5 net va phan anh dung ban chat cua v&t
ve ca kich thtidc, mau sac, tinh chat. Tuy nhien cau tao cua m it cd the khong binh
thudng do bam sinh, do bi chan thtidng lam xuat hien cac vet see tren giac mac,
do benh cua ludng chat cau, do roi loan kha nang dieu tiet... lam cho anh khong
hien ro tren vong mac tao nen cac chting can thi, vien thi, loan thi. De stia cac tat
nay phai dung cac dung cu bo trd cho m it, dd la cac thau kinh cau mong bo trd
cho m it bi can thi, vien thi va thau kinh tru cho trtidng hdp m it bi tat loan thi.

Hinh 6.27a. M it can thi Hinh 6.27b. Tat can thi

da di/oc sifa

230
2.3.2.1. C$n thi va cach sCfa
M it ckn thi d trang thai nghi (khong dieu tiet) co mat phing tieu n im trtidc
vong mac do do khi nhin v&t d vo ctic anh cua v&t d trtidc vong mac (Hinh 6.27a)
Vien c^n diem cua m it gin hon so vdi m it binh thtidng. Trong khoang tti
vien diem den can diem, m it ckn cung dieu tie t nhti mat binh thtidng va khi vat d
sau can diem m it c$n khong con kha nang dieu tiet. De stia tat can thi phai dung
thau kinh mong phan ky lam dung cu bo trp.
Khi do anh sang qua he quang hoc gom thau phan ky ghep dong true vdi
m it se tac dung len vong mac va anh cua no se hien dung tren vong mac (hinh
6.27b). Tac dung cua thau kinh phan ky lam giam do tu cua m it can.

2.3.2.2. V iin thi va cach sCta

6 trang thai nghi m it v iln thi co mat phing tieu n im sau vong mac nen khi
nhin vat ma khong dieu tie t th i anh cua v&t se hien 6 sau vong mac. Neu tieu
diem khong 6 xa vong mac qua th i m it tti dieu tiet de lam tang do tu sao cho anh
cua vat hien ro net tren vong mac. Trtidng hop m it vien nang (tieu diem d xa
vong mac qua) th i cd dieu tiet cung khong nhin thay vat d xa. Khi dtia vat lai gan
thi anh cang lu i xa vong mac. Nhti v&y v iln th i se khong thay vat d xa cting nhu
gan. Trong trtidng hop cac tia sang cd phtiOng thich hdp van hoi tu tren vong mac
luc dd dtidng keo dai cua tia gap true chinh d diem sau vong mac, diem nay goi la
vien diem ao.
Muon stia tat vien th i phai dung thau kinh mong hoi tu b6° trd, thau kinh
nay se lam tang do tu cua m it lam cho anh cua vat hien len tren vong mac. Thau
kinh stia phai cd do tu thich hop de cho mat phang tieu cua he trung vdi vdng mac
(Hinh 6.28b)

Hinh 6.28a. Mit Hinh 6.28b. Tat vien thi

vien thi da duoc stia

Can, vien th i cd the do nhieu nguyen nhan gay nen nhting ve cd ban chung
ta thay neu true cua mat dai, ngin hdn mat binh thtidng, ban kinh cong cua ltidng
chat cau ldn nho hdn so vdi m it binh thtidng va sti thay doi chiet suat cua moi
trtidng va m it cd the mac cac chting can thi hoac vien thi.
Khi benh due thuy tinh the mdi phat sinh, moi trudng tao nen thuy tinh the
dac lai, ti trong. chiet suat tang lam tang do tu dan den mat bi can. Sau khi cat bo
thuy tinh the. do tu se giam di nhieu dan den mat bi vien rat nang.

231
2.3.2.3. M it ngudi gia
Kha nang dieu tiet cua mat ngiidi gia kem hdn m it binh thiidng. mat ngifdi
gia co can diem xa hdn va khong nhin ro vat d gan. 6 tuoi 45 den 50 khi doc sach
phai de cach xa mat tii 30 den 50 cm mdi nhin ro nhung co nhUdc diem la anh se
nho di. De khac phuc mat ngiidi gia phai deo them mot thau kinh cau hoi tu. do tu
tong cong khong qua 3,5 diop, vdi tuoi 45 can deo them thau kinh co do tu +1 diop
la vtia. Cti gia them 5 tuoi thi do tu cua thau kinh bo trd tang them +0.5 diop vdi
tuoi qua gia (60 tuoi trd len) thuy tinh the co ban kinh cong ldn do do khi khong
dieu tiet mat phang tieu 6 sau vong mac giong mat vien do do khong nhin diidc
vat d xa, muon nhin thay vat phai deo them mot thau kinh hoi tu co do tu nho.
Tom lai mat ngUdi gia phai dting hai thau kinh mong hoi tu bo trd. mot thau kinh
co do tu ldn de nhin gan va mot thau kinh co do tu nho hdn de nhin xa. Thudng do
tu cua thau kinh nhin gan gap 3 lan do tu cua thau kinh nhin xa. hai loai thau
kinh co do tu khac nhau dtidc ghep tren cung mot gia (khung kinh).
Vdi mat can, khi ve gia ban kinh cong cua lUdng chat cau tang len, lam giam
do tu do vay can nhe di va d tuoi 45 den 50 co the khong phai dung kinh ntia.
NgUdc lai mat vien cang gia cang nang hdn va mat vien gia nhanh hdn mat binh
thtidng.

2.3.2.4. Loan thi

Loan thi la tat cua mat trong do do tu

khdng deu theo moi phiidng do cac mat cau khuc
xa trong mat khong phai hoan toan hinh cau, do
vay anh cua vat hien tren vdng mac la anh nhoe.
O
- TrUdng hdp do cong cua cac mat cau khuc
xa thay doi bat ky theo moi phUOng thi mat m ic
chting benh loan thi khong deu. TrUOng hdp nay
la do giac mac co seo, do hau qua cua dau mat
hot hay bi chan thudng do di vat ban vao. Muon
stia chi can dting chat deo trong suo't co chiet Hinh 6.29
suat nhti cua thuy tinh the dan vao giac mac.

H inh 6.30. M it loan thi theo quy tic

232
 - Triidng hdp do cong cua cac mat cau khuc xa thay doi deu theo moi phiidng
thi m it m ic chiing benh loan thi deu. Luc nay mat cong cua liidng chat cau tong
hdp khong phai la chom ciu ma la mot phan cua mat elipsoid tron xoay (Hinh
6.29). Ban kinh cong thay doi deu tii kinh tuyen AOB den kinh tuyen COD.
Loan thi deu lai ditc/c chia lam hai loai:

+ Loan thi deu theo quy tdc:

Loan thi deu theo quy tdc chiem 85% tong so triidng hdp loan thi. O tat nay
kinh tuyen ngang AOB co ban kinh cong nho hdn ban kinh cong cua kinh tuyen
dting COD. Do vay do tu theo phitdng ngang ldn hdn do tu theo phiidng diing.
Mat loan thi theo quy tdc tiidng diidng vdi he quang hoc gom mot liidng chat cau
ghep vdi mot thau kinh tru hoi tu co true nam ngang hoac tiidng diidng vdi he
quang hoc gom liidng chat cau ghep vdi thau kinh tru phan ky co true thang diing
(Hinh 6.30).
Mot chum tia sdng song song
sau khi qua mat se hoi tu tren hai
9 v * * 9

doan thang, doan nam ngang d phia

9 * ____

triidc doan thang diing. Tuy theo vi

tri cua vdng mac md mat co the nhin
rd mot trong hai doan thang do hoac
khdng nhin rd cd hai. Khi vdng mac
d vi tri 1 mat mac chiing loan can
ddn, d vi tri 2 la loan vien ddn, d vi
tri 3 la loan can kep, d vi tri 4 la
loan vien kep, d vi tri so 5 loan hdn
hdp (Hinh 6.31).

+ Loan thi deu khdng theo quy

tac
Triidng hdp nay chi chiem 15%
tong so triidng hdp loan thi deu. O
triidng hdp nay kinh tuyen diing
COD co ban kinh cong nho hdn ban
Hinh 6.32
kinh cong cua kinh tuyen ngang
AOB, do do do tu theo phiidng diing
ldn hdn do tu theo phiidng ngang
(Hinh 6.32). Loan thi deu khdng theo quy tdc tiidng diidng vdi mot liidng chat cau
ghep vdi mot thau kinh tru hoi tu co true thang diing hoac tiidng diidng vdi he
quang hoc gom mot liidng cha't cau ghep vdi mot thau kinh tru phan ky co true
nam ngang.

Mot chum tia sang song song sau khi qua he quang hoc nay se hoi tu tren
hai doan thang,doan thang dting d phia triidc doan nam ngang. Tuy theo vi tri
cua vdng mac md ta cung cd cac triidng hdp sau (Hinh 6.33)

- Vdng mac d vi tri 1 la loan can ddn

233
 - Vong mac d vi tri 2 la loan vien ddn
- Vong mac d vi tri 3 la loan can kep

- Vdng mac d vi tri 4 la loan vien kep

- Vong mac d vi tri 5 la loan hon hdp.

\ mac

Hinh 6.33 Hinh 6.34. Loan can don theo quy

tic da sifa

2.3.2.5. Cach sCfa tat loan thi

Tat ca cac tat loan thi da neu tren deu stia dupe b in g cach phoi hdp cac thau
kinh cau va tru thich hdp. Ta x6t hai trtidng hdp cu the:
- Stia loan can ddn theo quy tac:
Khi khong dieu tiet, anh cua mot diem d vo ctic se hien tren hai doan thing
(Hinh 6.31). Doan dting d vdng mac, doan ngang d trtidc vong mac. Muon stia tat
nay phai giam do tu theo phtidng ngang de cho doan ngang lu i ve v5ng mac. Nhti
vay phai deo cho m it mot thau kinh tru phan ky c6 true n im ngang (Hinh 6.34).
- Stia tat loan hon hdp khong theo quy tic :
Khi khong dieu tiet, anh cua vat d vo ctic la hai doan th in g , doan dting d
phia trtidc vdng mac con doan ngang d phia sau vong mac (Hinh 6.35).
Ta co the dung thau kinh hoi tu co do
tu thich hdp de dtia ve trtidng hdp loan can
ddn khong theo quy tac, sau do dting mot
thau kinh tru phan ky co do tu thich hdp,
O O ry
true thang dting de stia tat loan can ddn.
Trtidng hdp nay cung co the dung
thau kinh cau phan ky de dtia ve loan vien
ddn, sau do dung thau kinh tru hoi tu de
stia tat loan vien ddn. Tat ca cac trtidng hdp
loan hon hdp va loan kep deu co the dung
thau kinh cau de dtia ve loan ddn sau do
tiep tuc dting thau kinh tru de stia tiep tat
loan ddn. Thtic te thau kinh cau va tru dtidc ghep chung thanh mot cai.

234
 Bai 7

BAN CHAT CUA ANH SANG

MUC TIEU HOC TAP

• • •

1. Trinh bay diidc noi dung chinh hai thuyet ve ban chat cua anh sang.
2. Giai thich diidc sti hap thu va phat sang.
3. Neu dufdc ban chat, tinh chat va ting dung cua Laser

1. THUYET SONG DIEN TLT VE BAN CHAT CUA ANH SANG

1.1. Thuyet song dien tCfve ban chat cua anh sang
T ii nam 1865, Maxwell da ket luan rin g anh sang la song dien tti. Ket lu&n
nay dtidc thiic nghiem chting minh la dung.
Theo thuyet song dien tti, anh sang truyen den mot diem diidc d&c triing
bing 2 vectd tai diem do: vectd ctidng do dien triidng E va vectd ciidng do tti
triidng H . Hai vectd nay vuong goc vdi nhau va vuong goc vdi phiidng truyen anh

bieu dien:

E = E 0 cos(cot + a )

H = H 0 cos(cot + a) (7.1)

Hinh 7.1

Gia sti tren true toa do Oxyz tai 0 co anh sang truyen tdi va d do vectd E ,
H thay doi theo quy luat tren, anh sang truyen di tiep theo phiidng Ox, bieu dien

235
sa bien thien cua E trong mat phang xOy, H trong mat p h i n g xOz (hinh 7.1). E0
va H„ la bien do dao dong cua cac vectd cudng do dien trUOng va tu trUdng. w la
tan so', goc a la pha ban dau. Khi anh sang truyen den diem M nao do cach 0 mot
khoang x thi tai do cUdng do dien trUOng E va cUdng do tU trUOng H thay doi
theo quy luat:

— ( \
E = E() cos c o ( t ----- ) + a
v

( \
II = H n cos c o ( t ---- ) +a (7.2)
v

v la to'c do lan truyen anh sang cua moi trUdng chiia hai diem O va M.

Khi anh sang truyen den mat ta chi co thanh phan dien trUOng gav cam giac
sang, con thanh phan tii trUOng khong gay cam giac sang nen khi ta xet tUdng tac
cua anh sang vdi nguyen tii, phan tii vat chat ta chi can quan tam den thanh
phan dien trUdng. Bieu thiic:

f x ^
E = E{) cos c o ( t ---- ) + a
v

Trong do: f - tan so" anh sang

co = 2 rtf
X - budc song
A..f = v (7.3)

E khi ay goi la vec td sang.

Khi anh sang truyen trong chan khong, no cd toe do cUc dai, ky hieu la c
(c=300.000 km/s). Goi budc sdng anh sang trong chan khong la X0 ta cd:

X0. t = c (7.4)

Bieu thiic (7.3) va (7.4) cho ta thay la anh sang cd tan so' cang ldn thi budc
sdng cang nho va ngUdc lai. Tii (7.4) va (7.3) ta cd:

(7.5)
A/ A

n goi la chiet suat cua moi trUdng. Bieu thiic nay cho ta tha'y ban chat cua
chiet suat moi trUOng. De ddn gian, sau nay khi noi den budc sdng ta hieu dd la
budc sdng trong chan khong.

1
NgUdi ta cung cd: c =

236
 Vdi e0 la hang so dien moi con p0 la do tif tham cua chan khong.

s„ = 8,84.10' 12.5/ ; ju„ = 1,26.10^.5/

Cudng do trung binh tai mot diem cua sdng dien tU (hoac anh sang) truyen
tdi dupe tinh theo cong thUc:

/ = j £ „ . c . E l0

NgUOi ta thudng dung cac dOn vi sau de do budc sdng anh sang trong pham
vi tU tia hong ngoai den tia Rdnghen:
Micromet (pm) = 10 0 m = 1 0 mm
Nanomet (nm) = 10'9 m = 106 mm
Angstrom (A) = 10'U) m = 10'1nm
Thi du: hoi N atri chay sang phat ra anh sang mau vang cd
X = 5895 A = 598,5 nm = 0,5895 pm

Don vi do tan so" la Hec (Hz); doi vdi tan so" ldn ngudi ta thudng dung ddn vi
Fresnen (Fr), 1 Fr = 1012 Hz.
Trong quang pho hoc, dac biet la quang phd° mien hong ngoai ngudi ta dung
mot dai lupng khac dd la so sdng, ky hieu la /

Dua vao so do cua X ngudi ta quy Udc sdng dien tif chia thanh thang sdng
nhu sau:

Bang 7.1
Loai song X (tinh trong chan khong)
Song vo tuyen dien 3.106 cm 10'1 cm

Tia hong ngoai 10'1 cm -r 0,76 nm

Anh sang nhin thay 0,76 |am 4- 0,39 |4m

Tia tif ngoai 0,39 (im -r 10'2 nm

Tia Rdnghen 10'2 (4m -h 10'5 (4m

Tia gama 10'5 |4m - trd xuong

Doi vdi mien anh sang nhin thay, mdi chum anh sang cd budc sdng xac dinh
gay nen mot cam giac mau sac nhat dinh, ngUdc lai vdi mdi mau ddn sac tUOng
iing vdi mot v ung bu'dc sdng hep. Bang 7.2 cho ta quan he tUOng doi giua cac mau
ddn sac va budc sdng.

237
 Bang 7.2
Mau sic Budc song (fim )
Oo 0,76 + 0,63

Da cam 0,63 + 0,60

Vang 0,60 + 0,57

Luc (xanh la cay) 0,57 + 0,50

Lam (xanh da trdi) 0,50 + 0,45

Ch£m (xanh bien dam) 0,45 + 0,43

Tim 0,43 +0,39

Tfnh chat song cua anh sang the hien ro rang qua hien tupng giao thoa,
nhieu xa va phan ctic anh sang.

1.2. Hien ti/dng giao thoa anh sang

1.2.1. Thi nghiem cua Young ve giao thoa dnh sdng

Nam 1802 Young da lam th i nghiem sau:
Dat mot nguon sang diem S trUdc man chan sang P tren do co due hai lo
tron Sj va S2gan nhau, sau man chan P dat man anh Q (Hinh 7.2)
Thi nghiem cho biet:
- Khi Si va S2 co kich thudc ldn thi tren man Q chi co hai vet sang a va b
n im 0 tren dtidng thang keo dai SSj, SS2. Anh sang di qua Sj va S2 tuan theo dinh
luat truyen thang cua anh sang.
- Khi Sj va S2 co kich
thudc kha be chi khoang vai
phan nghin khoang cach tii
Sj, S2 den man Q th i co hien
tupng tren man Q xuat hien
nhUng van sang, toi nam xen Van sang
ke nhau va doi xting van
sang d gitia tai 0 (xem hinh
7.2). Hien ttipng nay goi la su
giao thoa cua anh sang. Khi Van ten
cac song t r u y e n t d i va giao
nhau tai mot diem trong moi
trtidng truyen song, tai vung
khong gian co cac song sang
giao nhau xuat hien cac mien
sang toi xen ke nhau.
Van dung cac dinh luat Hinh 7.2

cua quang hinh khong giai

238
 thich dUdc hien tudng nay. Tuy nhien vdi quan diem quang hoc song cho rin g anh
sang la s6ng dien tti thi lai giai thich dtipc hien ttidng tren. That vay, theo nguyen
ly Huyghens - Fresnel hai lo nho Sx vk S2 nh&n anh sang tti nguon sang S truyen
tdi dUdc xem nhu la hai nguon sang diem thti c&'p phat ra song anh sang ve phia
trUdc no. Theo nguyen ly ve sti chong chat cua song thi dao dong sang tai mot
diem b&'t ky tren man Q se la dao dong tong hdp cua cac dao dong sang tti nguon
sang thti c&p Sj va S2 giii tdi diem do. Tuy theo hieu so" pha cua cac dao dong sang
n&y ma tai diem ta dang xet se sang hoac toi.

1.2.2. Dieu kien de co giao in oa anh sdng

Thi nghiem ve hien tudng gia? thoa cho th&y khong phai tat ca cac trUOng
hdp hai song giao nhau deu gay nen hien tUdng giao thoa. Muon co giao thoa thi
hai song sang giao nhau tai mot diem n&o do trong khong gian phai co cung chu
ky T0 va cung phUOng dao dong. Phudng trin h dao dong cua hai song sang tai
diem giao nhau se la:
2n
E l = E 0lcos(— t + a j (7.6)
T0
2 71
E2 = E q2cos (— t + a 2) (7.6’)
T0
E! va E2 la gia tri cua hai v6c td song sang tai diem giao nhau d thdi diem t.
Theo nguyen ly chong chat cac song thi diem giao nhau co song sdng tong
hdp bang tong hcfp cac song sdng tdi. Vi cac song sdng co cung chu ky vd cung
phiidng dao dong nen co the dp dung ket qua tinh toan cua tong hdp cac dao dong
cd hoc. Ta co phiidng trinh dao dong cua song sdng tong hdp nhit sau:

E = El + E 2 = E „ c o s ( — t + a ) (7.7)
To

trong do bien do dao dong E 0 diidc xac dinh theo cong thiic:

El = £(,, + El 2 + 2 E 0l .E02 c o s ( a , - a 2) (7.8)

(a, - a.J la hieu so pha ban dau cua hai dao dong sdng thanh phan.

Pha ban dau (a) cua dao dong sdng tong hdp diidc xac dinh theo cong thiic:

Em since. + Em sin a ,
tga = — --------!--------------- -- (7.9)
E0i cos a , + E q2 c o s a 2

vi I = Ey nen ket hdp vdi (7.9) ta co:

/ = £■“ = + E02 + 2 Em.E02 c o s ( a { - a 2) (7.10)

Tit cong thu'c(7.10) ta thay ciidng do anh sdng tai diem md hai song sdng giao
nhau phu thuoc vao hieu so pha ban dau:

239
 - Hieu so pha ban dau ( a, - a2 ) khong thay doi theo thdi gian.
Khi do ciidng do sdng I tai diem hai song sdng giao nhau co gid tri hoan
toan xac dinh, gid tri. cua ciidng do sdng ldn hay nho tuy thuoc vao gid tri cua hieu
so pha ban dau (a, - a.J. Vi vay trong vung khdng gian co giao thoa anh sdng se co
diem sdng hdn hay toi hdn.

- H i e u so pha (a, - a2) phu thuoc vao thai gian va luon thay doi hdn loan.

Khi do cos(a, - a j co the co gid tri tii -1 den + 1, gid tri trung binh cua cos (a,
- a j tinh theo thdi gian bang khong nen / = £*, +£jjz, nhii vay ciidng do sdng tai
moi diem khac nhau se co ciidng do nhii nhau do do se khong co hien tiidng giao
thoa anh sang.
Tom lai dieu kien de co giao thoa la hai song sang giao nhau phai la hai
song sang ket hop (co cung chu ky, co hieu so pha ban dau khong doi theo thdi
gian) va co cung phUOng dao dong. Nhting nguon phat ra cac song ket hop goi la
nhting nguon ket hpp.

1.2.3. Dieu kien de cd c u t dai va c u t tieu giao thoa

Gia sti co nguon sang S phat ra anh sang truyen qua nhieu moi trUOng khac
nhau ve chiet suat. Bj va B2 la cac nguon phat sang thti cap phat ra cac song sang
ket hpp, hai song sang ket hpp phat ra tti B, va B2 truyen den M va giao nhau tai
do. Ta tim dieu kien de cudng do sang tai M la I6n nhat hay nho nhat.
Nhti vay ta da biet tai M co sU giao thoa cua hai song sang. PhUOng trinh
dao dong sang tai diem S co dang:
2k
E = E{)cos(— t + a ) (7.11)
T{)

Hinh 7.3

Goi L, la quang lo cua tia sang thti nhat tren doan dudng S A ^ M va L_ la
quang lo cua tia thti hai tren doan SA2B2M.
Ta dd biet quang lo L cua tia sdng tren mot doan diidng diidc xac dinh theo
cdng thiic L = c.t vdi c la van toe cua song truyen trong chan khdng, t la thdi gian
anh sang di qua het doan diidng do. Nhii vay khoang thdi gian de tia sdng thii

240
 nhat di het doan diidng SA, B, M la r, = L J c vd tia thii hai di het doan diidng
SA2B 2M mat khoang thdi gian la z2 = L2/c. Phiidng trinh dao dong sdng tai M d
thdi diem t do tia sdng thii nhdt vd thii hai giti tdi se la:

2 7T L
E, = Em cos ('-*■ i)+ a, = E0] cos 2n + or, (7.12)
7T T
VJo A,o

2 7T
E 2 = E 02cos 0-^)+ = £ 02 COS 2/r + a. (7.13)
7f T I0

O day A0 = c.T0 la bitdc song cua anh sdng truyen di trong chan khong. Tai M
se co sit tong hdp cua hai dao dong sdng nay. De cho dcfn gian ta gid thiet hai song
sdng se co cung bien do (E01 = E 02 = E q) vd cung phiidng trinh dao dong, do do ta co:
E = Ei + E 2

I CC| CC2 t L2 + L. a, + a 2
E = 2.E„cos(n +— --------- L ).COS 2 * Y ------------- :r
z - L) +
24,

Tit cong thiic tren ta thay dao dong sdng tong hdp co bien do la:

o r cos(/ n ---------h--------
2En ^2 ~ ~ &2 \
)
K 2
Ta dd biet ciidng do sdng I ty le vdi binh phtidng bien do, do do ta co:

J ? / ^9 L\ CL \ CC~y
I = 4 E : c o s ' f n — ---- !•+ _!----
A,,-------------2

Vcli cac song sang ket hpp khi giao thoa se co - a2 khong thay doi theo
thdi gian do do ciidng do sang tai M chi phu thuoc vao hieu quang lo L2 - L,
Neu a, = a2 = 0 th i ciidng do anh sang tai M diipc xac dinh theo cong thiic
sau:

/ = 4 £ (; c o s 2( n ^ ---- — ) (7.14)
K

dupe viet
. 9 *
Ta ky hieu L2 - L x = A, bieu thiic (7.14) se lai nhu sau:
( „ -i i 7rA 2 71A
I = 4E~ cos' (— ) = 2E~( l + c o s ----- ) (7.15)
Ki K

2.7T.A v
Dai lUdng 5 = -------- la hieu so pha cua hai song tai M. Tu' bieu thiic (7.15)

ta co:

241
 - Neu 6 = 2kn hay A = k X0 (7.16)
thi ciidng do sang se co gia tri ciic dai v& bang Imax - 4

Vay: ctidng do sang se co gia tr i ctic dai tai nhiing diem ma hieu so pha cua
hai song tai do bang mot so' chan lan cua n hay hieu quang lo cua chung la mot so
nguyen lan biidc song.
An,
- Neu 5 = (2k+l);r hay A = (2 k +1)— (7.17)
2
thi ciidng do sang se co gia tri ctic tieu va bang khong: I min = 0
Vay: ciidng do sang se co gia tri cuc tieu tai nhiing diem ma hieu so pha cua
hai song tai do bang mot so' le lan cua 7t hay hieu quang lo cua chung la mot so le
lan cua ntia bu6c song.
Cac bieu thiic (7.16) va (7.17) la dieu kien de co ciic dai va ciic tieu giao thoa,
k la so' nguyen co the lay gia tri 0, ±1, ± 2... va dUdc goi la bac giao thoa. Ro rang
r^ng neu hai song giao thoa cung pha thi cUdng do sang tai M dupe tang cUdng
con trUOng hpp hai song giao thoa ngupc pha th i cudng do sang tai M se giam di.
Triidng hdp E 01 * E 02 thi ciidng do anh sdng tai M diidc bieu dien bdi cong
thiic sau:

I = El = E 2
0t + E 2
02 + 2 E 0lE m c o s
Aq

( 7rA^
I = iE 01 - E o i f + 4£oi£o2 c° s :
v^oy

Neu: A = kA0thi I max = ( E 0l + E02)2

A = (2k+l) A0/ 2 thi Imax = (E0l - E{)2)2

1.2.4. Hinh dang va vi tri cac van giao thoa

—Hinh dang cac van giao thoa:

Gid sii co hai song phat ra tii hai nguon ket hdp S, vd S2 tdi giao nhau tai M
tren man anh Q, dat L ; = SjM vd L2 = S2M (Hinh 7.4)

Nhii ta dd biet, dieu kien de co ciic dai vd ciic tieu giao thoa la:
L2 L j —k Aq

L2 - L , = (2k +l)Ao/2 (7.18)

Vdi k = 0, ±1, ±2... con A0 la biidc song truyen trong chan khong.

242
 Theo hinh hoc gidi tich thi quy tich cua nhting diem trong khong gian co
hieu so khoang cach tinh tti chung tdi hai diem co dinh cho tritdc bang mot so
khdng doi la mot mat Hybecbon trdn xoay hay con goi la mat Hypecboloit, co hai
tieu diem la hai diem co dinh do. Khi xac dinh cac ciic dai vd cac ciic tieu giao
thoa theo cong thtic (7.18) la thay tap hdp cac ctic tieu giao thoa nam tren ho mat
hypecbon tiidng ting cac gid tri khac nhau cua k vd nhan S h S2 lam tieu diem
(hinh 7.5). Cac ho mat Hypecbon xac dinh cac diem sdng ciic dai vd ciic tieu nam
xen ke nhau vd doi xting qua mat phang R la mat phang trung triic cua S, vd S2.
Neuo cat cac mat
' /
hypecbono bang mot mat phang triing vdi man anh /Q thi mat
phang nay se cat mat phang R theo dtidng vuong goc vdi S h S2 va cat cac mat
hypecbon theo nhting diidng hypecbon. Nhting diidng hypecbon nay co ciidng do
sdng toi nam xen ke nhau vd doi xting nhau qua giao tuyen cua hai mat phang R
vd Q.

Cac diidng hypecbon sang toi

nay la cac van giao thoa. Vi khoang
cach Sj, S2 ~ 1mm nen cac mat
hypecbon rat hep, do do cac van giao
thoa co do cong rat be. Thiic te khi
quan sat anh giao thoa 0 khoang
hep nen cac van giao thoa co dang
cac diidng thang song song va cung
vuong goc vdi mat phang S ^ O .
- Vi tri cua cac van giao
thoa.De xac dinh vi tri cua cac van
giao thoa, ta tinh khoang cach x =
0 , M. Goi khoang cach S, S2 = d vd
PQ = D H in h 7.6.

243
 Xet cac tam giac S,HjM va S2H2M ta co: = D~ + ( X - —)'

d
L\ = D 2 + ( x + - ) 2 (7.19)
2
T il cong thiic 7.19 ta co:

L\ - L ] = 2 xd

(L2 - L, )(L, + L ,) = 2 xd

2 xd
(L2 - L, ) = ----- ------- (7.20)
(L2 +Lx)
Vi thi nghiem bo' tri de D » d va diem M xet gan 0 2 cac tia S,M va S2\ l co
do nghieng rat be so v6i phUOng 0 , 0 2. Vi the co the coi L 2 + L\ ~ 2 D va do vay
cong thiic (7.20) dupe viet :

, , d
L2 - L , * — x (7.21)

Ket hpp v6i dieu kien de co cUc dai giao thoa (7.7) va cac ciic tieu giao thoa
(7.8) ta co:

j ; X m a=kA v x m x= k ^ - a . 22)
D d

d y r (2 k + l) AqD
- x mill=(2k + l A (7.23)
D 2 I d

Khi k = 0 th i X max = 0 nen tai diem 0 2 ta co van sang goi la van sang giiia,
nhiing van sang va toi khac xen ke nhau va do'i xiing qua van.sang giiia. T il (7.22)
va (7.23) cho thay khoang cach giiia hai van sang hoac hai van toi lien tiep bang
2Q
i = —-— ; i r5 rang la khong phu thuoc vao k ma ti le v6i bu6c song ?^0 trong chan
d
khong (anh sang don sac). Trong trUOng hpp anh sang ddn sac co X0 khac nhau thi
i se thay doi do vay neu S, va S2 phat ra anh sang trang th i moi anh sang don sac
cho mot he thong giao thoa v6i mau sac khac nhau. Nhiing van mau co ciing gia
tri cua k se hpp thanh van sang nhieu mau, tuy nhien van 6 giu£a van la van sang
trang vi tai do co sU chong chat cua tat ca cac van sang co mau khac nhau.

1.3. Hien tifdng nhieu xa anh sang

1.3.1. Hien twang nhieu xa anh sang
1.3.1.1. Thi nghiem cua Fresnel ve hien tUOng nhieu xa.
Anh sang tu: nguon diem S truyen qua lo tron tren man chan P (hinh 7.7)

244
 - Neu lo tron tren man P co khi'ch
thudc tudng do'i ldn thi tren man anh Q sau
P ta thu dupe mot vet sang tron co kich
thudc ab, nhu vay anh sang tU S da truyen
qua lo tren P tuan theo dung dinh luat
truyen th&ng cua anh sang. S
- Khi thu nho lo tron tren P thi klch
thudc lo tron ab cung thu nho lai. Trong
trUOng hpp kich thudc cua lo tron kha be
(vao khoang vai phan nghin cua khoang
cach tU no tdi nguon sang S) thi ta thay
tren man anh Q xuat hien nhieu vong tron
sang toi dong tam va xen ke nhau, ke ca
trong cung bong toi hinh hoc a’, b’. Tam Hinh 7.7
diem cua cac vong tron sang toi co the sang
hoac toi tuy thuoc vao klch thudc lo tron va
vi tri cua man anh Q.
Hien tupng cac van sang, toi xuat hien ca d vung bong toi hinh hoc chiing to
anh sang da lech khoi phUOng ban dau.

1.3.1.2. Dinh nghia nhieu xa anh sang

Hien tupng cac tia sang bi lech khoi phUOng truyen thang trong moi trUOng
dong tinh khi chu ng di gan cac vat chUdng ngai, tao nen cac van sang „oi trong ca
vung bong toi hinh hoc dupe goi la hien tUdng nhieu xa anh sang. Cac van sang,
toi xen ke nhau dupe goi la van nhieu xa.

Cac vat can de gay nen hien tudng nhieu xa co the la cac khe hd hinh chU
nhat, lo trdn cd klch thudc kha be hoac cac doan day kim loai manh. Dua vao
nguyen ly Huyghen - Fresnel ta cd the giai thich dUdc hien tUdng nhieu xa nhu
sau: Moi diem cua lo trdn nhan dUdc anh sang tu: nguon sang diem S gUi tdi dupe
coi la nguon sang thU cap, phat ra cac sdng anh sang truyen den diem M bat ky
tren man Q, dao dong sang tai M se la mot dao dong tong hdp cua cac dao dong
sang thanh phan do cac nguon sang th ii cap gUi tdi. Tuy theo hieu so pha giUa cac
dao dong sang nay ma diem M cd the sang hoac toi.

1.3.1.3. NhiSu xa cua song phang

6 tren ta xet hien tupng nhieu xa cua cac sdng cau do nguon sang diem nam
gan cac vat chUdng ngai gay ra. Bay gid ta xet trudng hdp cac nguon sang d rat xa
vat can, thi sdng sang phat ra tii cac nguon dd dupe coi la cac sdng phang va hien
tupng nhieu xa xav ra d kha xa vat can khi anh sang truyen qua goi la nhieu xa d
vo ciic hay con goi la nhieu xa Fraunhopher. Hien tupng nhieu xa d vo cuc cd the
xay ra khi cho cac chum tia sang song song (cac sdng phang) di qua mot khe hep
hinh chU nhat cd chieu dai vd han hoac hai khe hep song song, nhieu khe hep
song song va qua mot khe hd la mot lo trdn cd dudng kinh kha be. Trong ph^n nay
chu yeu ta xet den hien tupng nhieu xa qua mot khe hep, qua mot lo trdn va cac
iing dung.

245
 - Nhieu xa qua mot khe hep
Mot nguon sang diem S dat 6
tieu diem cua thau kinh hoi tu L,
anh sang phat ra tif S sau khi di
qua Lj se la chum tia sang song
song roi vuong goc vao mat phang
cua mot khe hep co be rong la b cua
man chan sang P (hinh 7.8).
Sau P dat mot thau kinh hoi
tu L2 va man anh Q trung vdi mat
phang tieu cua L2. Ca L l5 L 2 va Q
deu song song vdi P. Khi b rat nho
so vdi chieu dai khe thi chum sang
song song khi truyen tdi khe bi
nhieu xa theo moi phiidng. Cac tia
nhieu xa lech mot goc cp so vdi Hinh 7.8
phiidng ban dau se hoi tu tai diem
M tren mat phang tieu Q cua thau kinh hoi tu L2, cac chum tia nhieu xa khac
nhau cung se hoi tu d cac diem khac nhau tren man Q ket qua tao nen anh nhieu
xa cua nguon sang S. Vi S la nguon diem nen anh nhieu xa la mot day doan sang
ngan cach nhau bang cac diem toi den nam tren dudng thang x vuong goc vdi
chieu dai khe.
Theo nguyen ly Huyghen - Fresnel cac diem sdng B 0, B h B 2 ... cua khe la cac
nguon phat sdng thii cap thuoc cac mat kin Z 0, Ei ■■■ Vi chieu rong khe la kha be
nen chum tia nhieu xa song song gap nhau d M xa vo cung nen X 0, JT; ••• diidc coi
nhii cac mat phang song song vd vuong goc vdi chum tia nhieu xa tai B r„ B,, ....
9 *

Cac mat song phang co tam la M co ban kinh ldn hdn nhau mot liidng:

y = (7-24)

Cac mat £ 0> £ i ■■■ chia be rong khe hep thanh dai khe hep (ddi phang
Fresnel) co be rong la B qB h B ,B 2... bang nhau. Tii hinh 7.8 ta thay:

(7.25)
sin cp 2 sin cp
Nhii vay so dai Fresnel thuoc mat khe se la:

ll = _ b _ = 2 :b s m y

K X0
2 sin cp
+ Neu khe chiia mot so chan dai Fresnel nghia la :

n=— = 2k vdi k = 0, ±1, =2, ... (7.27)

K

246
 thi diem M se la mot diem toi, goi la ctic tieu nhieu xa. Tti (7.27) ta co:

»
sin cp = k — (7.28)
b

Vdi k = 0 thi tti cong thtic (7.28) suy ra cp= 0 nghia la chum sdng phat ra tti
cac nguon sdng thti cap se cung phtidng vdi chum tia tdi vd hoi tu tai diem gitia
M 0 tren man Q dong thdi hieu quang lo gitia cac cap tia deu bang khong, do
do se cho mot ctfc dai sdng tai M 0 co ciidng do sdng ldn nhdt goi la ciic dai nhieu
xa gitia.
+ Neu khe chtia mot sole ddi Fresnel nghia la:
2b sin (0
n = ----------- = 2k + I vdi k = 0, ±1, ±2,...
K
thi diem M se la mot diem sdng, goi la ciic dai nhieu xa vd goc nghieng cp ting
vdi cac ci/c dai nhieu xa diidc xac dinh theo cong thtic sau:

sin cp —(2k + l j — Vdi k = ±1, ±2, ... (7.29)

2b

Nhting van de trinh bay tren la mo ta vd gidi thich ddi vdi triidng hdp nhieu
xa qua mot khe hep cua chum sdng song song phat ra tti nguon sdng diem S.
Trong trtidng hdp S la mot khe sdng song song vdi khe hep cua man chan sdng P
thi anh nhieu xa tren Q se la mot day van sdng song song vdi khe sdng S vd di qua
cac ctic dai nhieu xa noi tren, nhting van sdng ngan cach nhau bang nhting vach
tdi den.
Sii phan phoi ciidng do sang cua cac ciic dai va ciic tieu nhieu xa dupe mo ta
tren hinh (hinh 7.9).
* Van sang giiia M 0 co I
cudng do sang ldn nhat va
gap nhieu lan so vdi ciic dai
nhieu xa tiep theo. cac ciic
dai tiep theo cd cudng do
sang giam dan, neu ciic dai
giiia cd ciidng do sang la I0
thi cUdng do sang cua ciic
dai th ii nhat la I,= 0.047 I 0
va ciic dai th ii hai la I 2=
0,016 I 0,
sincp
* Be rong cua ciic dai
giiia gap ddi be rong cac ciic
dai nhieu xa khac 6 ca hai Hinh 7.9
phia cua ciic dai giua.
Do hai dac diem tren cua cUdng do sang cua cac van nhieu xa ma trong
nhieu trUOng ho'p khi nghien ciiu ta chi quan tam den ciic dai giiia iing vdi k = 0.

247
 Tii sii phan tich d tren ta thay sit phan bo ciidng do sdng cua van nhieu xa
phu thuoc vao phiidng cua chum tia nhieu xa ((p). Do do, khi dich chuyen vi tri cua
khe sao cho van song song vdi chinh no thi anh nhieu xa thu diidc tren man Q
khdng thay doi. Nhii vay neu chieu mot chum tia sdng song song qua hai khe hep
song song hay nhieu khe hep song song vdi nhau vd cd be rong nhii nhau thi anh
nhieu xa cua tiing khe rieng biet se hoan toan giong nhau. Tuy nhien ngoai sii
nhieu xa cua tiing khe con cd sii giao thoa cua cac chum tia nhieu xa tii cac khe
khac nhau, do vay se co sii phan bo lai ciidng do sdng vd anh nhieu xa. trd nen
phiic tap hdn. Do cd hien tiidng giao thoa cua cac chum tia nhieu xa tii cac khe
khac nhau md cd cac ciic dai chinh khi cac dao dong sdng giao thoa cung pha vdi
nhau vd cd cac ciic tieu phu khi cac sdng sdng giao thoa ngiidc pha nhau, tai
nhiing diem tren man anh Q khong co sdng sdng giti den la cac ciic tieu chinh. Be
rong cac ciic dai chinh giam di khi tong so khe hep tang len. Khi tong so khe hep
rat ldn (vdi nghin khe trd len) thi cac ciic dai chinh rat manh, cac ciic dai phu hdu
nhii bien mat do vay anh nhieu xa chi la cac vach sdng noi bat tren nen toi.

— Nhieu xa qua mot lo tron

Hien tiidng nhieu xa qua lo tron co nhieu iing dung trong thiic te.
7 N «

O thi nghiem ve hien tiidng nhieu xa qua

mot khe hep, neu thay khe hep co be rong la b
bang mot lo tron nho cd ban kinh r thi tren
man anh Q se thu diidc anh nhieu xa la cac
van sdng, toi xen ke vd ddng tam (Hinh 7.10).
O giiia la van sdng trung tam, co ciidng do
sdng ciic dai I0 = Imax> tiep theo la cdc van toi,
sdng xen ke nhau. Van sdng thii nhat co ciidng
do sdng I, = 0,01741 max, ... Nhii vay cang ra xa
van trung tam thi ciidng do sdng cang giam
ddn. Be rong cua cdc van sdng cung giam ddn,
cang xa van trung tam cang hep. Van toi dau
tien iing vdi goc lech (pl diidc xac dinh theo
cong thiic sau: Hinh 7.10
/I
sin (p. = 0,61 — (7.30)
R

trong do X la biidc sdng anh sdng tdi, R ban

kinh lo. Ban kinh van toi dau tien diidc goi la ban
kinh anh nhieu xa (van sdng trung tam).

XJ_
(7.31)
R

vdi f la tieu cii cua thau kinh L,

Hinh 7.11

248
1.4. Hien ti/dng phan c u t anh sang

1.4.1. Anh sang tu nhien

Theo thuyet dien tif anh sang, cac nguyen tu phat ra anh sang dudi dang
nhiing doan song dien tii noi tiep nhau. Trong moi doan song nay, vecto cudng do
dien trUOng E luon luon dao dong theo mot phUOng xac dinh vuong goc vdi phUOng
truyen cua tia sang; nhung do sU chuyen dong hon loan ben trong nguyen tii nen
doan song do mot nguyen tu phat ra co the dao dong theo nhieu phUOng khac
nhau xung quanh tia sang; mat khac nguon sang diem ta xet du rat nho cung bao
gom nhieu nguyen tu, do do co the noi rang anh sang tu nhien la anh sang trong
do vecto cUOng do dien trUOng E dao dong mot cach deu dan theo tat ca moi
phUOng vuong goc vdi tia sang.

De bieu dien anh sang tu nhien, ta ve trong mat phang vuong goc vdi tia
sang cac vecto E bang nhau phan bo" deu dan xung quanh mot dudng tron co tam
tren tia sang (Hinh 7.11).

1.4.2. Anh sang phan c u t

Neu cho anh sang tu nhien di qua mot moi trUOng bat dang hudng (vi du
tinh the tuocmalin, thach anh...) thi trong nhUng dieu kien nhat dinh nao do, tac
dung cua moi trUOng len anh sang co the lam cho cac vecto cUOng do dien trUOng
E chi dao dong theo mot phUOng xac dinh.

Anh sang trong do vecto cUOng do dien trUOng E chi dao dong theo mot
9
phUOng xac dinh dupe goi la anh sang phan cUc thang hay anh sang phan ciic toan
phan.
NhUng cung co nhUng trUOng hpp tac dung cua moi tru'dng len anh sang tu
nhien di qua va van de cho vecto cUOng do dien trUo'ng dao dong theo tat ca cac
phUOng vuong goc vdi tia sang nhUng co phUOng manh. phUOng yeu khac nhau.
TrUOng hpp nay anh sang dupe goi la anh sang phan cuc mot phan.

Hien tupng bien anh sang tu nhien thanh anh sang phan ciic toan phan hay
phan ciic mot phan dupe goi la hien tupng phan cUc anh sang. Tren hinh 7.12 bieu
d ii n anh sang phan cuc toan phan (a) va anh sang phan cUc mot phan (b).

249
2. THUYET LlfQNG Tif VE BAN CHAT CUA ANH SANG

2.1. Hieu ting quang dien ngoai

Hieu iing quang dien ngoai la
hien tupng cac electron dupe giai phong
khoi mat ngoai cua ban kim loai khi roi
mot chum anh sang thich hpp t6i mat
ban kim loai do.

2.1.1. Thi nghiem

So do cua thiet bi th i nghiem
dung de nghien ciiu hieu iing quang
dien diipc ve tren hinh (7.13). Thiet bi
gom mot bong den co ap suat khoang
&
10'6 mmHg. Trong bong den co hai dien C
JL.
ciic mot ciic la anot (A), ciic kia la catot
(K). Catot (K) diipc lam bang kim loai
-I----it-
can nghien ciiu hieu iing quang dien. e2 t-i
Hai nguon dien co suat dien dong Hinh 7.13
la e, va e2 co cac ciic mac doi nhau.
Mot bien tro R, mot von ke, mot dien ke G. Tat ca cac dung cu nay diipc mac
thanh mach km theo sO do (Hinh 7.13). Bong den bang thuy tinh co mot ciia so
bang thach anh co tac dung cho tia tii ngoai de dang truyen qua. Nguon c, va e 2
tao nen hieu dien the UAK giiia hai dien ciic A va K tiic la tao nen mot dien trUOng
deu giiia hai dien cUc, bien trO R co tac dung thay doi UAK ca do 16n lan dau.
Dau tien khi chUa roi anh sang vao dien cUc catot ta thay kim dien ke khong
quay; neu roi mot chum tia sang tii ngoai qua ciia so bang thach anh vao dien ciic
K thi thay kim dien ke quay, dieu do chiing to trong mach da co dong dien. Dong
dien xuat hien trong mach goi la dong quang dien. Ta da biet trong bong den ap
suat rat thap (10'6mmHg), moi trUOng dupe xem nhu chan khong (khong chiia bat
ky mot loai dien tich nao), nhu vay chum tia tu ngoai chieu vao catot K co tac
dung giai phong cac dien tii khoi be mat am ciic K. Cac dien tii dupe giai phong
goi la quang dien tii. Dudi tac dung cua dien trUOng giUa hai ciic dien A va K. cac
quang dien tii chuyen dong co hudng tu: am ciic K sang dUOng ciic A va tiep tuc di
vao mach dien tao nen dong quang dien khong doi I a. Khi thay doi cUOng do chum
tia tii ngoai va hieu dien the giiia hai ciic UAK, tien hanh do cUOng do dong quang
dien I n ngUOi ra ru t ra dupe cac nhan xet cO ban sau:
- Tia tii ngoai co hieu qua nhat trong viec gay nen hieu iing quang dien.
- Cudng do dong quang dien Ia tang ti le voi cUOng do chum tia sang roi vao am
ciic K.

- Chi co cac vat tich dien am m6i mat dien tich khi bi roi sang, con cac vat
tich dien dUOng khong bi anh hUOng cua anh sang roi tcli. Nhu vay dien tich bi blit
ra khoi mat kim loai se la dien tich am.

250
 - Hieu iing quang dien xay ra ttic thdi, nghia la dong quang dien xuat hien
dong thdi vdi sii chieu sang.

2.1.2. Dudng dac trung von - ampe

Khi nghien ciiu sii bien doi cua ciidng do dong quang dien Ia theo UAK ta se
ve diipc diidng cong bieu dien I a = f(UAK), diidng cong nay goi la diidng dac triing
von - ampe cua kim loai lam am ciic K (Hinh 7.14)
T ii diidng dac triing von - ampe
ta thay neu UAK tang thi I a cung tang I,
theo, tuy nhien UAK > U! (mot gia tri
nao do cua UAK) th i I a khong tang
nufa va co gia tri khong doi, luc do
ciidng do ddng quang dien diipc goi la Ibh
bao hoa (Ibh). T ii hinh 7.14 cung cho
ta thay rang khi hieu dien the giiia A
va K bang khong (UAK = 0), dong
quang dien van co gia tri I 0va chi bi
triet tieu khi UAK co gia tri am xac
dinh (-U2), -U2 goi la hieu dien the — ->u AK
-u2 o Ui
diing, phu thuoc vao ban chat cua
kim loai va biidc song anh sang roi
Hinh 7.14
vao kim loai do. Cac gia tri hieu dien
the UAK tii 0 den Uj goi la dien ap tang toe (tao nen triidng gia toe). Ddng quang
dien dat gia tri bao hoa khi tat ca cac quang dien tii deu bi hut ve ciic diiOng do
vay ma viec tiep tuc tang UAK chi cd the lam tang van to'c cua cac quang dien tii
chii khong lam tang them diipc liipng cac quang dien tii, dieu co nghia la ciidng do
dong quang dien I a khong tang diipc niia.

2.1.3. Cac dinh luat quang dien

Khi tien hanh th i nghiem vdi nhiing chum anh sang ddn sac cd biidc sdng X
khac nhau roi vao cac ciic am (K) lam bang cac kim loai khac nhau ngiidi ta tim
diipc cac dinh luat quang dien sau:
- Dinh luat ve gidi han quang dien
Doi vdi moi kim loai xac dinh hieu iing quang dien chi xay ra khi biidc sdng
X cua chum anh sang ddn sac roi tdi no nho hon gia tr i xac dinh X0; X0 goi la gidi
han quang dien ciia kim loai dd (X <X0)
X0 phu thuoc vao ban chat cua kim loai diipc roi sang va trang thai mat
ngoai cua kim loai. Theo dinh luat tren thi hien nhien rang vdi nhiing chiim anh
sang ddn sac cd X >X0 va vdi ciidng do anh sang rat manh cung khong gay nen
diipc hieu iing quang dien.
- Dinh luat ve ddng quang dien bao hoa
Ciidng do dong quang dien bao hoa Ibh tang ti le vdi ciidng do cua chiim anh
sang ddn sac roi tdi kim loai.

251
 - Dinh luat ve dong nang ciic dai cua cac quang dien tu
Dong nang ciic dai cua cac quang dien tu tang ti le vdi tjin so cua chum anh
sang don sac roi tdi kim loai va khong phu thoc vao cudng do cua chum anh sang
do.
De giai thich dUdc cac dinh luat quang dien ngUdi ta phai dua vao ban chat
cua anh sang. Theo thuyet dien tu: anh sang thi nang lupng anh sang dupe truyen
di lien tuc theo sdng va cUdng do anh sang cang ldn thi nang lupng sdng anh sang
mang theo cang nhieu. Nhu vay vdi quan diem nay se khon g giai thich dUdc dinh
luat ve gidi han quang dien (X < X0) vi anh sang rpi vao kim loai chi can co cUdng
do ldn se truyen dUdc nhieu nang ludng cho dien tii 0 ldp mat ngoai kim loai de
blit dien tu ra khoi kim loai, do vay khong can cd dieu kien ve gidi han quang dien
trong moi kim loai, dieu nay khong dung vdi thi nghiem. Thuyet dien til anh sang
cung khong giai thich dUdc tai sao dong nang ciic dai ban dau cua cac quang dien
tu khong phu thuoc vao cUdng do cua trUOng sang roi tdi kim loai dd. Ve thdi gian
xuat hien hieu iing theo thuyet dien tii anh sang phai mat vai chuc phut nhung
thuc te thi nghiem thi khoang thdi gian ke tU khi roi sang vao kim loai cho den
khi xuat hien quang dien tii dau tien chi vao khoang 10 9 s. Neu chu ng ta chi
quan niem ban chat cua anh sang la sdng dien tii thi hoan toan bat luc khi van
dung no de giai thich cac dinh luat quang dien.

2.2. Thuyet li/dng anh sang cua Einstein va sir giai thich hien tUdng quang dien

2.2.1. Thuyet Iwctng tu a n h sang cua Einstein

De khac phuc kho khan cua thuyet dien tii ve ban chat anh sang khi van
dung de giai thich cac dinh luat quang dien, vao nam 1905 Einstein da dua vao
thuyet lUdng tii nang lupng cua Planck de neu len mot thuyet mdi ve ban chat
anh sang (Einstein van thUa nhan thuyet dien tii anh sang) dd la thuyet lupng tii
anh sang. Noi dung thuyet nhu sau:
- Anh sang gom nhUng hat rat nho goi la photon hay lupng tii anh sang. Moi
photon mang mot nang ludng xac dinh la:
£=h.f (7.32)
Trong dd h = 6,625.10 34 Js, goi la hang so' Planck con f la tan so cua sdng
anh sang iing vdi photon dd.
- Trong chan khong photon truyen di vdi mot toe do xac dinh la c = 3.108
m/s. Moi photon truyen di trong moi trUOng th i cd ludng tinh sdng hat vi theo
Einstein moi photon cd toe do c. nang lupng s = hf, khoi lupng m (khoi lupng dong,
photon khong cd khoi lupng tinh) dupe xac dinh theo cong thiic e = me2 . Ket hpp
vdi (7.32) ta suy ra:
hf h h
p = me = — = — = — (7.33)
c cT X

Vdi p = me la dong ludng cua photon dac trUng cho tinh chat hat. X la budc
sdng dac trUng cho tinh chat sdng (sdng dien tii).

252
 - Cudng do cua mot chum tia sang se ti le vdi so photon phat ra t i i nguon
trong mot ddn vi thdi gian.

2.2.2. Giai thich cac djnh luat quang dien

- G iai thich dinh lu a t ve gidi han quang dien
6 trang thai binh thudng (khi chUa bi chieu sang) cac dien tii bi giu trong
kim loai. Khi bi roi sang, mdi dien tii se hap thu nang liidng s =h.f cua mot photon
tdi. Neu phan nang liidng ma dien tii hap thu dupe ldn hdn cong thoat dien tii A
thi dien tii bi btit ra khoi mat ngoai kim loai. Nhu vay dieu kien de cd hieu iing
quang dien la:
8 = h.f > A (7.34)

Vi / = ; / 0 = y ” nen ^ hay A < A() = (7.35)

h () 0
Tijf (7.35) ta thay chum sang gay ra hieu iing quang dien phai cd budc sdng X
he
nho hdn mot gia t r i xac dinh, A,() = — la gidi han quang dien, chi phu thuoc vao
A
cong thoat dien tii A cua kim loai, tiic la phu thuoc vao ban chat kim loai.
- Giai thich dinh luat ve ddng quang dien bao hoa
Ta biet ddng quang dien trd nen bao hoa khi tat ca cac quang dien tii dupe
giai phong ra khoi mat ngoai kim loai (am ciic K) deu chuyen dong het ve dudng
ciic A. Do so" quang dien tii ti le vdi so" photon bi hap thu, sd" photon nay lai ti le vdi
so photon tdi, vi vay cUdng do ddng quang dien bao hoa se ti le vdi sd" photon tdi
tiic la ti le vdi cUdng do cua chum sang roi tdi am ciic K.
- G iai th ich dinh lu a t ve dong nang ciic dai cua quang dien t ii
Cac dien tii ciia kim loai dung lam am ciic K cd the d sat ngay mat ngoai hay
0 sau ben trong kim loai. Cac dien tii nay deu cd kha nang hap thu toan bo nang
lupng ciia mot photon khi kim loai bi roi sang. Mot phan nang lupng ma dien tii
hap thu chii yeu sinh cong thoat dien tii (vi nang lupng xac dinh bdi chuyen dong
nhiet khdng dii sinh cong) mot phan tao nen dong nang ban dau ciia cac quang
dien tii. Doi vdi dien tii d sau ben trong do phai tieu hao mot phan nang lupng ma
no hap thu de chuyen dong tii trong ra ldp be mat kim loai do vav ma dong nang
ban dau phai nho hdn so vdi dong nang ban dau cua dien tii 0 ngay be mat kim
loai. Vi vay vdi cac dien tii d sat be mat kim loai khi blit ra khoi kim loai se trd
thanh cac quang dien tii cd dong nang ban dau la ciic dai. Ta cd:

E..'r,o, = ~ '" ''m a x = h . f - A (7 .3 6 )

253
 Phiidng trin h (7.36) difdc goi la phiidng trin h Einstein, no cho biet Edm„ ban
dau cua quang dien tii chi phu thuoc vao t£n so' cua chum anh sang roi tdi be mfit
kim loai.

2.2.3. Ifng dung cua hieu umg quang di?n

Hieu ting quang dien diidc iing dung de che tao cac loai te bao quang di£n
nhu te bao quang dien chan khong co khi, te bao quang dien ban dim hay con goi
la pin quang dien va o'ng nhan quang dien.
- Te bao quang dien chan khdng va co khi
Day la te bao quang dien don gian nhat.
Nguyen tac hoat dong cua chung la diia tren
hieu iing quang dien ngoai tiic la su giai phong
dien tii khoi mat kim loai khi bi roi bang anh
sang thich hpp vdi kim loai dd.
+ Tebao quang dien chan khdng
No gom mot bong den chan khong cd ap
sua't khoang 10'6mmHg bang thuy tinh hoac
thach anh, mot phan mat trong ciia bong den
cd phii mot ldp chat ran nhay doi vdi anh sang
nhu cesi (Cs), natri (Na), kali (K), bac (Ag)...
dung lam am ciic K phat ra cac quang
electron. Chinh giiia den la mot vdng day kim
loai dung lam ctic dUOng A. Am ciic K va
dUOng ciic A dupe noi bdi mot nguon dien e (bo
ac quy) va mot microampe ke dung do cudng Hinh 7.15
do ddng quang dien (Hinh 7.15). Suat dien
dong ciia nguon dien e phai dii ldn de tao ra
mot ddng quang dien bao hoa. Cudng do ddng
quang dien bao hoa dupe xac dinh bang mot
dai lupng vat ly goi la do nhay ciia te bao
quang dien. Do nhay ciia te bao quang dien cd
tri so' bang ti so' gitia cUOng do ddng quang
dien bao hoa va quang thong ciia chum sang
roi tdi am ciic K. Ddn vi ciia no la microampe
tren lumen (fiA/lm). Thong thudng, te bao
quang dien chan khong cd do nhay sang rat
nho chi vao khoang 10 + 15 (iA71m
+ Te bao quang dien co khi
De tang cudng do nhay ciia te bao quang
dien, ngudi ta cho them khi tro (thi du Ar
9

chang han) vao trong bong den tdi ap sua't

khoang (0,01 + l)m m Hg de tao thanh te bao
Hinh 7.16
quang dien cd khi. Cac electron sd cap tti am

254
 ciic K phat ra se ion hoa cac phan tut khi tro tren diidng di cua chung va lam xuat
hi£n cac electron th ii c&'p do ion hoa. Cac electron th ii cap nay tren dudng ve
dUOng cUc A lai ion hoa cac nguyen tii khf trO khac, do dd so' electron se tang len
mai va lam cho ddng quang dien trong te bao quang dien cd khi tiep tuc tang mai
khdng bao hoa. Do nhay cua te bao quang dien nay cd the dat tdi 100 jxA/lm.
- Te b&o nhan quang va o'ng nhan quang dien
Trong nhiing nam gan day de tang do nhay cua te bao quang dien, ngudi ta
che tao ra mot loai te bao nhan quang dien va o'ng nhan quang dien, tiic la cac
loai te bao quang dien hoat dong dua tren hieu iing quang dien ngoai va hien
tUdng phat electron th ii cap cua cac dUdng cUc phu trong chung.
+ Tebao nhan quang dien
Sd do cua te bao nhan quang dien (mot tang) dupe ve tren hinh 7.16. Cac
quang electron dupe giai phong khoi am cUc K se chuyen dong ve duong cUc A x
nhd trUOng tinh dien tao bdi nguon dien Sau khi dap vao dUOng cUc phu A,, cac
quang electron nay se lam bat khoi dUOng cUc phu A! mot so' electron goi la
electron th ii cap. Nhiing electron nay chuyen dong ve phia duong cUc chinh A (cd
dang mot ludi kim loai) nhd nguon dien s2 tao thanh ddng quang dien cd cUdng
do kha ldn.
Do nhay cua te bao nhan quang dien (mot tang) nay cd the dat tdi 500-1000
fiA/lm.
+ Ong nhan quang dien
Sd do cua o'ng nhan quang
dien dupe ve tren hinh 7.17. No
gom mot bong thuy tinh chan
khdng cd quang am cUc K d dien
the thap nhat va dUdng cUc
chinh Aj, A2, A3 ... dat d nhiing
dien the trung gian khac nhau.
Rd rang o'ng nhan quang dien la
mot loai te bao nhan quang dien
nhieu tang, vi the nguyen tac
hoat dong cua chung tUOng tu
nhu tren. NhUng d day cd hien
tupng phat electron th ii cap tu:
nhieu dUOng cUc phu A,, A2, A3
... nen so'electron tong cong dupe
chuyen tdi dUdng cUc chinh A se
rat ldn so vdi te bao nhan quang
dien mot tang. Chinh vi vay,
ddng dien nhan dupe trong o'ng
nhan quang dien cung se rat ldn.

255
 - Te bao quang dien trd (hay quang dien trd)
Te bao quang dien trd la loai te bao quang dien hoat dong diia tren hieu ting
quang dien trong. Ttic la hien tiidng khi ta roi anh sdng vao chat ban ddn hay
dien moi thi mot so electron diidc gidi phong ra khoi cdc nguyen tti, trd thanh cdc
electron tii do d lai trong cdc chat nay vd lam cho do ddn dien cua cdc chat nay
tang len rat nhieu. Hien nay te bao quang dien trd diidc che tao bang chat chi
sunfua, bitmuyt sunfua, catmi sunfua,.. vd dung lam rdle quang dien.

Viec che tao cdc quang dien trd rat ddn gian, khong can bong den, cung
khong can chan khong. Thong thiidng quang dien trd la mot ban thuy tinh co quet
mot ldp mong chat ban ddn. Tren mat ldp ban ddn nay co gan cdc dien ciic vd tat
cd quang dien trd diidc phu mot ldp sdn trong suot. Khac vdi te bao quang dien
chan khdng, no khong co dbng quang dien bao hod. Do nhay ciia quang dien trd
ldn hdn do nhay cua te bao quang dien diia tren hieu ting quang dien ngoai tti 100
den 1000 lan. Mat khac, no co the sii dung vdi mot khoang rat rong cua biidc song
tti pham vi hong ngoai den btic xa Rdnghen vd gama. Ngoai ra tinh chat ciia
quang dien trd phu thuoc rat nhieu vao nhiet do.

- Te bao pin quang dien hay pin quang dien

Te bao pin quang dien
la loai te bao hoat dong diia
tren hieu ting pin quang
dien, ttic la hieu ting quang
dien trong xay ra d ldp
Ban ddn p
ngan gitia ldp ban ddn vd
kim loai, hoac d ldp ngan Lap ngan p - n
gitia ban ddn loai p vd ban
ddn loai n. Do tdc dung Ban ddn n
chinh liiu cua ldp ngan, cdc
electron nhan dtidc nang
liidng ciia photon roi tdi pin
quang dien chi chay diidc
qua ldp ngan do theo mot Hinh 7.18
chieu (tti kim loai sang ban
ddn hoac tti ban ddn loai n
sang ban ddn loai p) vd lam xuat hien mot suat dien dong. Sd do pin quang dien
ban dan p-n ve tren hinh 7.18. Neu ta noi hai ban dan p vd n bdng mot day dan,
thi qua day se co mot ddng dien chay tti ban ddn loai p sang ban dan loai n. Hien
nay ngiidi ta dd che tao cdc loai pin quang dien dong oxit, pin quang dien selen,
pin quang dien silic, pin quang dien giecmani.

Ifu diem cua loai te bao pin quang dien ban ddn la no co the bien doi trite
tiep nang ltidng anh sdng mat trdi thanh dien nang md khdng can nguon dien ben
ngoai. Do nhay cua loai te bao pin quang dien nay cd the dat tdi 1000 /jA/lm. Dac
biet. la mot vdi loai te bao pin quang dien cd the rat nhay vdi cd btic xa trong lung
hong ngoai; do do chiing dd dtidc sti dung trong ky thuat hien dai.

256
3. CAC MLfC NANG LUONG CUA TAP HOP DIEN TIT
3.1. MlTc nang li/dng cua tap hdp dien tu
Diia vao thuyet liipng tii cua Planck, Niels Bohr da diia cac dinh de sau de
giai quyet kho khan cua mau hanh tinh nguyen tii:
- Dien tii chi quay quanh hat nhan tren cac quy dao xac dinh iing voi nhiing
gia tri co the cua nang liipng nguyen tii. Khi quay tren nhiing quy dao nay, dien
tU khong biic xa hoac hap thu nang liipng va nguyen tu nam 6 trang thai diing.
Nang liipng cua nguyen tii 6 nhiing trang thai diing khac nhau thay doi mot cach
khong lien tuc. Neu dien tii chuyen tii quy dao xa nhan sang quy dao gan nhan
thi no phat ra mot liipng tii nang liipng hf. Khi hap thu liipng tii nang liipng, dien
tii chuyen sang quy dao xa nhan hOn, con nguyen tu chuyen sang trang thai kich
thich.
- Nang liipng phat xa hay hap thu khi dien tii chuyen tii quy dao nay sang
quy dao khac, bang hieu so giiia hai miic nang liipng ban dau va cuoi.
e= Ej - E2 = h.f
f la tan so anh sang biic xa hay hap thu do sii chuyen quy dao ciia dien tii.
Nhiing thanh tiiu hien nay ciia thuyet liipng tii ve cau tao nguyen tii cho
biet trang thai ciia dien tii trong nguyen tii diipc dac triing bang cac miic nang
liipng va diipc xac dinh bang bon so' liipng tii:
- So' liipng tii chinh n nhan cac gia tri nguyen diiOng 1, 2, 3,.. xac dinh nang
liipng cua dien tii iing vcfi quy dao cua no.
- So' liipng tii phu £ cd the nhan cac gia tri nguyen diiOng tii 0 den (n-1) dac
trUng cho momen cO hoc quy dao. (vdi n la so' liipng tii chinh)
- So liipng tii tii m dac trUng cho momen tii quy dao ciia dien tii, nhan cac
gia tri tii - £ den + £ ke ca gia tri 0.
- So' liidng tii Spin dac trUng cho sii quay ciia dien tii quanh true rieng ciia
no, Spin chi cd the nhan hai gia tri la +1/2 va -1/2. Hai dien tii quay quanh true
ciia minh theo hai hu'dng ngiidc nhau va tao thanh mot cap spin doi song song.
Ldp vo dien tii ciia nguyen tii diipc tao nen theo quy luat xac dinh va chat
che. Trong tat ca cac trang thai cd the cua nguyen tii, dien tii luon chiem trang
thai sao cho nang liipng ciia no d miic ciic tieu. Dong thdi khdng the cd hai dien tii
trong cung mot nguyen tii cd 4 so' liipng tii hoan toan giong nhau (nguyen ly
Pauli). Diia vao dieu kien dd ngiidi ta da md ta dam may dien tii cua nguyen tii.
Trang thai ciia phan tii. nguyen tii se thay doi khi cd it nhat mot so liidng tii ciia
mot dien tii thay doi.
Khi chieu anh sang vao cac phan tii, do hap thu liipng tii anh sang, dien tii
thay doi trang thai do dd xuat hien nguyen tii d trang thai kich thich. vi the ma
cac phan tii cd kha nang tham gia vao cac phan iing. Dien tii bi kich thich khdng
tao thanh cap. bdi the giiia hai nguyen tii bi kich thich ciing cd nhiing dien tii

257
khong tao cap, neu chung d khoang cach viia du th i cac quy dao cua chung giao
nhau tao nen su lien ket.
Nang liidng toan phan cua phan tii cd the coi cd ba th&nh ph&n: E e n fin g
lUdng cua tap hdp dien tii phu thuoc v&o sU phan bo' cua cac dien tii. E dd nang
lUdng do sii dao dong cua nguyen tii trong phan tu xung quanh vi tr i can bang, E q
nang lupng tao nen do phan tii quay xung quanh true ciia phan tu.
E TP = E e + E dd + E q (7.37)
Khi phan tii ha'p thu hay phat ra ludng tii nang lUdng, nang ludng ciia phan
tii thay doi mot lupng AE ma:
AE tp =A E e +AEdd + AEq (7.38)
Trong thuc te ta tha'y A E e » A E dd » AEq khi cozl E e la cd sU thay doi trang
thai dien tii ta se cd pho mien tii ngoai nhin tha'y. Tudng iing vdi AEdd va AEq la pho
hong ngoai.
Trong te bao song luon luon cd sU trao doi vat cha't va nang lupng d miic do
cao nhd qua trin h hoa hoc va vat ly khac nhau. Giai doan ciia ba't ky qua trinh
hoa hoc nao cung mang dac tinh vat ly, dd la sU phan phoi lai cac dien tii d
nguyen tii, phan tii, tao nen mot trang thai mdi so vdi trang thai trUdc khi xay ra
phan Ung. Su phan bo' lai cac dien tii xay ra theo thuyet ludng tii la do cd sU xuat
hien nhiing lien ket trung gian trong cac dang ion hay cac goc tu do d tat ca cac
cha't cd kha nang tham ra phan iing. Nhiing lien ket nay gay nen budc chuyen cac
nguyen tii sang trang thai kich thich. Nhiing phan iing hoa sinh xay ra trong cd
the la nhd cd cac men, chung cd kha nang chuyen cac dien tii len mUc nang ludng
cao hdn, tiic la tam thdi nang miic the nang ciia toan he. Sau khi ket thuc phan
iing thi phan nang lUdng du thiia thai ra d dang nhiet.
Su thay doi cau hinh ciia dien tu phu thuoc vao nang lUdng ma phan tu hap
thu. Neu nang ludng dd du ldn de b iit dien tii ra khoi nguyen tii th i tao nen cac
go'c ion dUdng. ThUdng thUdng nguyen tii nhan mot phan nang lupng nho nen dien
tii chi chuyen den miic nang lUdng cao hdn.
Khi ha'p thu nang lUdng ldn. cac nguyen tu chuyen sang trang thai kich
thich, tao nen nhiing phan tii cd kha nang hoat dong hoa hoc cao hdn. Viec tao
nen nhUng hdp cha't nay hay khac phu thuoc vao nhUng dieu kien cu th§ cua qua
trin h phan iing hoa hoc.

3.2. Hap thu anh sang va phat sang

Mot chiim photon tren dudng di trong chan khdng gap mdi trUOng vat chat
nao dd, tuy theo nang ludng cua photon va ban chat ciia moi trudng cd the xay ra
nhieu hieu iing khac nhau.
- Cd nhung photon bi phan xa: chum tia sang se tuan theo dinh luat phan
xa anh sang.
- Cd nhUng photon bi khuc xa: chiim tia sang se tuan theo dinh luat khuc xa
anh sang.

258
 - C6 nhiing photon bi tan xa: c6 the nh&n diipc photon theo hiidng bat ky.
- C6 nhting photon xuyen qua v&t ch&"t.
- Co nhting photon bi moi trUOng v&t ch&"t hap thu.
Trong trudng hpp nky tuy theo nang lupng cua photon va ban chat cua cac
nguyen tii cua moi trudng ma co the xay ra nhieu ket qua khac nhau: tac dung
nhiet, tac dung kich thich nguyen tii, ion hoa (thong qua ba hieu iing quang dien
tu, compton, tao cap).

3.2.1. S u hap thu dnh sang

Khi hap thu anh sang, dien tii se chuyen tii quy dao trong iing vdi miic nang
lupng thap (d trang thai cO ban) sang quy dao ngoai iing vdi nang lupng cao hon
(trang thai kich thich).
Su hap thu anh sang ciia nhting vat chat khac
nhau thi khac nhau; nhting chat hap thu anh sang
d mien nhin thay ciia pho th i co mau sic (hong cau,
diep luc...). Neu co lupng tii anh sang tdi xuyen vao
phan tu ma nang lupng ciia no khong phu hpp de
chuyen dien tii tti mtic thap len mtic cao hon, lupng
tii anh sang khong bi hap thu, nghia la doi vdi no
thi vat the trong suot. Dieu nay giai thich mau sac
ciia cac vat khac nhau. Chang han sac to" dd cua
mau la hemoglobin co ctic dai hap thu d mien xanh
da trdi - la cay cua pho anh sang, con gan nhti Hinh 7.19
khong hap thu tia dd (cho tia dd di qua), bdi vay no
co mau dd. La cay xanh co hai ctic dai hap thu d vung dd va xanh da trdi, do do no
co mau xanh luc. Mot so" chat co ctic dai hap thu d vung tii ngoai ciia pho chang
han acid nucleic hap thu d 260nm, protid d 280nm, mot so" chat chiet ra tti khoi u
ac tinh d vting 340nm.
Dtia vao pho hap thu (sti phu *
thuoc cua ctidng do hap thu vao btidc
song X ) co the xac dinh btidc song ma d H %
do sti hap thu la ctic dai va mau sac ciia
chat do. Vi btidc song ti le nghich vdi
I

nang ltipng ciia ltipng tti nen dtia vao

S,
pho hap thu co the xac dinh nang ltipng 5
bi hap thu hay phan bo cac mtic nang T
ltipng trong phan tii. 3 3
Chtim photon sau khi di qua mot Jo
ldp vat chat thi bi giam bdt so" ltipng vi
co mot so" photon bi hap thu. So" photon Hinh 7.20
bj hap thu ti le vdi so" lan "va cham” vdi
cac phan tii vat chat va di nhien so" 1,2 Hap thu 3. Huynh quang
ltipng photon bi hap thu phu thuoc vao 4. Lan quang 5. Khong phat quang
so" photon tdi. vao nang ltipng ciia

259
photon tdi, vao ban chat va chieu day cua ldp vat chat ma chum anh sang xuyen
qua. Diia vao ly luan nay, ngudi ta xac lap dinh luat hap thu cho chum tia sang
song song:
I(x) = Le-»x (7.39)

Trong do x la chieu day cua ldp vat chat hap thu, I0 cUOng do chum tia tdi,
I(x) cUdng do chum tia sang lo ra khoi chieu day ldp vat chat, fj. la he so hap thu
phu thuoc vao ban chat cua ldp vat chat hap thu, vao mat do ldp vat chat va vao
tan so' anh sang tdi (hinh7.19).

3.2.2. C a c h e hap thu anh sang va phat sang

Cac phan iing hoa sinh bao gid cung di lien vdi sii hap thu hay san sinh
nhiet. Dac trUng nang liiOng cua cac phan ling nay tren thiic te duoc xac dinh
bang nang liiOng cua cac dien tii nam 0 miic ngoai cung. Nhiing dien tu nay co
nang liiOng ldn nhat va co lien ket dien vdi hat nhan yeu nhat, bdi vay chung de
dang bi b iit khoi nguyen tii va co the tham gia vao hang loat qua trinh phat
quang, ion hoa va cac phan iing hoa hoc. Cac qua trin h quang sinh gan lien vdi
nhiing budc chuyen dien tii, chung chi co the xuat hien khi co tac dung cua tia tii
ngoai hay anh sang nhin thay co du nang liiOng (khoang 3,1^6,2 eV).
Khi co tac dung cua cac liidng tii
hay anh sang, hay cac biic xa ion hoa
hoac khi dot nong dii doi, cac dien tii
cua cac nguyen tii hap thu nang liidng
ay, chuyen tii miic nang liiOng cd ban
cua no (trang thai cO ban) sang miic
nang liiOng cao hon (trang thai kich
thich). Qua trin h nay xem nhu sii tich
luy nang liidng. NhUng vi trang thai
kich thich la trang thai khong ben viing
nen he phan tu, nguyen tii ton tai d
trang thai nay thudng khong qua 10'8s
va luon co xu hudng trd ve trang thai cO
ban bang cach giai phong ra mot phan 0
nang liiOng tich luy d dang nhiet (budc
chuyen dien tii khong phat quang), d Hinh 7.21
dang liidng tii nang liidng (phat quang)
hoac co the sii dung trong cac phan iing quang hoa. Hinh 7.20 bieu dien cac budc
chuyen dien tu co the khi hap thu anh sang, S0 la trang thai cO ban Sj*, S2*. S3* la
trang thai kich thich singlet. Trang thai singlet (S) la trang thai mot ldp dien tii
khi ma tat ca cac Spin cua cac dien tii deu tao thanh cap va momen Spin tong
cong bang 0.
Trang thai trip le t (T) la trang thai iing vdi cac miic nang liidng cam. d do
khong phai moi dien tii deu tao cap (Spin doi song song), hinh chieu cua tong
momen Spin tren mot phUOng nao do cho trUdc nhan gia tri +1, 0 va -1. Dac diem
ciia trang thai kich thich trip le t la dien tii khong the tii trang thai co ban S0

260
 chuyen len, ma chi chuyen tif trang thai kich thich singlet sang bang mot budc
chuyen khong phat sang.
Co hai dang phat quang cO ban: huynh quang va lan quang.
- Huynh quang
Huynh quang la sU biic xa lUOng tii anh sang do cac phan tu, nguyen tu phat
ra khi chung chuyen tii trang thai kich thich singlet xuong trang thai c0 ban.
Thdi gian phan tii ton tai d trang thai kich thich singlet S* vao khoang 10 9 - 10 8
s vi the huynh quang chi ton tai trong thdi gian chieu sang mau vat.
Theo dinh luat Stock nang lUdng photon anh sang kich thich bao gid cung
ldn hOn nang ludng photon anh sang phat quang hay noi mot cach khac, budc
song cua anh sang phat quang (lan quang hoac huynh quang) bao gid cung ldn
hdn budc sdng kich thich.
h.fht = h.fpq+AE
AE la phan nang ludng gianh cho cac qua trinh khong phai la quang hoc
(nhiet, phan iing hoa hoc...)
Su phu thuoc ciia cudng do phat quang cua nguon vao cac budc sdng goi la pho
phat quang ciia nguon.
Tren hinh 7.21 trin h bay cac dudng cong hap thu (A) va phat quang (B)
trong dd A. la budc sdng bieu dien tren true hoanh, con tren true tung la cudng do
hap thu va phat quang tinh theo %, lay diem cue dai la 100%. Ta thay diem cUc
dai ciia phat quang nam 0 phia sdng dai hdn, nghia la nang ludng liap thu ldn
hdn nang ludng phat quang. Sd di nhu vay vi mot phan nang lUdng toa ra dudi
dang nhiet.
Trong mot phan tii cd the ton tai nhieu miic nang lUdng kich thich vi the
budc sdng chuyen dien tii len miic kich thich nao dd hoan toan phu thuoc vao
nang ludng ciia ludng tii tdi bi hap thu. Con sU phat quang thi bao gid cung bat
dau d phan miic cd miic nang lUdng thap nhat. Chang han khi kich thich phan tii
bang ludng tii ciia anh sang mau xanh da trdi cd nang lUdng dang ke, hieu qua
ciia sU phat quang cung giong nhu khi kich thich bang lUdng tii anh sang mau dd
cd nang lUOng thap hdn. Mau ciia anh sang phat quang cua mot loai phan tii xac
dinh khdng phu thuoc vao budc sdng ciia anh sang gay nen trang thai kich thich
phan tii.
- Ldn quang
Lan quang la biic xa lUdng tii anh sang do phan tu. nguyen tii phat ra khi
chung cd kha nang chuyen tii trang thai kich thich trip le t xuong trang thai cd
ban. Phan tii thudng khdng cd kha nang chuyen tii trang thai cd ban len trang
thai trip le t khi hap thu nang lucfng. Vi the de ton tai d trang thai trip le t roi ve
trang thai cd ban. phan tii trai qua chu trinh: trang thai cd ban -> trang thai kich
thich singlet -> trang thai trip le t -> trang thai cd ban. Chinh vi the ma cac phan
tii sau khi hap thu lUOng tii anh sang phai trai qua mot thdi gian nao dd mdi xay
ra hien tUdng lan quang. Noi khac di neu tat nguon nang ludng kich thich. vat
phat lan quang con cd the phat sang trong mot khoang thdi gian dang ke roi mdi

261
tat han. Thdi gian ton tai hien tudng lan quang khoang 10"* s den vai s va c6 the
lau hon.
Ngoai hai dang phat quang tren, ngUdi ta con thay co phat quang hoa hoc v&
phat quang sinh hoc. Phat quang hoa hoc xay ra khi cac phan tii tUOng tac vdi
nhau co the san sinh ra cac liidng tii nang liiOng thuoc vung anh sang hong ngoai,
nhin tha'y, tii ngoai. Phat quang sinh hoc co ban cha't la cac qua trin h men.

4. LASER

4.1. Khai niem ve bufc xa cam Crng

Theo thuyet liidng tii, mot tap hdp hat vi mo co the nam 6 trang thai iing vdi
cac miic nang liiOng xac dinh, gian doan W 1( W2, W3 ... Cac hat 6 miic nang liidng
cao co the chuyen ve trang thai co miic nang liiOng tha'p hOn, nha't la miic nang
liidng tha'p nhat W,; tUOng iing vdi mot hat khi chuyen miic se phat ra photon co
nang liidng xac dinh theo bieu thiic: h.f =Wcao -WthAp

W W,

E = hf
w W1

(a) (b)

Hinh 7.22
Dd la sii phat xa tii dong, cd xac sua't chuyen ddi khong phu thuoc thdi gian va
nhiet do.
NgUOc lai, khi chiim photon chieu tdi th i sii chuyen miic nang liidng tii tha'p
len cao do ha'p thu photon tan so' f cung cd xac sua't chuyen ddi
*
nha't dinh.
Thi du tren hinh 7.22 thi: E = h.f = W2 - Wj
Khi he d trang thai can bang th i hai qua trin h ha'p thu va phat xa photon se
cd so' hat chuyen ddi miic nang liidng bang nhau.

-•— •-
W: W:

E^hf E= hf
W, W,

Hinh 7.23

262
 Tif n5m 1917 Einstein da neu gia thuyet sau: ngoai cac loai chuyen ddi ke
tren, neu ta tac dung len he mot trUOng nao day ma t in so song tdi cong hudng
vdi t in so' cua photon chuyen miic nang lUdng tii dong, th i vdi mot xac sua't nao
do, song tdi co kha nang gay ra sii chuyen miic nang luong tii Wcao xuongWth4p kem
theo sii phat xa photon h.f. Sii chuyen ddi miic nang liidng cua hat (nguyen tu,
phan tit) dudi anh hudng cua trUOng biic xa goi la chuyen ddi cam iing, con biic xa
phat ra la bUc xa cam iing hay biic xa cUdng biic. Gia thuyet nay la mot trong 3 cO
sd cua nguyen tic tao chum tia laser.
So do hinh thanh cac biic xa cam iing dUOc bieu dien tren hinh 7.23.

4.2. Laser va may phat tia laser

T ii laser la do tap hop cac chtf cai dau cum tii tieng Anh light amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation, co nghia la sii khuech dai anh sang nhd sii
phat biic xa cUdng biic. Ta hieu don gian la may phat anh sang do biic xa cam iing.
Tia laser la anh sang phat ra do cam iing.
So do thay doi miic nang lUdng va phat tia laser cua moi trUOng hoat dong
trinh bay tren hinh 7.24.

Wj, W2, W3 .W4... la cac miic

nang lUdng co the cua cac hat tao
nen moi trUOng hoat dong laser.
Sii chuyen miic nang lUdng W4 -
>W3 ->W2 khong kem theo phat
quang, theo xu the cac hat muon
chuyen ve trang thai co nang
lUdng thap. Budc chuyen W2 -> W\
la budc chuyen phat tia laser.
Budc chuyen tu W, len W2, G ir a n g p h a n C ir o n g p h a n

x a lo a n p h a n x a m o t p h a n
W3.W., thiic hien dUdc la do qua
trinh cap nang ludng kich thich Hinh 7.25
moi trUOng laser. ngUdi ta goi la
"bdm nang ludng"
H in h 7 .2 5 t r i n h b a y sd do c u a m a y p h a t laser.

263
 Bo phan chinh cua may phat laser la mot moi trUOng laser. Khi moi trUOng
la chat r&n, thi du thanh rubi (hong ngoc), ta co loai laser chat ran. Khi moi
trUOng la chat khi (chang han la hon hop Neon va Heli) ta co laser chat khi. Vdi
laser ban dan ta co moi trUOng la hai ban chat ban dan loai p va n dat tiep xue
mat vdi nhau.
Bom nang lUOng co the la mot bo phan
phat anh sang (thi du xenon cho laser Rubi) la
may phat tan so' cao (dung cho laser khi) la
dong dien co mat do dong dien len den hang
ngan A/cm2 (laser ban dan).
Cac tia laser dau tien sinh ra trong moi
trUdng laser phan xa di lai trong moi trUOng,
kich thich moi trUOng lam phat ra hang loat
cac tia khac. Cac tia laser qua gUOng phan xa Hinh 7.26a
mot phan ra ngoai, tao thanh lo'i ra cua chum
laser. Chum laser co the phat ra lien tuc hoac
phat ra thanh xung (gian doan)
Tren hinh 7.26a ve sO do cua mot may
phat laser ran
1- thanh Rubi (hong ngoc)
2 - den xenon dang hinh xoan bao quanh 13
thanh Rubi (bOm nang lUOng)

3- chum laser phat qua gUOng phan xa

mot phan gan vao dau cua thanh Rubi.

Tren hinh 7.26b ve sO do mot may phat

laser dung khi:
1- o'ng thach anh diing hon hdp khi Ne, He

2- may phat tan so' cao (bdm nang lUdng)

3- cac dien cUc thuc hien phong dien
trong hon hdp khi, nguyen tu He nhUdng nang
lUdng cho nguyen tu Ne

4- gUdng ban phan xa, loi ra cua chum

laser.
Hinh 7.26c
Tren hinh 7.26c ve sd do mot may phat
laser ban dan.
A - cUc dUdng

K - cUc am

p, n - ban dan loai p dat tiep xue mat vdi ban dan loai n

R - loi ra cua chum laser (mat phat xa)

264
4.3. Sd li/dc ve tinh chat cua chum tia laser
Ban chat cua tia laser la anh sang nen tia laser co day du tinh chat ciia
chum sang: giao thoa, nhieu xa, phan xa, khuc xa...
Budc song ciia chum laser do Rubi phat ra la X = 0,694pm, vdi cac moi trUOng
laser khac nhau se co X khac nhau, tii mien tu ngoai, nhin thay, hong ngoai den vi
song.
Tuy nhien ta can chu y den mot so' diem dac biet ciia chum tia laser nhu sau:
- Su phat xa cua tat ca cac nguyen tii xay ra hau nhu dong thdi, nen cac
song phat ra tu: cac nguyen tii cung pha.

- Do cac nguyen tii cua moi trUOng laser cung loai nen tia laser phat ra co
cung mot budc song, the hien tinh dOn sac rat cao (Af / f » 1 0 ' 12), hau nhu khong co
hieu Ung tan sac.

- Co the tap trung chum laser thanh mot chum song song vdi goc phan ky
cUc nho (chi vai phut).

- Co the hoi tu chum laser vao mot diem (mot khoang khong gian rat nho),
vi tinh dOn sac cao, nen khong co hien tUOng sac sai va dan tdi tai tu diem, mat do
dong nang lUOng cUc cao (tdi 50W/cm2) tren mot don vi dien tich dudi miic te bao.

- Cac xung laser mang nhUng thong tin can thiet, de dang dan truyen trong
cap quang, de dang khuech dai va phan tich.

4.4. Qng dung cua laser

Hien nay da co rat nhieu iin g dung ciia laser trong ky thuat, trong ddi song
hang ngay. Cac iing dung nay khai thac chii yeu tinh don sac cao va mat do dong
nang lUOng ldn ciia chiim tia: thong tin bUu dien, in an, dia nhac, bang dia dung
cho may tinh, kinh hien vi dung nguon sang laser de quan sat tiing phan nho ciia
te bao do chiim sang nho...

Trong vi phau thuat nhat la phau thuat tim, nao, mat, ngudi ta dung dao
mo laser. Chum laser tap trung cao do co tiet dien rat nho va mat do dong nang
lUOng ldn co the dot chay te bao, cat diit mo dong thdi han kin ngay cac mach mau
nho (tUOng tu dao dien nhiet nhUng hieu qua cao hon). Trong phau thuat mat,
chiim laser di qua cac the trong suot tdi vong mac co the han gan vong mac bi
bong khoi ldp mang mach (benh bong vong mac). NgUOi ta cung quan tam den tac
dung kich thich dinh dUOng va van mach ciia cac chum laser cong suat yeu. vi vay
da co kha nhieu nghien ciiu Ung dung loai nay vao dieu tri cac vet loet, o ro. chong
dau va cham ciiu.
Gan day con Ung dung laser trong nghiem phap dieu tri bang quang dong
luc (Photo dynamic T herapy - PDT) tiic la chieu nhung chum tia laser co budc
sdng thich hop vao cac mo va cac cac cO quan de kich thich (hoat hoa) cac chat da
dUOc dUa vao tru'dc dd. Khi ay cac hoa chat se trd nen co tac dung diet bao hoac
kim ham sU phat trien cua te bao. NgUOi ta dang tap trung nghien cUu phUOng
phap dieu tri ba ng qua ng dong lUc de chUa benh ung thu.

265
 » y
A/i/i man giao
thoa anh sdng
ghi lai tren plum
Chum phan xa
tit ddi tuong Phim

Chum phan xa
tie guong
Doi tuong

Guong phan xa Phim khai thdc duoc

mdtphan

(a)
Hinh 7.27

a. Qua trinh chup phim b. Quan sat toan anh

Trong nghien ciiu ngUOi ta chu y den phUOng phap chup anh toan canh
(Hologram). Nguyen ly cua phUOng phap nay nhif tren hinh 7.27.

Trong qua trinh chup phim chum laser tcli gifOng phan xa mot phan chia
lam hai chum: chum xuyen qua gap doi tUOng 3 chieu phan xa gap chum phan xa
tif gufOng tai phim,, tao anh mau giao thoa anh sang. Luc quan sat ta chieu chum
laser len phim da khai thac (hien hinh), ngUOi quan sat se thay ao anh ba chieu
do ket qua cua anh tao bdi hien tUOng giao thoa.

266
 Bai 8

TAC DUNG CUA ANH SANG LEN COT THE SONG

m

MUC
• TIEU HOC
• TAP
•

1. Phan loai duoc cac qua trin h quang sinh tren c0 sd hieu iing sinh hoc.
2. Trinh bay tac dung quang dong luc.
3. Trinh bay dUOc cO sd phan tii cua sU thu cam anh sang d mat.
4. Giai thich so lUOc co sd cua cam giac mau sac va mot so' cam giac khac.

1. DAI CUONG VE TAC DUNG CUA ANH SANG LEN CO THE SONG
De ton tai va tien hoa, sinh vat thu nhan nang lUOng tif anh sang mat trdi
roi chuyen hoa no sang cac dang nang lUOng khac c&n thiet cho sii song qua cac
phan iing dac hieu. Cac phan iing nay tao thanh mot chuoi trong cO the, dan tdi
nhiing hieu iing sinh hoc. Nhting phan ting xay ra trong ccf the song co sU tham
gia ciia anh sdng dticfc goi la nhting phan ting quang sinh.

Co che cua nhiing phan iing quang sinh vo cung phiic tap vi phan ldn xay ra
d miic do phan tu, nguyen tii. Trong nhiing nam gan day nhd iing dung rong rai
nhiing thanh qua cua cO hoc lUOng tii va hoa lUOng tu, nhd sU phat trien cua khoa
hoc, chung ta da phan nao tim hieu dUOc nhiing cO che cO ban cua cac qua trinh
quang sinh.

Khi anh sang den cO the sinh vat, sii tUOng tac giiia anh sang va cO the sinh
vat dUOc the hien qua cac he qua sau:

- Ve phia chum tia sang: co nhiing thay doi ve ciidng do, budc song, hudng
truyen...
- Ve phia cO the sinh vat: xay ra cac qua trin h quang sinh gom cac giai doan
chinh ke tiep nhau.

1.1. Cac giai doan chinh cua mot qua trinh quang sinh
- Hap thu anh sang bdi cac sac to hoac cac chat khac tao nen trang thai kich
thich, nghia la xuat hien sU tich luy nang lUOng ben trong phan tii.

- K hii trang thai kich thich cua phan tii. Giai doan nay:
+ Hoac giai phong nang lUOng kich thich bang cac qua trin h quang lv.

+ Hoac bang cac phan iing quang hoa dan tdi cac san pham quang hoa khong
ben vUng dau tien.

267
 - Nhutng phan iing toi, trung gian vdi sU tham gia cua cac san pham quang
hoa khong ben noi tren de tao nen san pham quang hoa ben vting (goi la phan ting
toi vi luc do khong co sti tham gia trtic tiep cua cac ItiOng tu anh sang)
- Cac hieu ting sinh vat.

1.2. Phan loai cac qua trinh quang sinh

Neu xet cac phan ting quang sinh tren quan diem hieu ting sinh vat ta co
the chia chung thanh hai nhom ldn:
- Cac phan ting pha huy bien tinh
- Cac phan ting sinh ly chtic nang
Cac phan ting pha huy bien tinh lai chia thanh 3 nhom nho tuy theo mtic do
pha huy bien tinh: gay benh ly, gay dot bien di truyen va gay tti vong.
Nhting phan ting sinh ly chtic nang la nhting phan ting xay ra vdi sii tham
gia cua ItiOng tti anh sang, ket qua la tao ra nhting san pham can thiet cho te bao
hay co the de thtic hien nhting chtic nang sinh ly binh thtidng cua chung. Ta co
the tam chia cac phan ting sinh ly chtic nang lam 3 nhom nho:
+ Phan ting tao nang ItiOng (thi du: quang hop, quang phosphoryl hoa...)
+ Phan ting thong tin trong do ltidng tti anh sang thong qua nhting san
pham quang hoc kich thich cac cO quan khuech dai dac biet. Ket qua la c0 the
nhan dtiOc ItiOng thong tin can thiet ve moi trtidng ben ngoai (thi du: thi giac d
dong vat, htidng quang, quang hinh thai d thtic vat, dong vat, ngtidi).
+ Sinh tong hdp: trong chuoi phan ting sinh tong hop cac phan tti htiu cd
(nhti vitam in D, diep luc...) co nhting giai doan quang hoa nghia la co cac phan
ting hoa hoc ma binh thtidng chi xay ra dtidi tac dung cua ItiOng tti anh sang.
Ngtidi ta cung thay anh sang co the hoat hoa he tho'ng men cua cac qua trin h tong
hop sac to'.
Dtidi day ta xet mot so yeu to' bieu dien moi lien quan chat che gitia cac dac
trting vat ly cua chum anh sang va hieu ting sinh vat.

1.3. Mot so dac diem cua qua trinh quang sinh

- Hieu sua't ItiOng tti
Khi chieu sang tdi cO the song, de gay nen hieu ting sinh vat thi do'i ttidng
phai hap thu photon. Mat khac, chtia chac la cac phan tti ha'p thu photon deu trd
nen d trang thai kich thich va tham gia vao cac phan ting quang hoa. Dieu do co
nghia la so' phan tti bi kich thich va tham gia vao cac phan ting quang sinh se nho
hon so phan tti hap thu anh sang. Ngtidi ta dinh nghia:

So phan tti bi kich hoat

Hieu sua't ltidng tti (p = ---------------------------------------------- (8.1)
So phan tti da hap thu anh sang
Hieu suat ItiOng tti cho ta biet hieu suat sti dung nang ItiOng cua qua trinh
quang sinh dtidc khao sat.

268
 - Pho tac dung
Dudng cong bieu dien sti
phu thuoc cua hieu Ung sinh vat
do anh sang tdi gay nen vao bticlc
song cua anh sang goi la pho tac
dung (hinh 8.1)
De hieu rd hon khai niem
pho tac dung, ta xet th i du dOn
gian sau: dung 10 o'ng nghiem
nhti nhau, trong dd dting cting
mot the tich dung dich cd vi
khuan mat do nhti nhau. Dem
10 o'ng nghiem nay di chieu anh
sang vdi thdi gian nhti nhau,
ctidng do anh sang nhti nhau...
chi cd btidc sdng anh sang la
khac nhau Xu X2 ••• ^io- Sau dd xet ty le vi khuan bi khti hoat tinh la con so' dac
trting cho hieu ting quang sinh vat. Ta cd the dung dtiOc do thi bieu dien ti le vi
khuan bi khii hoat tinh phu thuoc btidc sdng X. Dem so sanh pho tac dung vdi pho
ha'p thu cua doi tUOng khao sat, ta cd the tha'y:
+ Neu hai pho nay kha giong nhau va trung nhau, nhd so sanh vdi pho hap
thu phan tti cua cac chat, ta cd the tim ra loai phan tti duy nhat da hap thu anh
sang va ddng vai trd quan trong trong qua trin h quang sinh khao sat.
+ Neu hai pho nay khdng giong va khdng trung nhau, ta cd the gia thiet dtiOc
r&ng trong trtidng hop nay hieu ting sinh hoc do tac dung cua anh sang khdng phai
chi do mot loai phan tii nao dd ma do tti hai loai phan tii trd len, dong thdi cung cd
nghia la cd the cd sti di chuyen nang ItiOng tti phan tti nay den phan tti kia.
- Nhu cau nang ItiOng
B an g 8.1

Khoi luong Nang luong anh

So luong
doi tirong sang tren mot
Qua trinh photon bj
nhan anh don vi dien tich
hap thu
sang (g) ( J i m 2)

Thi giac - 10n -

Quang hop tao mot phan tti 0 2 tach ra - - 10

Quang hop tao 1g hidrat - cacbon - - 1023
Tao s§c to da (ram n§ng) - 3.102 -

Phan huy hong cau - - 1010

Khti hoat tinh vi khuan 10'15 10 108
Khti hoat tinh virus 10-19 10 104
Khti hoat tinh men 10-22 104 102
Phan ly cacboxymioglobin 3.10 23 - 1

269
 Bang 8.1 cho ta th&'y nhting dai ltidng dien hinh d&c trting cho nhu c&u nSng
ltidng cua mot so" qua trin h sinh v&t xay ra dtidi tac dung cua anh sang. Nhti ta
th&'y, doi vdi qua trin h khii hoat tinh hay gay hoat tinh lien quan vdi sti thay doi
nhting chtic nang xac dinh thi doi hoi n&ng ltidng it hdn h&n so vdi nhting qua
trin h pha huy bien tinh, chang han vdi sti pha huy hong c&u. Dong thdi so' photon
ma doi ttidng bi chieu hap thu du gay nen trong do'i ttidng mot hieu ting xac dinh
nao day se giam khi chuyen sang nhting do'i ttidng cd kich thtidc nho hdn. Nhting
doi vdi so ltidng photon tdi th i quan sat tha'y quy lu&t hoan toan khac. th i du nhti
cac phan tti men chang han, chung ha'p thu mot phan rat nho anh sang chieu tdi.
Ngtidi ta tha'y xac sua't mot phan tti protid ha'p thu mot photon vao khoang
0,0001. Dieu dd cd nghia la de khii hoat tinh men, so' photon trong chum anh sang
chieu tdi phai dat 103 tren tiet dien phan tii. Vi khuan h&'p thu anh sang manh
hdn rat nhieu so vdi phan tii men vi tiet dien ha'p thu photon ti le vdi trong ltidng
phan tii. Trong khi dd so' ltidng photon bi h&'p thu dii de gay nen sti khii hoat tinh
lai tang cham hdn so vdi sti tang kho'i ltidng do'i ttidng bi chieu. Sti khti hoat tinh
vi khuan xay ra vdi ctidng do anh sang tdi nho hdn so vdi sti khii hoat tinh men
tuy rang vdi sti khii hoat tinh men thi hieu sua't ciia anh sang ha'p thu lai cao hdn
dang ke. That vay, nang ltidng ciia anh sang chieu tdi gay nen sti kh ii hoat tinh
men cd do ldn vao cd hang ngan J/m2, do'i vdi sti khti hoat tinh virus va vi khuan
chi khoang 10J/m2. Do dd, khi ltia chon cong sua't nguon chieu phai tinh toan den
dac tinh he sinh vat ma ta khao sat.
Nang ltidng anh sang bi ha'p thu se phan tan di bang cach sau:
+ Bien thanh nhiet hay btic xa nhd hien ttidng phat quang.
+ Kich thich cac chuoi phan ting phtic tap, chang han nhti quang hdp.
+ Dan tdi sti pha huy cac cau true phan tii, ching han khti hoat tinh cac te
bao, virus, men do tia tii ngoai gay nen.
- Sti di chuyen nang ltidng trong cac he sinh vat
Ta biet r&ng nang ltidng cd the dtidc dtia vao cd the khong phai chi b£ng
thtic an, ma con cd the dtidc dtia vao qua tac dung ciia ltidng tti anh sang va btic
xa ion hoa. Nhting tac dung nay tao ra trong cd the nhting trang thai kich thich
phan tti cd nang ltidng ldn hdn nang ltidng cua cac qua trin h chuyen hoa rat nhieu
lan. Nang ltidng dtidc phan tti ha'p thu nay cd the bi thai ra b£ng btic xa ludng tti
(phat quang) hoac cd the dtidc di chuyen tti phan tti nay sang phan tii khac hay tti
he phan tii nay sang he phan tii khac. Sti di chuyen nay qua mot khoang cach tti
ndi nhan nang ltidng den ndi sii dung ldn gap boi kich thtidc ciia te bao. Trtidc kia
ngtidi ta quan niem sti di chuyen nang ltidng trong he sinh vat chi la qua trinh
khuech tan cac hdp chat giau nang ltidng trong dung dich. Nhting th i nghiem loai
sau day minh chting cho hien ttidng di chuyen nang ltidng: Trong he sinh vat cd
hai loai phan tti A va B: chieu anh sang kich thich vao he sinh vat ta tha'y pho
hap thu ciia he trung vdi pho hap thu cua phan tti A. Sau dd he sinh vat phat
quang, pho phat quang ciia he lai trung vdi pho phat quang ciia phan tti B. Neu
cat nguon sang kich thich. he khong the phat quang dtidc ntia. Dieu dd chting to
phan tii A hap thu nang ltidng; nang ltidng dtidc di chuyen tti phan tu A sang
phan tti B, roi tti phan tii B mdi phat quang.

270
 G&n day da phat hi^n ra nhieu cd che di chuyen nang ltidng co y nghia rat
quan trong trong nghien ciiu tac dung cua anh sang, tac dung cua biic xa ion
hoa... len cd the song, trong d6 ta chu y den cd che cong htidng va cd che exiton.
Thuyet cong hiidng ve sit di chuyen nang ht&ng:
Dang di chuyen nang ltidng nay lit sti di chuyen nang ltidng ltidng tti tti phan
tii bi klch thich tdi phan tii khac n^m cach dd kha xa so vdi khoang cach gitia cac
nguyen tti. Dang nay khong phat quang, khong hao phi nang ltidng vi nhiet,
khong cd va cham phan tii gitia chat cho va chat nhan nang ltidng. Hieu suat cua
di chuyen nang ltidng nay dao dong trong khoang tti 100% den nho hdn 1%.
Thtic chat thi moi phan tti bi klch thich cd the coi la mot ltidng ctic dao dong,
d d^y dien tii thtic hien dao dong vdi tan so' xac dinh. Bdi the neu mtic nang ludng
cua cac dien tii ciia mot phan tti khong bi klch thich nao day (B) trung hay n&m
thap hdn mot chut so vdi mtic nang ltidng ciia cac dien tti cd kha nang phat quang
ciia cac phan tii klch thich ben canh (A) thi cd the xay ra sti cong htidng d hai
phan tii va trong phan tii khong bi klch thich (B) cd the xuat hien nhting dao dong
vdi cung tan so'. Do cong htidng ciia hai ltidng ctic dao dong nay ma nang ltidng
ciia cac dien tii cua cac phan tii bi klch thich (A) cd the hau nhti hoan toan chuyen
cho phan tti B. Thanh thti neu chieu sang hon hdp A va B ma chi cd cac phan tti A
ha'p thu anh sang va bi klch thich thi do di chuyen nang ltidng, cac phan tti B
cung cd the bi klch thich, ket qua la ta quan sat dUdc sti phat quang dac trUng bdi
cac phan tii bi klch thich A* va cac phan tti bi klch thich B*.
Ta cd: A + B +h.f -» A* + B -> A + B*
Khi ay cung xay ra sti giam thdi gian d trang thai klch thich cua phan tti A
va sti yeu dan ciia ctidng do phat quang.
Trong cd che di chuyen nang ltidng bang cong htidng khong xay ra sti phan
chia dien tich ttic la dien tti khong bi tach rieng ra. Thtidng thi cd che nay xay ra
trong cac dung dich va can phai cd cac dieu kien sau day:
+ Phan tii nhtidng (cho) nang ltidng phai phat quang dUdc.
+ Pho phat quang ciia chat cho va pho ha'p thu cua chat nhan phai chong len
nhau, vung giao nhau cang ldn thi hieu sua't cang ldn.
+ Cac phan tii phai du gan nhau. Hieu sua't di chuyen nang ltidng ti le
nghich vdi khoang cach gitia chung (d khoang cach 10A dat tdi 50%).
Vdi nhting chat chtia cang nhieu phan tii cd kha nang chuyen sang trang
thai klch thich dtidi tac dung ciia btic xa cd nang ltidng dii ldn th i dang di chuyen
nay cd gia tri cang nhieu. Chang han hieu suat di chuyen nang ltidng d protid chi
vai % bdi the dang di chuyen nang ltidng nay khong cd gia tri thtic te, trong khi dd
d acid nucleic dat tdi 30%, con d nhting he cd mat do chat nhan sac cao thi hieu
suat cd the dat tdi 100%.
Do'i vdi nhting qua trinh chuyen hoa xay ra vdi sti sap xep lai nang ltidng
khong ldn hdn tti 0 + 12 kcal/mol thi sti di chuyen nang ltidng cong htidng khong cd
gia tri thtic te. vi nang ltidng nay nho hdn rat dang ke so vdi cac mtic klch thich
dien tii cua phan tti. Nang ltidng tao thanh trong qua trin h oxy hoa khti khong

271
tach ra d dang tii do ma tap trung lai trong cac lien ket giau nang liidng cua mot
so" hdp chat, chang han ATP. Vi the co the de dang sii dung no trong qua trinh
trao doi chat. Nang liidng toan phan cua lien ket giau nang liidng chia thanh mot
so" phan de cung cap cho cac dang di chuyen nang liidng khac nhau. trong do ph&n
ldn danh cho dang di chuyen nang liidng cong hudng va sii tUdng tac tinh dien.
Thuyet exiton ve di chuyen nang liidng.
Trbng mot so chat co cau true dac biet giong tinh the, cdc dien tii diidi tdc
dung cua anh sdng chuyen len miic nang liidng cao hctn roi chung chuyen tii phan
tii nay sang phan tii khac md van d miic nang liidng ay. Sii di chuyen dien tii tao
nen mot lo trong. Trong qua trinh dich chuyen cua minh dien tii co the tim diidc
cai “bay” md d do dien tii se co miic nang liicfng on dinh. Neu dien tii chiia rdi vao
“ bay” thi trong qua trinh dich chuyen “lo trong” se luon luon theo sat dien tii. Cap
dien tii - lo trong dich chuyen nhii vay goi la exiton, con sii di chuyen nang liidng
kieu nay goi la sii di chuyen nang liidng cua exiton. Neu nhii dien tii rdi vao “bay"
co miic nang liidng on dinh thi mot phan nang liidng se bien thanh nhiet con cap
dien tii lo trong co the bi pha vd vdi xac suat xac dinh vi dien tii co the ton tai d
“bay” kha lau. Nhii vay nang liidng do phan tii dau tien hap thu dd diidc exiton
mang den phan tii co bay. Dang di chuyen nang liidng bang exiton co the thiic hien
tren nhiing khoang cach ldn. Thuyet exiton diidc dp dung trong khao sat di chuyen
nang liidng d nhiing he thong chiia cdc sac to sinh vat thi du rodopsin, diep luc...
Ngiidi ta gid dinh rang trong cd che quang hdp, chat diep luc co the co chiic nang
nhii chat ban ddn. Trong triidng hdp nay sii hap thu anh sdng co the ddn den sii
tao thanh tiing phan tii diep luc, nhiing dien tii bi khu tri. vd nhiing lo trong
diidng, chung chuyen dong trong nhiing moi triidng khac nhau vd tao dieu kien cho
sii xuat hien nhiing qua trinh oxy hod khii.

2. MOT SO QUA TRINH QUANG SINH

Dudi day ta khao sat mot so qua trin h quang sinh cu the m inh hoa cho sii
phan chia cac phan iin g quang sinh thanh hai nhom la cac phan iin g sinh ly chiic
nang va cac phan iin g pha huy bien tin h .

2.1. Quang hdp

Quang hdp la th i du dien h in h ve loai phan iin g tao va tich lu y nang ludng
trong nhom cac phan iin g sinh ly chiic nang.
Quang hdp la mot hieu iin g gay ra do anh sang trong dd sii kh u C 0 2 tao 0 2
va hydratcacbon. Qua trin h quang hdp gom hai chuoi phan iin g ke tiep nhau. Cac
phan iin g sang xay ra nhanh, phan iin g toi xay ra cham hdn va khong phu thuoc
vao anh sang. K et qua cua qua tr in h la d in den tich tu nang lUdng lay tu anh
sang bi hap th u trong chat tao thanh.
Sd do tong quat cac phan iin g xav ra d h at luc lap cua cay xanh cd the tom
ta t nhu sau:

C02 + 2H20 + nhf -> (CH20) + 0 2 + H20 (8.2)

272
 Trong do CH^O la hydratcacbon tao thanK trong phan iing. Hai phan tti
ntidc n£m d ve trai cua phudng trinh cho thay la oxy giai phong dtidc tach ra tti
ntidc chti khong phai tti C02 (nhiing thi nghiem vdi ntidc dUdc danh dau bang oxy
cd tinh phong xa cung chting minh hoan toan dting nhti vay).
Trtidc het ta kh^ng dinh quang hdp la qua trinh truyen dien tti. Phan ting cd
ban nhat cua quang hdp la sti di chuyen nguyen tti hydro tti phan tti H20 tdi phan
tti C02 tao hydrat cacbon. Sti di chuyen hydro (H —> H+ + e ) cd the xem nhti mot
qua trinh gom hai giai doan chinh. Giai doan thti nhat la di chuyen dien tii sau dd
di chuyen proton (H+). Qua trinh di chuyen dien tti phai hao ton nang ltidng. con
giai doan thti hai thi trong noi bao bao gid cung chtia mot liidng proton dang ke, vi
vay chting de dang tham gia vao cac trung tam phan ting. Toe do hap thu C02 tti
moi trtidng xung quanh (bang toe do thai oxy) phu thuoc vao ctidng do anh sang
chieu tdi hay toe do hap thu anh sang. Biet nhiet ltidng toa ra khi dot chay doi vdi
phan ting ngtidc, cd the tinh dtidc so" photon toi thieu can thiet de khti mot phan
tti C02. Ltidng nang ltidng can thiet de khti mot phan tti C02 cho tdi khi tao thanh
hydratcacbon vao khoang 112 kcal/mol hay la 4.9 eV cho mot phan tti. Sti quang
hdp xay ra dac biet dtidi anh htidng cua anh sang cd btidc sdng 7.000 A (nang
ltidng lphoton la l,77eV). Thanh thti de khti mot phan tti C02 cho tdi khi thanh
hydrat cacbon can it nhat la 4,9/1,77 = 2,8 photon. Vi so" nay khong nguyen nen
thtic te doi vdi qua trin h quang hdp can khong it hdn 3 photon. Viec xac dinh hieu
suat ltidng tti ctic dai cua quang hdp cd nhting kho khan rat ldn vi rang doi vdi
qua trinh nay can phai kiem dinh thanh phan va so" ltidng cac chat khi hap thu va
thai ra trong qua trin h thtic nghiem. Hien nay con nhieu tranh luan xung quanh
gia tri cua hieu suat ltidng tti cua qua trin h quang hdp, ngtidi ta thay gia tri nay
vao khoang 1/8 +1 /4 nghia la qua trin h quang hdp sii dung nang liidng vdi hieu
suat kha cao.
Qua pho tac dung ciia qua trinh quang hdp ta cd the biet mot cach chinh xac
nhting sac to" nao tham gia vao qua trin h nay. Chat diep luc (clorophm) la sac to"
cd ban ciia qua trin h quang hdp. Cd the cd nhting sac to khac cung tham gia qua
trinh nhting khong the thieu chat diep luc trong quang hdp. Chat diep luc chtia
trong cac hat luc lap. de sU quang hdp cd hieu qua thi nhting hat nay phai cd do
ldn xac dinh. Trong moi hat chtia khoang 100 phan tti diep luc. Cac thtic nghiem
cho thay la chinh dac tinh ve sti sap xep ttidng ho ciia cac phan tti diep luc. protid.
lipid trong hat luc lap ddng vai trd quan trong trong phan ting quang hdp xay ra
dtidi tac dung ciia anh sang. Tinh chat dac biet quan trong ciia phan tti diep luc la
sti cd mat ciia moi lien ket kep lien hdp. He lien ket nav se tao mot dam may dien
tii chung. Chinh nhd cau true dac biet dd ma sac to" cd kha nang hap thu ltidng tti
cd btidc sdng xac dinh va nang ltidng ltidng tii cd the dti trti trong phan tii. He lien
hdp (chat mang mau) tao kha nang truyen nang ltidng hung phan tdi tting phan
tti. nguyen tii neu chung nam cach nhau khong xa; thtic nghiem cho thay hieu
ting oxy hoa kh ii khong phai la do tting nguyen tii tham gia ma do toan bo he
thong lien hdp tham gia. Nhin chung ve phtidng dien nang ltidng, qua trin h quang
hdp lam tang nang ltidng tti do ttic lam giam ttidng doi entropi ciia he. Sd di nhti
vay vi qua trin h quang hdp xay ra d he md cd trao doi vat chat va nang ltidng vdi
moi trtidng ben ngoai. Do tinh chat du trti nang ltidng. khti C0 2va giai phong 0 2
ma qua trin h quang hdp trd thanh mot khau ctic ky quan trong ciia toan bo sti
song tren tra i dat.

273
2.2. Sinh tong hdp s ic to va vitamin
Mot trong nhting phan ting quang sinh ly chtic n&ng c6 t§m quan trong ldn
doi vdi sti ton tai va phat trien cua sti song 1& nhting phan ting quang tong h<?p sfic
to" va vitamin.
Trong chuoi tti nhien cua nhting phan ting sinh tong hdp dan den sti tao
thanh trong te bao cac sic to" va vitamin, cd ton tai nhting phan ting quang hoa.
Dieu dd cho phep ta ket luan r&ng khong cd ltidng tti anh sang, cac chat n&y
khong the tong hdp dtidc. Ndi chung trong cac phan ting nay nang ltidng anh sang
c£n thiet de cung cap nang ltidng cho phan ting chti khong dan den dti trti n&ng
ltidng trong cac san pham cua phan ting nhti trong quang hdp. Giai doan quang
hoa thtidng xay ra hoac gitia hoac cuoi cua chuoi sinh tong hdp cac chat tren.
Cung cd the cd trtidng hdp khi ma phan ting quang hoa can thiet de giup cho
Sti cam ting tong hdp (tang tinh nhay cam) cac men, nhting men nay lai gop ph&n
vao viec thtic hien nhting giai doan nhat dinh cua qua trin h sinh tong hdp cac ch&"t.
Thi du: sinh tong hdp vitamin D 2.

Nhiing giai doan cuoi cung cua sinh tong hdp cdc vitamin D cung co ban
chat quang hod. Phan iing quang hoa provitamin D —> vitamin D khong doi hoi
chat mang protid vd xay ra rat co hieu qua trong dung dich provitamin D2 la
ergocalcipherol. Sa do bien doi tii provitamin D thanh vitamin D co the trinh bay
nhii sau:

0,05 0,26
X T
0,02

0,41

X la mot chat co ban chat khong dong nhat

E la ergosterol L la lumisterol

T la taxisterol D la ergocalcipherol

P la preergocalcipherol

Cdc chi so la cdc hieu suat liiOng tit ciia nhiing phan itng quang hod rieng
biet. Tii so do ta thay ro la chieu bat ky mot tien chat nao trong so E, L ,T, P diu
ddn den sit tao thanh vitamin D 2 vd giita cdc chat co mot trang thai diing. Ban
chat cua phan itng quang hod chinh la sit pha vd lien ket dong hod tri. C - C trong
vdng benzol giita cdc nguyen tit cacbon 9 vd 10 d ergosterol vd lumisterol diidi tdc
dung ciia anh sdng tit ngoai.

Tom lai, cung nhit trong triidng hop tong hcfp sac to, tong hap vitamin D
khong the hoan thanh ditOc neu khong co sit tham gia ciia litdng tit anh sdng.

274
 2.3. T£c dung quang dpng li/c (TDQOL)
2.3.1. Khdi ni$m tdc dyng quang d$ng li/c
Mot trong nhiing thi du ve phan ting pha huy bien tinh do anh sang gay nen
tren cd the sinh vat \k tac dung quang dong ltic. Tac dung quang dong ltic dtidc
dinh nghia nhti mot sti ton thtidng khong hoi phuc mot so' chtic nang sinh ly va
c&'u true cua doi ttidng sinh v&t dtidi tac dung cua anh sang vdi sti cd mat cua 0 2
va ch&'t hoat hoa. Trong hieu ting quang dong ltic, tac dung cua anh sang len cd
the l& tac dung gian tiep, va d day ch&'t hoat hoa ddng vai tro mot chat xtic tac
khdng the thieu dtidc, no la dong ltic thuc day sti tien trien cua phan ting.
Sti lien hdp gitia chat mau vdi anh sang va 0 2 la mot dieu kien can thiet cua
phan ting gay nen tac dung quang dong ltic (tuy nhien doi khi phan ting cd the
xay ra khong can cd mat 0 2).
Chaft hoat hoa (chat mau) tham gia trong nhting phan ting nay la nhting
ch^'t cd ai ltic hoa hoc ldn vdi 0 2 va nho vdi nhting chat khti. Chting cd dac diem
chung la cd cau trtic vdng, moi lien ket ddi va cd kha nang lan quang cd nghia la
cd kha nang giti nang ltidng ha'p thu mot thdi gian kha dai (khong nho hdn 10 9s)
chinh nhd kha nang dd ma chung dtidc goi la chat mau.
Thtic te tat ca cac do'i ttidng sinh vat tti dong vat cd xtidng song, khdng xtidng
song, tti nhting thtic vat tha'p cap nha't cho den cao nha't deu nhay cam vdi tac dung
quang dong ltic. Can phai nhan manh la vdi tac dung quang dong ltic len cd the va
te bao, mot chtic nang bat ky nao cung cd the bi ton thtidng. Tac dung quang dong
ltic cd the dan tdi sti huy hoai hoac klch thich sti phan bao, giam quang hdp, ngting
he hd ha'p, hoac cac phan ting photpholipid hoa, thay doi cau trtic men va acid
nucleic, pha huy tinh tham cua mang, thay ddi nhiet do va huyet ap...
Tat nhien la do'i vdi mdi trtidng hdp cu the, dau tien cd the khong phai la tat
ca cac chtic nang bi huy hoai ma chi mot hay vai chtic nang xac dinh cd tinh nhay
cam cao hdn ca. He qua cua sti ton thtidng ban d&u d “chd yeu” (phan nhay cam
nhat) la sti pha huy hang loat cau trtic khac, tham chi cd the dan den lam chet te
bao hay cd the. Nhting cau true nao, te bao nao, bo phan nao. cua cd the bi ton
thtidng ban dau trtidc het phu thuoc vao ban chat cua chat mau. sau dd la dac
diem cua do'i ttidng sinh vat. Ndi mot cach khac, trong tting trtidng hdp (chat mau
xac dinh va do'i ttidng sinh vat xac dinh) ban dau cd the bi ton thtidng nhting cau
true phan tii khac nhau, nhat la protid cau trtic cac men khac nhau, ADN, ARN.
Ban chat cua nhting veu to' lam nhay cam anh sang klch hoat de gay nen tac dung
quang dong ltic rat rd rang dd la sti tham nhap cua nhting the nhan sac (chat
mau) vao te bao. Vi the ta cd the tha'y ngay la pho tac dung cua tac dung quang
dong ltic phai kha trting vdi pho ha'p thu cua chat mau (dieu nay da dtidc thtic
nghiem chting minh). Chuoi sti kien dan den hieu ting sinh vat cua tac dung
quang dong ltic bat dau bang sti tao thanh trang thai klch thich cua chat mau. Ta
can nhan manh la tham gia trtic tiep vao cac phan ting quang hoa thti cap khdng
phai la cac trang thai singlet ma la cac phan tii klch thich d trang thai triplet. Su
tham gia cua trang thai trip le t cua chat mau vao sti oxy hoa quang hoat dtidc
tha'y rat rd qua viec xet cac cd che cua phan ting quang dong ltic. Cd the cd nhting
cd che' sau day:

275
 Cd che 1: S0 + h .f —> S ,' T,

T, + R H 2 S0 + RH 2

rh ; + o2 P

Cd che 2: S0 + h .f ^ S ,' —> T,

T, + RH2 — > SoH2+ R

SoH2+ o2 - > s0+ h 2o2
Cd che 3: S 0 + h .f ^ S ,' —> T}

Tj + o2 _ > s0+ o ;
rh 2+o; - > p

Cd che 4: S 0 + h .f —> S ,' —> T,

t , + o2 -> S0OO
r h 2+ S0OO — > P + s0
Cd che 5: S0 +RH2 —> SoRH2

SoRH2 + h . f —> S ,'R H 2 ' T,R H 2

T } R H 2 + 0 2—^ S0 + P

6 day: S0 - chat mau d trang thai cd ban

S* va T1! - trang thai singlet va trip le t cua chat mau.
RH2- chat nen (cd chat); RH2* cd chat bi kich thich
P - dang oxy hoa cua cd chat.
0*2 - dang kich thich cua 0 2 (thiidng la singlet)

SqH2- dang quang khu cua chat mau

S0OO - phiic hdp cua chat mau va 0 2
S0RH2- phiic hdp chat mau va cd chat (chat nen)
S0*RH2* va - trang thai singlet va trip le t cua phiic hdp mau
va cd chat.
Nhu chung ta da thay tii nhiing sd do tren th i trong nhiing trtidng hdp nay
chat mau dong vai tro xtic tac quang hoa d trang thai trip le t va no dtidc tai tao d
cuoi phan ting. Doi vdi nhting sd do tren sti co mat cua oxy la bat buoc: oxy tham
gia phan ting hoac vdi cd chat bi kich thich do di chuyen nang ltidng (5) hoac vdi
chat mau "triplet" (4) hoac co phan ting gitia oxy bi kich thich va cd chat (3).
Nhting sd do tren cho phep ta nghi rang phan ting quang hoa sd cap cua
TDQDL dan den nhting sti thay doi oxy hoa khti va noi chung cac phan ting nay co
nhting trang thai trung gian la goc tti do. Nhieu th i nghiem in vittro da cho thay

276
r^ng bang con diidng QDL hau het cac acid htiu cd. cac idol, ceton. cac amin, este.
phenol, acid amin thdm (metyl, triptophan, cestein, tirosin...), pyrin, pinm idin,
nucleotid, hocmon, acid nucleic va protid bi oxy hoa.

2.3.2. TDQDL len p rotid va acid nucleic

TDQDL len cac chat protid phu thuoc vao cac dac tinh hoa ly cua chting: do
nhdt, kha nang khuech tan, kha nang di chuyen, stic cang mat ngoai... Theo nhieu
nghien ctiu QDL lam giam hoat tinh cua cac men, tic che tinh khang nguyen cua
chung. Sd di nhti vay vi anh sang da gay nen cac thay doi d mach ben cua cac acid
amin cua chting. Thi du khi co chat metylen klch hoat anh sang se lam cho hoat
tinh cua trypzin giam di bang cach oxy hoa mot mach ben cua histidin. TDQDL
lam giam kha nang hoa tan va tang he so" nhdt cua cac protein trong mau va cac
sac to" globulin. Khi chieu anh sang vao dung dich actomiosin va hoat hoa bang
erittrosin, actomiosin se chuyen sang trang thai gel sau khi khuay len chat nay
lai trd lai trang thai long. Ngtidi ta cting thay hien ttidng ttidng tu khi chieu anh
sang len ATP vdi sti co mat cua erittrosin.
QDL lam giam mot cach dang ke do nhdt va kha nang lang cua cac acid
nucleic dien hinh la guanidin. Sd di nhti vay vi cac phan ting quang hoa da lam
gay cau true cua guanin (hien ttidng khti polime), lam thay doi nhiet do phan huy
cua ADN. Nhting thtidng ton co tinh cha"t cau trtic cua acid nucleic dudi TDQDL
dan den sU huy hoai hoat tinh sinh hoc cua chung. Thi du nhu ADN virus thuoc la
mat kha nang mien dich TDQDL. Viec nghien ctiu khti hoat tinh cua virus bang
tac dong TDQDL md ra trien vong che tao vacxin chong virus. Tuy nhien tdi nay
cac ket qua cua th i nghiem van chua dan den mot ting dung thuc le nao vi mot
kho khan ldn trong linh vUc nay la cac phan tti mau kho lot qua dUdc vo boc
protein cua virus.

2.3.3. TDQDL len dugc chat

Trong dieu tri chting ta thtidng dung nhieu loai thuoc tham gia vao cac phan
ting QDL, cac loai sulphonamid la mot th i du dien hinh. Mot trong nhting tac
dung phu cua loai thuoc nay la tang pocphirin trong mau, khi chieu anh sang vao
da co the gay nen cac roi loan than kinh.
TDQDL cung thay d cac loai barbiturat (nhti sevenam, luminan dtidc sti
dung lam thuoc ngu hoac an than) hay d mot vai loai thuoc khang histamin. Khi
sti dung loai thuoc nav benh nhan phai kieng ra nang vi diidi tac dung cua btic xa
mat trdi cha't pocphirin co nhieu trong mau se gay nen cac roi loan ve men. cac
trieu chting nhti nhiem doc chi, cac roi loan d da va than kmh.

2.3.4. TDQDL len hoat dong cua c a v a he than kinh

Nam 1917 Viale da phat hien thay khi dung eozin hay dung benzoflavm phu
len mat ngoai cua tim ech lam cho bien do va tan so co bop tang len. Nam 1959
Santa Maria cung thu dude ket qua ttidng tti dtidi tac dung cua chat hoat hoa va
btic xa nhin thay. tim chuot nhat co bop manh hdn binh thtidng. Ngam tim ech co
lap vao dung dich Ringer khong co kali, sau mot thdi gian tim se ngting dap d giai
doan tam trtidng. Neu nho eozin vao dung dich do de nong do eozin dat tti 10'6 -r
10 5 g/ml va chieu anh sang vao tim ech, sau vai phut tim lai tiep tuc co bop.
Hoat dong cua than kinh cung thay doi khi chiu TDQDL. Trong thdi gian
chieu sang chi can mot xung dien kich thich len than kinh dtii ech co phu mot ldp
mong eozin cung co the gay nen khong phai mot va ca mot day lien tiep dien the
hoat dong.

2.3.5. TDQDL len c a th e sinh vat

Chung ta thtidng quan sat TDQDL len cac te bao va cac mo nuoi cay. Theo
ket qua cua thtic nghiem, QDL gay nhieu tac dung khac nhau lam thay doi toe do
qua trinh phan chia te bao, bien doi qua trin h trao doi chat, lam cho te bao chet...
Doi vdi thtic vat, TDQDL lam roi loan cac qua trin h song trtidc het la qua
trin h quang hdp va co the lam cho te bao chet. Mot so" stic vat nhti ngua. ldn rting,
de... an phai thtic vat co chtia chat hoat hoa cac phan ting QDL se bj xam hoac
loet da, long bi rung.
Nhieu chat hoat hoa phan ting QDL co kha nang gay ung thti. Chieu btic xa
nhin thay co ctidng do manh vao chuot sau khi tiem chat pocphirin hoac eozin, ta
co the gay ung thti da cho chuot. 0 ngtidi gia chat pocphirin (xuat hien trong qua
trin h hinh thanh huyet cau va xam nhap vao hemoglobin) khong bi phan huy,
ltidng nay dtidc tich trti dtidi da, do do ti le ung thti da d nhting ngtidi gia cao hdn
d cac ltia tuoi khac.
Tom lai qua nhting th i du tren, ta co the thay mot cach tong quat sd do qua
trinh TDQDL nhti sau:
Anh sang -» chat cam ting -> trang thai trip le t cua chat cam ting —> nhting
bien doi oxy hoa vdi sti tham gia cua cd chat (thtidng co 0 2) -> quang san pham -»
nhting bien doi co tinh chat cau true cua nhting phan tti vi mo —►hieu ting
sinh vat.

2.4. Tac dung cua tia tu ngoai len cac he thong song
Tia tti ngoai cua mat trdi anh htidng len hau nhti tat ca qua trin h trao doi
chat va sinh ly chtic nang moi sinh vat. Trong mot vai trtidng hdp con co the co y
nghia quyet dinh doi vdi hoat dong song cua mot cd the nao do. Nghien ctiu tac
dung cua btic xa tti ngoai, ngtidi ta co the chia pho cua no ra lam 3 vung.
- Vung btidc song (100 - 275) nm goi la vting song ngan lam thay doi cau
true cua protid, lipid va co tac dung diet trting.
- Vung btidc song (275 - 320) nm goi la vung song trung, co tac dung chong
coi xtidng, tao sac to, thuc day sti tao thanh bieu mo, lam tot hdn cac qua trin h tai
sinh.
- Vung btidc song (320 - 400) nm goi la vung tti ngoai song dai. co tac dung
sinh vat yeu. gay phat quang d mot so chat htiu cd.

278
 Tia tii ngoai co the co the gay nen nhiing phan iing quang sinh dim den pha
huy acid nucleic v& protid. Nhiing phan iing quang sinh nay gay nen do nhiing
phan iing th ii c&p khong lien quan gi den tac dung triic tiep cua tia tut ngoai.
Nhting thay doi thti cap xay ra do nhting men cua te bao pha vd cac protid da bi
bien tinh gay nen sti tich tu cua cac san pham cua sti phan huy protid, trong do co
histamin, cac san pham phan huy gay nen sti kich thich cac dau day than kinh.
din den sti xuat hien nhiing phan xa phtic tap khac nhau. Tia tti ngoai co ctidng
do du ldn dan den sti nhi trung cac goc tim in va sti hydrat hoa cac goc citosin cua
acid nucleic. Qua trinh tac dung cua cac tia tti ngoai len cac protid lam xuat hien
sti pha huy cac acid amin thdm (tyrosin va triptophan) dan tdi lam bien tinh va
khti hoat tfnh cac men cd the xay ra theo cac giai doan sau:
- Giai doan tich ctic
Sti hap thu anh sang kich thich cac phan tti acid amin, chuyen chting sang
trang thai kich thich; cd the cd btidc chuyen ngtidc ve trang trai khong klch thich
bang cach phat ltidng tti anh sang (phat sang).
AH + hf, -> AH*
AH* —> AH + hf2 (trong dd f2< f,)
- Giai doan quang ion hoa
Phan tti acid amin bi klch thich mat dien tti (quang ion hoa), xuat hien dien
tich dtidng khong bti trti, ttic la tao nen goc ion dtidng; dien tti bi cac phan tti xung
quanh chu yeu la ntidc chiem, xay ra phan ting solvat hoa.

AH* -> AH + + es7

Cac ion cd the phan huy tao thanh cac goc tti do va proton co lap.
A H + —» A + H+
Nhting qua trin h nay xay ra rat nhanh, nghien ctiu chting chi cd the bang
phtidng phap quang phan tao xung hay d nhiet do thap. Cac ion cd the to hdp
ngtidc vdi dien tti solvat dtidi tac dung cua anh sang hay nhiet do. Khi ay phan tti
bi klch thich dtidc tao nen va sau khi btic xa anh sang no trd ve trang thai khong
klch thich.

AH* + e s — nhicl do
>A H *

AH* -> AH + h.f,

Neu nhti qua trin h dtidc trinh bay nay xay ra dudi tac dung cua anh sang
thi no dtidc goi la sti phat quang cam ting con dtidi tac dung cua nhiet do thi goi la
nhiet phat quang.
- Giai doan phan ting cua goc tti do va dien tti solvat.
Goc tti do cua acid amm ket hdp vdi oxy tao thanh goc oxid cua acid amin
thdm.
A* + Oo -> AOO*

279
 Cac goc tu do tiidng tac vdi nhom protid d canh, ket qua la tao nen NH3 va
goc cua acid amin khac, dd la sti tang nhay.

e~ + H ‘ + H2N - R -> N H * t + R*

- Giai doan phan iing hoa hoc pha huy acid amin
Cac goc oxid cua cac acid thdm qua hang loat phan iing tao nen nhiing san
pham cd tac dung doc. Cac phan iing dtidc tang nhay vdi cac nhom lan can cua cac
phan tti protid gay nen sti thay doi cau hinh cua cac dai phan tti protid va lam
mat hoat tinh men.
Tia tti ngoai lieu ltidng ldn cd tac dung diet khuan cao la do tia da khong che
kha nang sinh san cua vi khuan. Tac dung nay chu yeu la do tia lam ton thtidng
ADN cua virus va vi khuan.
Can chti y rang tac dung chu yeu cua tia tti ngoai la nang cao tinh phan ting
mien dich cua cd the. Gia tri dac biet cua tia tti ngoai la d qua trin h tao vitamin
D. Vitam in D la mot trong nhting chat htiu cd rat quan trong doi vdi cd the. Su
han che tong hdp vitamin D se dan tdi pha huy trao doi phospho, calci. Do vay sU
chieu tia tti ngoai con dtidc ting dung trong dieu tri benh coi xtidng. lam cho vet
thtidng chong lien seo, cung nhti lam xtidng gay chong lien.

2.5. Thong tin thu cam anh sang

Anh sang mang thong tin ve moi trtidng ngoai den cho sinh vat: hoa htidng
dtidng htidng theo mat trdi. hang loat loai hoa nd theo khoang thdi gian xac djnh
trong ngay, hang loat vi khuan phan ting khi chieu sang... Mat hau nhti la cd
quan hoan chinh nhat de tiep nhan anh sang tti moi trtidng ngoai. phan tich
thanh phan anh sang (ctidng do, btidc song...) tao cac xung dong than kinh dan len
nao giup ta nhan thtic dtidc moi trtidng xung quanh. Phan ting quang hoa phan
huy sac to thi giac phat sinh cac xung dong than kinh truyen len day than kinh
thi giac de cd cam giac sang la phan ting thong tin.

2.5.1. Car s o phan tif cua s i/th u cam anh sang

Phan tich te bao que va te bao non la cac te bao thu cam anh sang cd mat d
vong mac ngtidi ta thay:
6 te bao que cd sac to thu cam anh sang (hay sac to' thi giac) la Rodopsin. 6
te bao non cd sac to thu cam anh sang la Iodopsin.

CH3 CH3
i i
CH C = CH CH CH • C = C H - C H 2OH
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Hinh 8.2

280
 Rodopsin la phiic chat cua protein co phan tu ltidng khoang 40.000, do la
lien ke't phiic cua Retinal vdi protein dac biet cua te bao que la Scotopxin.
Iodopxin la lien ket phiic cua Retinal vdi protein dac biet cua te bao non la
Fotopxin.
Rodopsin <-> Scotopxin + Retinal
Iodopsin <-» Fotopxin + Retinal
Retinal la aldehyt cua vitamin A,. Cong thiic cau tao cua vitamin A, dtidc
dan ra tren hinh 8.2.
De thuan tien, cac phan tii cacbon trong cong thiic cau tao nay dtidc danh so
thii tu tii 1 den 15. Nhiing hdp chat co cau true vong dang do va mach ben co 9
nguyen tii cacbon thuoc ve loai goi la carotinoid bdi vi nhieu hdp chat loai nay
dtidc tim thay trong ca rot. Vitamin A! co nhom rtidu (nhom CH2OH) d vi tri
nguyen tti cacbon thti 15. Khac vdi vitamin A 1; Retinal cd chtia nhom CHO d vi tri
nguyen tti cacbon thti 15. Ta cd the bieu dien vitam in A! va Retinal bang cong
thtic ddn gian nhti hinh 8.3.
Cau tao phan tti cua Scotopxin va H
Fotopxin rat phtic tap. Dieu dang chti y la
cac phan tti nay deu la cac protein cd chtia - CH2OH =O
nhom sulfydryl (SH) cd kha nang phan ting
VitaminA Retinal
rat manh vdi nhieu loai hdp chat khac nhau.
Ta cd the bieu dien phan tti Scotopxin nhti
hinh 8.3. Phan ting gitia Scotopxin va
•) ■
)

Retinal de tao thanh Rodopsin dtidc bieu

dien ddn gian nhu hinh 8.4. Scotopxin
Trong phan ting nay, nguyen tti cacbon
thti 15 ciia Retinal, da gan vdi hai nguyen tii Hinh 8.3
S cua Scotopxin. Phan ting tao thanh
Rodopxin va giai phong mot phan tti ntidc.

- S- H
+ h 2o
- S - H

Hinh 8.4

Khi cd anh sang tac dung vao phan tii Rodopxin. no phan ly tao thanh
Scotopxin va Retinal. Nang ltidng cung cap cho phan ting phan huy nay la do
photon ciia chtim sang chieu vao mat mang lai. Ngtidi ta da tinh toan thay cti mot
photon anh sang nhin thav dti de phan huy mot phan tti Rodopsin. San pham dau
tien ciia sti phan huy do la Lumirodopxin. 6 nhiet do binh thtidng. chat nay
khong on dinh nen tti bien doi qua nhieu giai doan de thanh Metarodopxin I.II

281
(mau da cam) roi cuoi cung bi thuy phan th&nh mot hon hop opxin cua te b&o que
va trans retinal mau vang.
Do tac dung cua anh sang, tia hong ngoai, nhiet ho&c cac men... trans
retinal va opxin co the chuyen thanh Retinal va Opxin hoac thanh sinh to A d
dang tu do hoac este hoa de chuyen vao du trti d cac ldp te bao s&c to' bieu mo.
Phan ting quang hoa phan huy phan tii Rodopsin, phat sinh cac xung dong
than kinh truyen len day than kinh thi giac.
Trong bong toi (khi khong cd anh sang tac dung vao), phan tii Rodopsin dtidc
phuc hoi kha nhanh vdi phan ting ngtidc (8.5) qua nhieu giai doan trung gian dtidi
tac dung cua nang ltidng hoa sinh. Ltic nay dong thdi xay ra phan ting phuc hoi
ciia cac Retinal mdi tti cac vitam in A va cac este cua no tti cac te bao sac to' bieu
mo chuyen vao te bao que. Do vay ta tha'y vai tro quan trong ciia vitam in A va
qua trinh pho'i hdp ciia cac sac to' bieu mo. Trong cac benh lam giam ltidng ha'p
thu vitamin A hay benh d vong mac lam can trd sti tiep xtic te bao than kinh thi
giac vdi sac to' bieu mo, sti tong hdp Rodopsin bi giam xuong nhieu va chtic nang
thi giac bi anh htidng. Cd the tom tat qua trin h phan tich va tong hdp Rodopsin d
te bao que tren sd do ve d hinh 8.5

Tong hop ^ ,
Rodopxin
Lumirodoxin
Cac phan iing \ Xung dong
trung gian ngi/oc chieu th^ n kimh
Metarodopxinl

I
Metarodopxinll

Phan tich

hoa sinh Retinal

Hinh 8.5. Sd do phan tich va tong hdp Rodopsin

Trong qua trin h phan tich, quang nang da bien thanh hoa nang. Cd che tti
hoa nang bien doi thanh cac xung dong than kmh kich thich trung khu thi giac d
vo nao la mot van de kha phtic tap. Cd thuyet cho rang phan ting quang hoa da
lam xuat hien dien the hoat dong va lam cho dien trd, tinh tham ciia mang te bao
thay doi, do vay xung dong than kinh cd the lan truyen dtidc. Hien nay ngtidi ta
da ghi dtidc cac dong dien vong mac khac nhau trong cac tinh trang hoat dong
khac nhau ciia cac te bao cam thu anh sang. Dieu dd chting to rang cting nhti
nhieu hien ttidng sinh hoc khac, qua trin h cam thu anh sang lien quan nhieu den
ban chat dong dien sinh vat.

282
 Nhd kmh hien vi dien tii, ngUdi ta thay Rodopsin tap trung trong te bao que
dUdc sip xep dudi dang cac dia deu dan, cu the Rodopsin slip xep nhu the nao
trong dia con chua ro, cd dieu cac dia nay la cau true chu yeu cua te bao que,
dudng kinh moi dia con khoang 258nm, chieu dai khoang 50nm. Cd gia thiet cho
r^ng nhiing d!a Rodopsin trong te bao nay cd tac dung nhu nhiing ldp chat ban
d in cd kha nang bien nang liidng anh sang thanh nang liidng dien lam xuat hien
dien the hoat dong doc theo day than kinh.
Cho nen viec tra Idi tUdng do'i chinh xac cau hoi “nang ludng anh sang bien
thanh xung dong th in kinh nhu the nao?” cung con can phai nghien ciiu them
niia.

2.5.2. Ngudng nhin, do nhay cua mat

2.5.2.1. Ngudng nhin

Nhu tren da phan tich, do tac dung cua anh sang chieu tdi ma Rodopsin bi
phan tich thanh Opxin va Retinal. Trong qua trinh nay, te bao que phat ra xung
dong than kinh. Nhieu th i nghiem chiing to rang tinh trung binh, sU hap thu mot
photon mien nhin thay dUa den viec phan tich mot phan tii Rodopsin. Cd the dat
cau hoi: can toi thieu bao nhieu phan tii Rodopsin bi phan tich thi cd the tao nen
xung dong than kinh, nghia la cd the tao nen dien the' hoat dong cua sdi than kmh
thi giac? Ndi mot cach khac te bao que phai ha'p thu mot so' photon toi thieu la bao
nhieu de cd the gay nen cam giac sang. So' photon toi thieu nay dUdc goi la ngUdng
thi giac hay ngUdng nhin.
NgUdng nhin phu thuoc vao rat nhieu yeu to': budc sdng cua anh sang, kich
thudc cua vat sang dUdc khao sat, dudng kinh cua dong tu, thdi gian cua anh sang
tac dung len vong mac. Viec do dac ngudng nhin da dUdc nha sinh ly Hess dat ra
lan dau tien. Hess dung budc sdng nhav nha't doi vdi mat, kich thudc cua vat sang
du nho, de mat thich iing vdi bong to'i, chieu sang trong mot thdi gian ngan. Thay
doi cUdng do anh sang chieu vao mat, Hess xac dinh so' photon ngUdng den giac
mac. Theo cac tinh toan cua ong thi ngUdng nhin bang so' photon ngUdng den giac
4
mac tru' di — so photon bi hap thu tren dudng di tii giac mac den te bao que. Ket

qua cac phep do cua Hess cho thay cam giac sang bat dau xuat hien khi khoang
4
150 photon den giac mac tiic la ngUdng nhin vao khoang 150 - (150x—) = 30
5
photon. Viec xac dinh con so' nay da dUOc nhieu tac gia lap lai nhieu lan trong 20 -
30 nam sau. ket qua cua cac phep do xac nhan rang ngUdng nhin vao khoang 1
den 2 photon.
Nhiing phep do hien dai xac dinh ngUdng nhin dUdc tien hanh tren m it cua
mot loai cua cang. Vong mac cua loai cua nay chi cd te bao que, trong te bao que
cd nhieu phan tu' giong nhau tach han ra goi la “yeu to cam sang” . Moi yeu to cam
sang lien he vdi mot soi day than kinh. NgUdi ta tach bo day than kinh thi giac
cua m it cua cang tren cho den khi con lai mot sdi day duy nhat lien he vdi mot
“yeu to cam sang". Thay ddi cUdng do anh sang tac dung len “yeu to cam sang” .

283
ghi lai sa xuat hien dien the hoat dong cua sdi than kinh tach rdi, ngUdi ta di den
ket luan ngtidng nhin vao khoang vao 1 den 2 photon. Con so nay khac nhau chut
ft doi vdi cac thf nghiem tien hanh bdi cac tac gia khac nhau. Tuy nhien tat ca cac
thf nghiem deu xac nhan rang ngtidng nhin la mot con so' khong ldn.
Ngtidng nhin la 1 photon se iing vdi nang ltidng la:
he
8=
X

Thay cac tri so':

h = 6,62.10 31 J.s
c = 3.108 m/s
X = 0,5 fim = 5.10' m.
vao cong thiic tren, ta dtidc:
e * 4.10 19 J
Ngtidi ta tfnh rang nang ltidng nay du de lam dtit nhiing moi lien ket yeu,
lam thay doi cau true cua phan tti Rodopsin, dUa den viec xuat hien xung dong
than kinh.
Nhu da noi d phan dau cua bai, te bao que co kha nang phan iing khi anh
sang co do roi nho con te bao non chi phan iing khi anh sang co do roi ldn. Dieu do
lien quan den ngtidng nhin; te bao que co ngtidng nhin nho hdn te bao non. Khi
anh sang co do roi ldn, cac te bao que va cac te bao non cung tham gia vao qua
trinh nhin. Qua trin h nay dtidc goi la thi giac sang (thi giac ban ngay hay thi giac
Photo). Khi anh sang co do roi nho. chi co cac te bao que tham gia vao qua trinh
nhin, qua trin h nav dUdc goi la thi giac toi (thi giac hoang hon hay thi giac Scoto).
Su bien doi cua ItiOng Rodopsin trong te bao que tham gia vao qua trinh nhin.
nhu ta da biet, dUdc bieu dien bang phan ting thuan nghich:
Rodopsin <-> Opxin + Retinal
Vdi do roi trung binh (bien thien trong mot gidi han kha rong) phan ting
thuan nghich tren d the can bang dong, so' phan tti Rodopsin bi phan tfch bang so
phan tti Rodopsin dtidc tong hdp. Ham ltidng Rodopsin trong vdng mac dtidc giti
nguyen khong doi d mot tr i so' nao do.
Neu do roi tang len thi trang thai can bang se bi dich chuyen. so' phan tti
Rodopsin bi phan tfch se nhieu hdn so' phan tti Rodopsin dtidc tong hdp. Ket qua
la ham ltidng Rodopsin trong vong mac giam xuo'ng. Nhti ta da biet, sU cam thu
anh sang phu thuoc vao ltidng Rodopsin trong vong mac dong thdi sti hap thu
photon cua cac Rodopsin mang tfnh chat xac sua't. Chfnh vi ly do do, mat co the
nhin tha'y d do roi kha ldn.
Neu do roi cua anh sang giam xuo'ng. so' phan tti Rodopsin dtidc tong hdp se
ldn hdn so phan tti Rodopsin bi phan tfch. Dieu do lam cho mat nhin tha'y d nhting
do roi nho. Can ltiu y rang sti tong hdp lai Rodopsin doi hoi mot thdi gian kha lau.

284
Chinh vi vay khi mat thich ting sang, nghia la d trang thai th i giac Photo chuyen
sang thi giac Scoto (chang han trong trtidng hdp ta di tti ch6 sang vao cho toi), do
roi cua anh sang giam di, so' photon den vong mac giam, trong khi do Rodopsin
trong vong mac co ham ItiOng khong ldn lam. Can phai co mot thdi gian thich nghi
de ham ltidng Rodopsin dtidc khoi phuc du ldn. Khoang thdi gian nay co the len
den hang chuc phut (trong khi do thdi gian gian dong tti chi xay ra trong vong
10 + 30 giay).
Nhting dieu noi d tren chting to mat co the nhin tha'y trong gidi han ra't rong
cua quang thong. Ngtidi ta tinh toan rang, mat thich ting tot vdi bong toi co the
nhin tha'y khi quang thong tdi tren toan bo dien tich cua dong tti khoang 2.10 10
erg/s. Con gidi han cua quang thong trong thi giac Photo ma khong lam choi hay
hai mat vao khoang 200 erg/s nghia la ldn hon gap 1012 lan gia tri tren.

2.5.2.2. Do nhay cua mat

Nhti ta da biet so' photon toi thieu bi ha'p thu du de gay nen cam giac sang
dtidc goi la ngtidng nhin, goi so photon nay la £. dai ItiOng nghich dao cua ngtidng
nhin goi la do nhay E cua mat.

E=- (8.3)
8

Ngtidng nhin cang nho, do nhay cua mat cang ldn. Do nhay E cung giong
nhti ngtidng nhin e, phu thuoc vao btidc sdng cua anh sang, kich thtidc cua vat
sang, dtidng kinh dong tti, thdi gian anh sang tac dung, trang thai thich nghi cua
mat (thi giac Photo hay th i giac Scoto). Trong muc nay ta nghien ctiu sti phu
thuoc cua do nhay E theo btidc song X cua anh sang. Ngtidi ta quy tide chon do
nhay E ting vdi cac btidc sdng nhay nha't lam don vi, nghia la xem Emax (X0) = 1.
Do nhay E ting vdi cac btidc sdng khac deu nho hon 1. Trong he ddn vi quy tide
nay, E dtidc goi la do nhay ttidng do'i cua mat va dtidng cong bieu dien sti phu
thuoc cua E vao X dtidc goi la
dtidng cong nhay sang ttidng
do'i. Dtidng cong nhay sang
ttidng do'i do'i vdi mat thich ting
vdi anh sang manh dtidc goi la
dtidng cong nhay sang ttidng
do'i Photo (a). Dtidng cong nhay
sang ttidng doi vdi mat thich
ting vdi bong toi dtidc goi la
dtidng cong nhay sang ttiOng
do'i Scoto (b).
Cac dtidng cong nav dtidc
bieu dien tren hinh 8.6
Trong th i giac Photo (a),
mat nhay nhat o' budc sdng X0 =
0,555pm (mau xanh la ma).

285
 Emax(0.555nm) = 1
(!) cac btidc song k ^ 0.555fj.m, E(X) deu nho hdn 1. Trong mien /. < 0.39^im \k
X > 0,76 |^m, E(?0 * 0 nghia la mat khong nhin tha'y biic xa tii ngoai va biic xa
hong ngoai. Mien (0.39 + 0.76)fim dtidc goi la mien nhin thay hay mien kha kien.
De tha'y dtidc vai tro cua cac te bao non trong th i giac Photo, dtidng cong a
dtiOc ve trong trtidng hdp kich thtidc cua vat khao sat nho (goc nhin P <2°) va mat
phai dinh htidng sao cho anh cua vat sang nay roi dting vao diem vang (nhti ta da
biet diem vang co kich thtidc khoang 1.5 mm va chi chtia te bao non).
Trong thi giac Scoto, dtidng cong nhay sang ttiOng doi dich chuyen ve phia
song ngan so vdi thi giac Photo. Ctic dai cua dtidng cong nhay sang ttidng do'i Scoto
ting vdi btidc song k = 0.510 ^m. Dang cua hai dtidng cong tren dtidc giai thich la
pho ha'p thu cua Rodopsin trting vdi dtidng cong nhay sang ttiOng doi Scoto khi chi
co sti tham gia cua cac te bao que, con pho ha'p thu cua Iodopxin trting vdi dtidng
cong nhay sang ttidng do'i Photo khi chi cd sti tham gia cua te bao non.

2 .5 .2 . 3. Thi giac hai mdt va cam giac thay noi

Thong thtidng ngtidi ta nhin bang hai mat va muon trong ro mot vat can
phai dinh htidng mat va dieu tiet de anh cua vat roi vao diem vang. Nhin bang
hai mat cho phep tha'y hinh noi, ro chi tiet, cd chieu sau va xac dinh dtidc khoang
cach. Theo qui luat quang hinh hoc, mot vat se tao hai anh tren hai mat nhting
tren thtic te ta chi cd mot an ttidng thi giac. Hien ttidng dd dtiOc giai thich bang
cac cach sau:
- Sti thay doi trtidng nhin (thi trtidng) ttic la moi mot thdi diem chi cd mot
trong hai thi trtidng hoat dong, ndi khac di d thdi diem nao dd, cac chi tiet cua vat
cung chi dtidc nhin bang mot mat. Qua trin h dd thay doi lien tuc va tuan tti gitia
hai mat. Sti thay doi thi trtidng nhti vay lam cho qua trin h hting pha'n va phuc hoi
trong te bao than kinh thi giac va cd quan phan tich cua thi giac dtidc lien tiep
thay phien nhau dien ra trong mat. Dieu dd giai thich nhin bang hai mat It gay
moi mat hdn la nhin bang mot mat. Sti thay doi th i trtidng cung giai thlc^i cd che
pha tron mau sac trong thi giac ve mau sac.
- Vi hinh anh tuy in tren hai vong mac nhting vao nhting diem tuong ting.
Diem ttidng ting la nhting diem tren vong mac neu ta de chong hai vong mac len
nhau sao cho diem vang va cac true ngang, doc cua nhan cau trting nhau thi moi
diem ttidng ting deu trting vdi nhau. Do vay hinh anh cam thu dtidc deu do cting
mot ndron than kinh ttidng ting truyen ve mot diem hting phan d trung tidng than
kinh va gay nen mot cam giac th i giac. Ta't ca cac diem dd (ma Phechxne goi la
diem ttidng ting, Hennh goi la diem chap. Mule goi la diem dong nha't) cua hai
mat nam thanh mot vong tron trong mat phang ngang goi la vdng ddn thi.
Ngay nay nhieu ngtidi thtia nhan rang cam giac mot hinh la do ly thuyet
diem ttidng ting tren.
- Cam giac thav noi cd dtidc la do qua trin h quen vdi ngoai canh tao nen
“kinh nghiem” . Cam giac tha'v noi la do nhting qui luat hinh hoc khong gian nhti
chi tiet gan che lap chi tiet xa. vat xa md nhat hdn vat gan. cac bong do anh sang

286
chi£u tii mot chieu nha't dinh... Ngoai ra yeu to quang hinh hoc cua mat cung
d6ng gop “kinh nghiem” cho cam giac noi nhii goc phan ly, sii dieu tiet cua m it de
tha'y ro chi tiet dinh htidng khi nhin. Cac yeu to' do lien quan den khoang cach cua
mot vat den m it v& g6c cua n6 tao vdi quang true cua m it.
Cam giac tha'y noi dac biet ro trong th i giac hai mat. Chinh nhd hai mat ma
ta xac dinh dtidc khoang cach, y thtic dtidc do qui tu cua hai nhan cau khi nhin
vat... Hdn the ntia khi cac chi tiet khong tao anh tren cac diem ttidng ting trong
mot thdi diem nao do cung dong gop vao y thtic noi

2.5.2.4. Si/1 ifu hinh

Ngtidi ta quan sat tha'y cam giac sang khong mat ttic thdi sau khi ngting
kich thich vdng mac bang anh sang. Dting mot que do huO len trong bong dem den
mot to'c do nha't dinh ta cam tha'y do' la mot vong tron sang. Do la hien ttidng ltiu
anh tren vong mac. Ngtidi ta co the quan sat dtidc ra't nhieu bieu hien cua hien
ttidng nay trong cuoc song nhti vach do cua vien dan di trong dem, nhting ting
dung trong chieu bong va truyen hinh. Theo Helmholtz neu mot vat dtidc chieu
ra't sang thi thdi gian ltiu hinh cua vat ay tren vong mac la 1/48 giav. Thdi gian
ltiu hinh con phu thuoc vao ctidng do chieu sang va a'n ttiOng gay nen lau hay mau
trtidc dd. Cd the hieu ro co che cua hien ttidng ltiu hinh neu xet ky qua trinh phan
huy Rodopxin. Giai doan chuyen tti Rodopxin sang Lumirodopxin xay ra nhanh,
con giai doan thuy phan tiep theo de trd thanh Metarodopxin xay ra ttidng do'i
cham. Do vay khi anh sang (hay a'n ttidng anh cua vat nao dd) da het tac dung len
vong mac, van con mot ltidng Lumirodopxin ton tai. No se tiep tuc phan huy va
cho ta mot cam giac anh cu tiep theo.
Nhti vay ltiu anh la do can phai cd mot khoang thdi gian de cac san pha!m
phan huy cua Rodopxin bien di va chat thu cam anh sang (Rodopxin) dUdc phuc
hoi trd lai.

2.5.2.5. Cam giac mau s ic

Chi nhting btic xa dien tti cd btidc sdng trong khoang (0,40+0,76)jim mdi gay
ra dtidc cam giac sang. Dieu dd cung de hieu vi rang pho hap thu cua cac sac to'
thi giac nhti da ndi d tren nam trong vting (0,40 + 0,76)^m.
Nhting btidc sdng nho hOn 0,4 jim khong den dtidc vong mac. Thuy tinh the
cd ctic dai ha'p thu ra't ro d vting lan can 0,38 fim. Giac mac hap thu ra't manh
vung btidc sdng nhd hdn 0,30 fim. Giac mac cd tac dung bao ve cho cac bo phan
trong long nhan cau khoi bi tac dung xa'u cua tia tti ngoai. Neu ta chieu vao mat
mot chtim tia tti ngoai cd ctidng do du ldn th i giac mac cd the bi bong. loet. Thuy
dich, thuy tinh dich. cac phan tti ntidc trong giac mac va thuy tinh the ha'p thu rat
manh cac btidc sdng ldn hdn l,20|im. Vting btidc sdng (0.76 + 1.20)(im tuy cd den
dtidc vong mac nhting khong kich thich dtidc cac te bao thu cam anh sang vi
nhting btidc sdng nav nam ngoai pho ha'p thu cua cac sac to thi giac.
Ngtidi ta cho rang viec han che be rong cua giai sdng anh sang tac dung vao
mat lam cho sac sai cua mat dtidc giam bdt. Mat khac. nhd dtidng kinh cua dong
tti du hep nen chi cd nhting chtim tia sang hep (bang true) mdi di vao mat. dieu

287
nay lam giam quang sai gay ra do chum tia rong. Chinh vi vay anh cua cua cac
vat tren vong mac dtiOc sac net hon.
Dudi day ta xet cac btidc song khac nhau trong vung (0,40 + 0.76)fim anh
htidng den cam giac mau nhti the nao. Xet sU phu thuoc gitia do roi sang, btidc
song va cam giac mau, xet cac trtidng hop roi loan thi giac mau.
C&m giac mau la an ttiOng chu quan, ngtidi ta ngu y mau la sU khac nhau ve
chat bieu hien ben trong cam giac sang va trong trtidng hop dd thi trtidng khdng
cd cau trtic. Mau dtidc chia thanh hai nhom: cac mau sac sd (dd. xanh...) va cac
mau khong sac sd (trang, den, cac sac xam khac nhau...). Ngtidi ta goi vat tren
thtic te khdng hap thu ti anh sang nao chieu tdi chung va tren chting khdng xay
ra sti ltiu xa la cac vat khdng mau.
Thanh phan pho cua anh sang mat trdi va cua nhting vat nung kha nong
trting vdi dtidng cong nhay sang Photo tren hinh 8.6 nghia la anh sang mat trdi cd
day du cac btidc sdng trong pham vi (0,40 + 0,76)p.m. Anh sang mat trdi gay cho
cam giac mau trang.
Trong mien (0,40 + 0,76)pm, cac btic xa dien tti cd btidc sdng nam trong gidi
han AX nhat dinh gay cho mat cam giac mau sac nhat djnh. Neu AX du hep, anh
sang dtidc goi la dOn sac, no gay cho mat cam giac mau thuan khiet khdng nham
lan vdi cac mau khac. Ta goi chting la cac mau quang pho (xem bang 7.2).
Tuy nhien, ta con biet nhieu mau khdng cd trong cac mau pho, chang han
nhti mau nau, mau hong... cac bang mau mau cd den hang tram mau. Neu suy
ngtidc lai rang mdi mot mau thuoc ve mot khoang btidc sdng (X + X + A>.) la khdng
dting.
Hdn ntia cd the ndi rang da so' cac mau khdng the dac trting mot cach ddn
gian bang btidc sdng; cac yeu to' vat ly. sinh ly va tam ly khac cd vai trd trong viec
xuat hien cam giac mau. Chang han mau cua cac vat phu thuoc vao kich thtidc
cua chung, vao do chieu sang, vao mau cua cac vat xung quanh... Thi du vat xanh-
xanh la cay tren mot nen xanh hinh nhti la xanh la cay hdn, con tren mot nen
xanh la cay lai hinh nhti la xanh hdn.
Ta thtidng noi ve cac mau tinh khiet va cac mau pha. Mau cua pho la mau
tinh khiet, tat ca cac mau con lai la mau pha. Anh sang cd btidc sdng xac djnh
luon luon tao nen mau tinh khiet. Ndi ngtidc lai khdng dting. Mau tinh khiet cd
the dtidc tao thanh trong trtidng hdp cac tia sang cd cac btidc sdng khac nhau. cac
btidc sdng dd la khoang sang khong ket hdp. Ch4ng han mau tinh khiet thu dtidc
trong trtidng hdp neu nhti loai trti mien 0,55 iim den 0,65 urn (mien nav tao nen
9 \ /

mau vang) de phan con lai tdi mat tao nen mau tim xanh, dd la mau tinh khiet vi
r^ng cd the tim tha'y trong cac mau pho. Neu loai trti mau dd th i phan con lai cho
mau xanh - xanh la cay. loai trti mau vang cho mau xanh. loai trti mau vang-
xanh la cay cho mau tim.
Ngtidi ta da biet cac cap mau bo sung nhau cho mau trang. Chung dude goi
la cac mau phu nhau. Thi du nhu mau dd va xanh - xanh la cay. vang va tim -
xanh, da cam va xanh... Trong cac mau nav thudng gap cac mau khdng tinh khiet.
th i du mau dd tham -dd la mau phu cua xanh la cay, mau nav khdng cd trong pho.

288
 Ngiidi ta s£p xep cac mau tinh khiet thanh mot vong tron theo thti tti cua
chung trong pho. Sti sSp xep nhti the goi la vong mau. Vong mau trd nen dky du
neu them vao do mau do th^m - do khong co trong pho, no la mau ket hop gitia do
va tim. Cac mau phu nhau n&m ve hai phia doi dien cua vong mau.
Ctidng do (do choi) la dac trting quan trong khac cua cam giac mau no phu
thuoc vao quang thong gay nen cam giac mau. Do bao hoa la dac trting quan trong
thti ba cua cam giac mau.
Chung ta dat mau trang
gan mot mau nao do, chang
han mau dd. Ket qua la do choi
cua mau nay bi giam di va ta
nhan dtidc mau hong khac. Khi
✓

them mau trang vao mot mau

✓ *> \
bat ki se chuyen dan sang
✓ •) V

trang; co the noi rang do bao

hoa cua mau bi giam di mot
cach tti tti. Co the nhan dtiOc
mtic do bao hoa khac nhau 450 550 650 750 X(nm)
b^ng cach pha lan mau cho
trtidc mot mau xam nao do. Hinh 8.7. Pho hap thu cua 3 loai
Thtic te, do bao hoa bieu thi te bao non
bang mtic do phan biet mau sac
sd va khong sac sd (trang, xam, den) d cting mot ctidng do.
Mat ngtidi cd the nhan dtiOc tat ca cam giac khi pha lan ba mau: dd, xanh la
cay va xanh. Tren cO sd ay ngtidi ta nghi rang cd the giai thich cam giac mau sac
bang ly thuyet ba hanh phan cua Young, Helmholtz. Theo thuyet nay trong vong
mac cd ba loai te bao non, pho hap thu cua chting dtiOc ve d hinh 8.7. Ngtidi ta goi
ten ba loai te bao nay bang mau sac gay ra do btidc sdng ting vdi ctic dai cua cac
pho hap thu tren.
- Loai te bao thti nhat, goi la "te bao dd", ctic dai hap thu d X = 0,60p.m. Loai
te bao nay co the phan ting vdi cac btidc sdng tti 0,475pm den 0.760pm; Nhting
btidc sdng lan can 0,60pm cho phan ting manh nhat.
- Loai te bao thti hai, goi la "te bao xanh la cav" co ctic dai hap thu d X =
0,55pm. Loai te bao nay cd the phan ting vdi cac btidc sdng tti 0.425pm den
0,650pm. Nhting btidc sdng lan can 0,55pm cho phan ting manh nhat.
- Loai te bao thti 3, goi la "te bao xanh - tim " cd ctic dai hap thu d X =
0.45pm. Loai te bao nay cd the Rhan ting dtidc vdi cac btidc sdng tti 0.40 den
0,55pm. Nhting btidc sdng lan can 0.45pm cho phan ting manh nhat.
Pho hap thu cua cac te bao tren khong trting nhau. cd lech nhau chut it. Khi
tac dung len vong mac, anh sang cd btidc sdng X nao dd thi mtic do kich thich 3
loai te bao tren khong giong nhau. Tuy theo ttiOng quan cua mtic do kich thich cac
te bao nay ma cac xung than kinh se cho cac cam giac mau khac nhau.
Thi du:

289
 - Tac dung anh sang co btidc song lan c&n 0,42 fim len vong mac, cac te b&o
loai th ii 3 bi kich thich, trong khi do hai loai te b&o kia khong bi kich thich. Cac
xung th in kinh do loai te bao nay sinh ra cho cam giac m&u tim.
- Tac dung anh sang co btidc song lan c&n 0,70 ^m, Cac te b&o loai mot bi
kich thich, trong khi do hai loai te bao kia khong bi kich thich. Cac xung th&n
kinh do loai te bao nay sinh ra cho cam giac mau do.
- Tac dung anh sang co btidc sdng lan . Cam
can 0,52 |im len vong mac, ca ba loai te bao / \
cung bi kich thich. Mtic do kich thich cac "te
bao Dd" ti le vdi ab, mtic do kich thich cac "te
bao xanh la cay" ti le vdi ac, mtic do kich
thich cac "te bao xanh - tim " ti le vdi ad. Neu
Xanh
ac>ab>ad, xung dong than kinh gay ra cho
cam giac mau xanh la cay.
- Tac dung anh sang cd btidc sdng lan
Do roi
can 0,58 fim len vong mac, cac "te bao dd" va
cac "te bao xanh la cay" phan ting d mtic do — >
gan nhti nhau, xung dong than kinh se cho
cam giac mau vang. Hinh 8.8
Nhti vay ta thay cac khoang btidc sdng
khac nhau cho ta cam giac mau khac nhau. Tuy nhien cam giac mau con phu
thuoc vao ctidng do anh sang. Mot mau cd the cho ta cam giac khac nhau tuy theo
ctidng do cua no. Neu ctidng do qua thap hoac qua cao th i cam giac sinh ra se la
"trang". Doi vdi ctidng do trung binh thi sti thay doi ctidng do se cho cam giac khac
nhau doi vdi mau khac nhau. Thay ddi ctidng do vdi mau dd th i cam giac mau se
thay doi nhanh hon so vdi khi thay doi ctidng do vdi mau xanh. Hien ttidng dd
dtiOc goi la hien ttiOng Purkinger. Ta nhin hai td giay nhd mau dd va xanh. Do'i
vdi mot do roi nao dd, mat cd cam giac chting sang nhti nhau. Nhting neu giam do
roi xuong th i td giay dd toi hdn td giay xanh. Neu tang do roi len th i tra i lai td
giay dd sang hon td giay xanh (hinh 8.8)
Cac trtidng hop roi loan th i giac goi la loan sac. Neu trong vdng mac cd day
du ba loai te bao do, xanh la cay va xanh tim vdi pho hap thu nhti d hinh (8.7), thi
mat cd the nhan biet dtidc mau sac mot cach binh thtidng. Mat nhti the dtidc goi la
mat Tricromat. Neu cac pho hap thu cua cac loai te bao tren dich chuyen ra ngoai
cac vung 0,60 ^m; 0,55 nm; 0,45 fim th i mat van to hop dtidc tat cac mau tti ba
mau cd ban tren, nhting nhting cam giac mau sinh ra khong dtidc dting lam.
Trtidng hdp nay goi la tricromat khdng binh thtidng.
Mat chi nhan biet dtidc hai mau cd ban dtidc goi la dieromat. Mat chi nhan
dtidc mot mau th i goi la monocromat.
Mat khdng nhan biet dtidc mau nao, tat ca deu cho cam giac xam goi la
acromat. Ngticti ta dd phat hien tha'y co 4 loai dieromat, do la nhting loan sdc
thi/dng gap nhdt (Daltonism):

290
 + Protanop: chi phan biet ditdc hai mau xanh lam vd vdng; xem mau do vd
mau xanh, xanh la cay nhit xam; do nhay cam trong mien do cua pho la rat thap.
+ Dcfteranop: chi ph&n biet ditdc mau xanh lam vd vdng; xem mau xanh la
c&y vd mau do tham nhit la mau xam; do nhay cam trong mien au cua pho binh
thiidng.
+ Tritanop: phan biet ditdc mau xanh la cay vd mau do nhitng khong phan
biet ditdc mau xanh lam, thay mau tim ■ xanh lam vd mau vdng nhit mau xam.
+ Tetratanop: phan biet ditdc mau xanh la cay vd mau do nhitng khdng phan
biet ditdc mau xanh lam. Thay tat cd mau xanh lam vd mau vdng nhit mau xam.
Cdc chiing tren thitdng xay ra do nguyen nhan di truyen vd hay gap d nam
gidi.
Ve acromat ngiidi ta thay nhieu triidng hdp, ddng de y nhdt la triidng hdp
vdng mac khdng cd te bao non, chi cd te bao que. Trong triidng hdp nay ban ngay
mat nhin rat kem, ban dem mat trd nen nhin tot hdn. Dieu dd giup cho ngiidi ta
khdng dinh rang kha nang phan biet mau sac la do te bao non vd kha nang thi
giac Scoto la do tebao que.
Loai monocromat rat it gap. Benh nhan thitdng thay tat cd moi vd* cd mau
xanh tim.
Tuy vay cd nhitng triidng hdp khdng mat hdn cam giac mau cua mot, hai hay
ba thanh phan cd ban nao dd. Mite do thiidng ton cd the khdng hoan toan hoac
khdng ddng deu cho nen bieu hien lam sdng rat phiic tap. Do vay viec chuan doan
benh can phai nhieu cong phu vd can cd cdc dung cu rieng biet.

Ly sinh thi giac la mot van de phiic tap bdi vi khdng don thu&n la nhiing van
de thuoc pham vi quang hinh hoc ma con nhieu van de thuoc pham vi sinh hoc
phan tii, dien sinh vat... Hieu biet ky cac co che thi giac va nhieu hien ttiOng dac
biet cua no giup cho chting ta di sau vao y hoc va tim cach khac phuc, de phong
dtidc nhieu benh tat 0 cO quan thi giac.

291
 Bai 9

Blfc XA ION HOA VA Cff THE SONG

■

MUC TIEU HOC TAP

• • •

1. Neu ban chat cua cac btic xa ion hoa

2. Trinh bay dtiOc cO che ttiOng tac cua btic xa ion hoa voi vat chat.

3. Phan biet cO che tac dung cua btic xa ion hoa len cd the song va cac mtic
do ton thtiOng cua cO the song.
4. Giai thich dtiOc nguyen tac hoat dong cua mot so dung cu ghi do btic xa
ion hoa.
5. Trinh bay dtidc cac nguyen ly kiem soat va an toan btic xa.

1. KHAI NIEM VA NGUON GOC CUA BLfC XA ION HOA

1.1. Cau tao hat nhan nguyen tur

Sau khi tong ket nhting tai lieu thtic nghiem ve hat nhan nguyen tti. nam
1932 Ivanenko (HBAHEHKO) va Haidenbec (Werner Heisenberg) dtia ra gia thiet
cho r^ng hat nhan cua moi nguyen tti deu dUdc cau thanh tti hai loai hat nhti sau:
Proton (ki hieu la p): la loai hat mang dien dtiOng, ve gia tri tuyet do'i dting
bang dien tich cO ban ttic la dien tich electron: 1,6.10 19C, va co khoi ltidng bang
khoi ItiOng hat nhan hydro nhe (mp = 1,00759 dvnt; dvnt la don vi khoi ItiOng
nguyen tti va bang 1,66.10'24g). Noi khac di hat nhan cua nguyen tti hydro nhe
thtic chat chi la mot hat proton.
Neutron (ki hieu la n): la loai hat trung hoa ve dien, co kho'i ludng ldn hdn
khoi ItiOng cua proton mot it (mn = 1,00898 dvnt). Ca h'ai loai hat proton va
neutron co ten chung la nucleon (cau tti hat nhan). So' proton trong hat nhan
dting bang so' thti tti Z trong bang tuan hoan Mendeleev cua nguyen to' ttidng ting.
Z cung chinh la dien tich hat nhan khi ta tinh bang ddn vi dien tich nguyen to.
Tong so cac nucleon co trong hat nhan la so' khoi va ki hieu la A. Do do so' neutron
trong hat nhan se la N = A - Z. Ngtidi ta thtidng k i hieu mot hat nhan nguyen tti
nhti sau: ^ X hay ZXA trong do X la ki hieu cua nguyen to hoa hoc ttiOng ting.

Thi du: Hat nhan Heli \He hoac ,He4 (Z = 2, A = 4)

Hat nhan L iti } L i hoac 3L i' (Z = 3. A = 7)

Nhting hat nhan co cting so' Z nhting co so N khac nhau (nghia la cting dien
tich nhting khac nhau ve kho'i ltidng) dtidc goi la nhting hat nhan dong vi va cac
nguyen to' ttidng ting goi la nhting nguyen to' dong vi, chting dtidc xep vao cung
mot o trong bang tuan hoan Mendeleep. Chang han hydro co 3 dong vi nhu sau:

292
Hydro: 1H 1, deuteri: ,H2 (hoac ,D2, hoac D), T riti: ,H ! (hoac ,T3, hoac T). Thong
thudng mot nguyen to' hoa hoc deu cd nhiing dong vi khac nhau. Hien nay ngudi ta
da tim tha'y hon 300 dong vi tti nhien va cd gan 1000 dong vi phong xa nhan tao.
Cac nucleon trong hat nhan cung dtiOc dac trUng bdi cac so' ltidng tti xac
dinh va ting vdi nhting mtic nang ItiOng xac dinh. Trong dieu kien binh thtidng,
hat nhan 0 trang thai cO ban, ting vdi mtic nang ItiOng thap nha't, goi la mtic nang
ltidng Eo. Trong dieu kien cd tac nhan klch thich, hat nhan dtidc bo sung nang
ltidng thich hop, sti sap xep cac nucleon se khac sti sap xep d trang thai cO ban,
hat nhan chuyen sang trang thai bi klch thich ting vdi mtic nang ludng E, (i =
1,2,3..., n) tat nhien E, > E0. Ngtidi ta nhan tha'y vdi mot loai hat nhan xac dinh
cac gia tri cua E, la htiu han va xac dinh. Trong dieu kien nao dd khi hat nhan
chuyen tti trang thai bi klch thich ting vdi mtic nang ItiOng cao ve mot trong
nhting trang thai ting vdi mtic nang ItiOng tha'p hon, hat nhan se phat ra mot
photon cd nang ItiOng dting bang hieu so' hai mtic nang ItiOng dd. Nhti vay hat
nhan la mot he ItiOng tti.

1.2. Hien tifdng phong xa

1.2.1. Djnh nghJa hien tuong phong xa

Nam 1892 BeccOren (Henri Becquerel) da quan sat tha'y muoi uran va
nhting hop chat cua no cd tinh phat ra nhting tia khdng nhin tha'y dtidc va cd stic
dam xuyen kha manh. Dting phtiOng phap dien tti trtidng de phan tich thi thay
r^ng chtim tia dd gom 3 thanh phan lan ltidt dtidc dat ten la tia anpha (a) mang
dien tich dtiOng, tia beta (P) mang dien tich am, va tia gamma (y) khong mang
dien, ttidng tti tia X. Ve sau ngtidi ta nghien ctiu sau hien tUdng nay, nha't la
nhting cong trin h cua M ari Curi (Marie Curie) va Pie Cun (Pierre Curie) da
chting td rang chum tia dd phat ra tti hat nhan chti khdng phai tti ldp vd nguyen
tti va dd la tinh chat chung cua mot nhom cac nguyen td chti khong rieng gi uran.
Ngtidi ta goi tinh chat dd cua cac nguyen to' la tinh phong xa.
Hien tiidng phong xa la hien tiidng hat nhan nguyen tii tii bien doi de trd
thanh hat nhan nguyen tii cua nguyen to khac, hoac tii mot trang thdi nang liidng
cao ve mot trang thdi nang liidng thap hdn, trong qua trinh bien doi do hat nhan
phat ra nhiing tia khong nhin thay diidc co nang liidng cao goi la tia phong xa hay
btic xa hat nhan.
Nguyen to' hoa hoc ma hat nhan cua no mang tinh phong xa dtidc goi la dong
vi phong xa, nhting dong vi phong xa do con ngtidi che tao ra bang nhting phtidng
phap ki thuat khac nhau goi la ddng vi phong xa nhan tao.
De bieu dien ngan gon hien ttidng phong xa cua mot dong vi phong xa ngtidi
ta dting sd dd phan ra phong xa. Tren sd dd ngtidi ta ghi ky hieu cua hat nhan
trtidc va sau khi xay ra hien ttidng phong xa, chu ki ban ra cua qua trinh va cac
phan tram xac suat cua mdi dang phan ra. Trang thai cO ban cua hat nhan trtidc
va sau hien ttiOng phong xa dtiOc bieu dien bang vach dam net nam ngang. cac
trang thai bi kinh thich cua hat nhan mdi tao thanh sau phan ra dtidc bieu dien
bang cac vach dam nam ngang dam net, cd ghi kem theo gia tri cua mtic nang
ltidng ttidng ting. Qua trinh phan ra dan den tao thanh hat nhan mdi cd dien tich

293
ldn hdn hat nhan ban dau dtidc k l hieu bang mui ten di xuong va htidng ve ben
phai, neu hat nhan mdi co dien tich nho hon hat nhan ban dau th i qua trin h phan
ra dtiOc k l hieu bang mtii ten di xuo'ng va htidng ve ben trai; con qua trin h phan
ra khong lam thay doi dien tich cua hat nhan thi dtidc k l hieu bang mtii ten hinh
song, di xuo'ng va thang dting.
Khi xay ra hien ttiOng phong xa 6 mot hat nhan, hat nhan do co the chiu
dtiOc mot qua trin h bien doi hay nhieu qua trin h bien doi lien tiep nhau ho&c dong
thoi vdi nhau vdi nhting xac sua't nha't dinh. Moi qua trin h bien doi do dUdc goi 1&
mot phan ra phong xa (goi tat la phan ra).

1.2.2. Cac dang phan ra phong xa. Ban chat cac tia phong xa
Cac dang phan ra thtidng gap la phan ra beta am, phan ra beta dtiOng. phan
ra alpha va phat xa tia gamma tti hat nhan:

1.2.2.1. Phan ra beta am - negatron (p ‘)

Vdi nhting dieu kien nha't dinh, trong hat nhan co nhting dong vi co so
nOtron nhieu hon so' proton co the xay ra hien ttiOng bien mot neutron thanh mot
proton dong thdi phat ra mot electron (hat P ). Electron nay dtidc sinh ra tti trong
long hat nhan va khong lien quan gi vdi cac electron quy dao, tuy nhien chting la
nhting hat cO ban hoan toan dong nha't.
Hinh 9.1a bieu dien sO do chung cua cac loai phan ra nay. Hinh 9.1b la sO do
phan ra phong xa cua P32, mot dong vi phong xa phan ra P thuan tuy. dtidc sii
dung nhieu trong y sinh vat hoc.

32P
)X (1.4*2 ngay)

P" (1,71 MeV)

•100 %

Hinh 9.1a Hinh 9.1b

PhtiOng trin h bien doi cua phan ra P‘ dtidc viet nhti sau:
> Z* Y + p- + Q

Ban chat cua phan ra nay: n —> p + p + Q

Btic xa p (negatron) dan den viec tang dien tich hat nhan len mot don vi
nhting khong lam thay doi so' kho'i cua no.

294
 1.2.2.2. Phan ra beta duong (f?)
Trong hat nhan cua nhting dong vi co so' proton nhieu hon so' neutron co the
xay ra hien ttiOng bien mot proton thanh mot neutron dong thoi phat ra hat
pozitron (p+). Hat pozitron co kho'i ItiOng dting bang kho'i ItiOng cua dien tti, dien
tich bang dien tich cua dien tti nhting tra i dau (mot dien tich nguyen to' dtidng), vi
vay no dtiOc goi la dien tti dtiOng (e+).
Hinh 9.2a bieu dien sO do chung cua loai phan ra nay. Hinh 9.2b la sO do
phan ra phong xa cua N 13, mot dong vi phong xa phan ra P+ dOn thuan.
Phtidng trin h bien doi cua phan ra p+dtiOc viet nhti sau:

A
;x » 7 \ Y + p* + Q
Ban chat cua phan ra nay: p —> n + P+ + Q
Btic xa p+ dan den viec giam dien tich hat nhan len mot dOn vi nhting khong
lam thay doi so' kho'i cua no.

K
mX 7N (10 phtit)

p+ (1,20 MeV)
100%

Ay 13
Z-V 6U

Hinh 9.2a Hinh 9.2b

Viec trinh bay phtiOng trinh bien doi va ban chat cua cac phan ra P‘, P+ nhti
tren luc dau dtiOc chap nhan vi no hop vdi cac ket qua thtic nghiem hoi do.

Hinh 9.3. Pho nang luong cua

chum tia [3 phat ra tti dong vi
phong xa 83Bi210

Sau nay di sau vao viec giai thich pho nang ltidng lien tuc cua cac tia p* phat
ra tti moi nguon phong xa, nam 1931 Paoli da dtia ra gia thuyet la trong cac hien
ttiOng phan ra P~, ngoai hat pozitron hoac electron, tti hat nhan con phat ra mot
loai hat khac. goi la neutrino (v). Hat nay khong mang dien, khoi ltidng tinh bang

295
0. Nam 1957, ngtidi ta da ghi nhan dtidc hat neutrino va gia thuyet cua Pauli ve
ban chat cua cac chat phan ra P‘ da hoan toan dtiOc chap nhan. Nhti vat. ban chat
cua cac chat phan ra p1 la sti bien doi ttiOng ho gitia n va p theo cac phan ting sau:
p - * n + P+ + v + Q
n - > p + P' + v + Q

1.2.2.3. Phan ra alpha (a)

Loai phan ra nay chi xay ra trong pham vi cac hat nhan cua nhting nguyen
to' co khoi ItiOng nguyen tii ldn. Trong qua trin h nay tti hat nhan phat ra loai hat
anpha (a). Hat a la hat nhan cua nguyen tti Heli dtiOc tao thanh bdi moi lien ket
manh gitia mot cap proton va mot cap neutron. Bdi vay sti phan ra nay dan den
viec giam khoi ItiOng va dien tich hat nhan mot cach dang ke (khoi ItiOng giam 4.
dien tich giam 2).
PhtiOng trin h bien doi cua phan ra a dtiOc viet nhti sau:
ZXA -> A;_\Y + 2He4 + Q
Q la nang ltidng phat ra the hien dtidi dang ddng nang cua cac hat alpha.
Cac hat alpha phat ra tti cting mot loai phan ra cua cting mot loai hat nhan co
nang ItiOng giong nhau. Do la dac diem don nang cua chtim tia alpha.
Hinh 9.4a la sO do chung cua phan ra a. Hinh 9.4b la sO do phan ra a cua
dong vi phong xa 2^R a

cl j a 1(4,6lM eV )/ / a2(4,79MeV)
93,5%

0.18 MeV _

A -4v 222 D
7 .-2 Y 86 ^

Hinh 9.4a Hinh 9.4b

1.2.2.4. Phat xa tia gamma (y) ti/h a t nhan

Trtidng hop hat nhan chuyen tti trang thai bi klch thich ve trang thai cd ban
hay ve trang thai klch thich d mtic nang ltidng thap hdn. tti hat nhan se phat ra
tia gamma (con goi la ItiOng tti gamma, hay photon gamma - y). Ban chat tia y la
song dien tti co btidc song ctic ngan. Vi vay qua trin h phat tia y khong lam thay
doi thanh phan cau tao cua hat nhan ma chi lam thay doi trang thai nang ItiOng
cua no.

296
 27Co60 (5,2 nam) goTh228 (1,9 nam)

a , (5,17 M eV)
p - (0,31M eV ) 0,2 % a 2 (5,21 M eV)
100 % 0,4 %
5 M eV

2,50 M eV 0,22 M eV a 3 (5,34 M eV)

Yi 0,88 %

1,33 M e V 0,08 M eV
a ! (5,42 M eV)
y2 71 %
0 M eV 0 M eV
N 160
2 8 1N 88 Ra224

Hinh 9.5a Hinh 9.5b

Da so'cac hat nhan mdi tao thanh sau cac phan ra (31, a ... deu 6 trang thai
bi kich thich. Vi vay sau cac phan ra nay thtidng co phat tia gamma. Do do can
chu y rang khi co hien ttiOng phong xa xay ra 0 mot hat nhan, hat nhan do co the
bi bien doi nhieu hon mot lan, do do co the phat ra nhieu tia phong xa.
Hinh 9.5a la sO do phan ra phong xa cua mot vai dong vi phong xa co phat
tia y thtidng dticic sti dung nhieu trong y sinh hoc.
Nhti vay tia phong xa la nhting tia dtiOc phat ra tti hat nhan bi bien doi
phong xa, co nang ItiOng cao.

1.2.3. Phan loai b u t xa ion hoa

Ngtidi ta chia cac btic xa ion hoa ra lam 2 loai:
- Hat vi mo co kho'i ItiOng tinh: Gom cac hat vi mo co kho'i ltidng tinh nha't
dinh, co tfch dien hoac khong tich dien:
Hat vi mo hay gap nha't la dien tti (electron, negatron). Hat dien tti co kho'i
ltidng tinh rat nho, chi bang 1/1840 kho'i ItiOng cua hat nhan hydro va mang 1
don vi dien tich (dvdt) am. Ngoai cac dien tti cau tao chuyen dong tren cac quy
dao cua nguyen tti con co dien tii tti do ton tai trong vat chat dtidi dang chuyen
dong nhiet. Dien tii cung co the dtiOc phat ra tti hat nhan nguyen tti do phan ra
beta am.
Hat proton co khoi ItiOng b&ng 1 dvkl va mang 1 dvdt dtidng. Hat proton la
mot trong 2 hat cO ban cau tao nen hat nhan nguyen tii.
Hat alpha co khoi ltidng va dien tich ldn nha't trong so cac hat vi mo. No co
the dtidc phat ra tti hat nhan nguyen tii qua sti phan ra phong xa. co cau tao nhti
hat nhan ciia nguyen tti Helium (He) ttic la co 4 ddn vi khoi ltidng va 2 ddn vi dien
tich dtidng hay gom 2 proton va 2 notron lien ket lai.

297
 Dac biet hat neutron co kho'i ItiOng la 1 dvkl va khong mang dien, do do co
mot so' dac diem khac vdi cac hat tren khi ttiOng tac vdi vat chat.
Ngoai ra con co nhting hat vi mo khac nhti hat deuteri, mezon. v.v... it dtidc
dung trong y sinh hoc.
Photon nang liidng cao
Do la cac btic xa co ban chat la cac song dien tti nhti anh sang. Chting khong
co kho'i ItiOng tinh va khong mang dien. Nang ItiOng cua photon dtiOc the hien
trong btidc song cua no theo cong thtic:
E = h.f hay E = h. c/X
• trong do f la t in so' va X la btidc song, h: hang so' Planck, c toe do lan truyen
cua photon trong chan khong. Photon nang ludng cao la cac photon gamma va tia
X (tia Ronghen).

1.3. Djnh luat phan ra phong xa

Trong mot nguon phong xa so' hat nhan co tfnh phong xa se giam dan theo
thdi gian. Gia sii tai thdi diem t so hat nhan co tinh phong xa la Nt . Do ngau
nhien hat nhan nay co the phan ra trtidc hat nhan khac, tat ca chting khong phan
ra cting mot luc. Sau mot khoang thdi gian dt, so' hat nhan giam di la -dN, ti le v6i
Nt va dt:
- dNt = XNtdt (9.1)
trong do X la hang so' phan ra, phu thuoc vao ban chat cua hat nhan co tinh
phong xa. Chinh X la xac sua't phan ra cua mot hat nhan trong don vi thdi gian.
Tti (9.1) ta co:

dN_ ■ x d,
N ~ A MI (9.2)
/

Giai phtiOng trin h vi phan (9.2) vdi dieu kien ban dau la thdi diem bat dau
xet qua trin h (t = 0) so' hat nhan co tinh phong xa la N0, ta co:
Nt = N0. e Xt (9.3)
Cac nguon phong xa khac nhau ve ban chat cua hat nhan co tinh phong xa.
do do khac nhau ve gia tri cua hang so X va so' ItiOng cua hat nhan co tinh phong
xa d thdi diem ban dau (N0). Neu X cang ldn thi theo thdi gian so' hat nhan co tinh
phong xa se giam cang nhanh. Thi du X cua 132I la 0,307 h \ cua 131I la 0.0036 h 1
nhti vay 132I phan ra nhanh hon 131I khoang 100 lan.
Ngtidi ta con dting mot so dai ItiOng khac de bieu dien quy luat phong xa nhti:

1.3.1. Thdi gian (Chu ky) ban ra

Thdi gian ban ra cua mot nguon phong xa, kl hieu la T la khoang thdi gian
can thiet de so hat nhan co tinh phong xa cua nguon do giam xuo'ng mot ntia so
vdi ban dau, do phan ra phong xa. Tti (9.3) suy ra:

298
 In N, = In. N0 - XT.

Tu1do ta co: ln ^ ^ = AT
N\
Sau thdi gian T thi Nj = 1/2N0 hay N0 / Nj = 2. Do do:

In 2 0 ,6 9 3
ln2 = XT hay T -
X X

NhU vay thdi gian ban ra cua mot nguon chi phu thuoc vao ban chat cua hat
nhan co tinh phong xa cua nguon do. Noi cach khac di thdi gian ban ra dac trUng
cho tinh phong xa cua nguyen to phong xa.

1.3.2. Tdc do phan ra phong xa hay hoat do phong xa

To'c do phan ra phong xa con goi la hoat do phong xa cua mot nguon la dai
ItiOng vat If cho biet ro so' hat nhan co tfnh phong xa cua nguon do bi phan ra
dN ,
trong mot dOn vi thdi gian, ky hieu la q. Tti (9.1) ta co: q = = AN,
dt

Nhti vay hoat do phong xa mot nguon, phai dtidc xet d tting thdi diem, no
khong nhting phu thuoc vao ban chat cua hat nhan co tinh phong xa cua nguon
(A,), ma con phu thuoc vao so' ItiOng hat nhan co tinh phong xa do ton tai trong
nguon tai thdi diem dang xet (Nt).
Don vi do q la phan ra tren giay (Pr/s) hay Becquerel (Bq) dtidc dinh nghia
nhti sau: "Mot Bq la to'c do phan ra cua nguon ma cti moi giay trung binh co mot
hat nhan bi phan ra".
Ngoai ra con dung cac dOn vi khac la Curi (Ci) va cac tide so' cua no.
1 Ci = 3,7.1010Bq
Ta can chu y rang q khong phai la so' tia phong xa phat ra tti nguon trong
mot dOn vi thdi gian. vi khi mot hat nhan phan ra co the phat ra nhieu, chti khong
phai mot tia phong xa.
Mat do biic xa

M at do btic xa tai mot diem trong khong gian la so' tia phong xa truyen qua
mot dOn vi dien tich dat vuong goc vdi phtidng truyen cua tia tai diem do trong
mot dOn vi thdi gian.

Gia sii rang mot nguon phong xa nao do cti moi ddn vi thdi gian phat ra n tia
phong xa. Ta coi nguon phong xa la mot diem, sti ha'p thu tia phong xa ciia ban
than nguon la khong dang ke va khong ke den sti ha'p thu tia phong xa cua moi
trtidng. Vi cac tia phong xa phat ra theo moi htidng deu dan nhti nhau nen mat do
tia phong xa tai mot diem cach nguon mot khoang R la:

j = i = n
S 47rR~

299
 Tti cong thtic tren ta thay ngay dtidc mat do btic xa ti le nghich vdi binh
phtiOng khoang cach tdi nguon.
Ctidng do btic xa: Ctidng do btic xa tai mot diem nao do trong khong gian la
so nang ItiOng do tia phong xa truyen qua mot don vi dien tich dat vuong goc vdi
phtidng truyen cua tia tai diem do trong mot don vi thoi gian. Ki hieu ctidng do
btic xa la I, ta co:
I = J. E

trong do E la nang ItiOng cua moi tia phong xa; J la mat do chtim tia. Tat
nhien, neu cac tia phong xa c4nang ItiOng khong dong nhat thi:

l =± E,
/=1
Ddn vi ctidng do btic xa la oat tren met vuong (W/m2). W/m2 la ctidng do cua
mot chtim btic xa truyen cong suat mot oat tren mot met vuong dat vuong goc vdi
phtiOng truyen cua no.

2. TUONG TAC CUA BLTC XA ION HOA VOI VAT CHAT

Moi btic xa ion hoa, dti la dang photon hay cac hat vi mo deu mang theo
nhting gia tri nang ItiOng nhat dinh, vi vay khi gap vat chat nang ItiOng do se dtidc
truyen cho nguyen tti hoac phan tti cua vat chat. Cd che ttidng tac do rat quan
trong bdi vi khong nhting no anh htidng trtic tiep den ldp vat chat dtidc btic xa
chieu tdi ma con quyet dinh ky thuat thich hop de ghi do. Sti ttiOng tac nay gay ra
nhting he qua ve vat li, hoa hoc, sinh hoc. Trtidc het ta khao sat ve phtiOng dien
vat ly.
Ngtidi ta chia cac btic xa ion hoa ra lam 2 loai: btic xa dang song dien tti nhti
photon gamma, tia X (tia Ronghen) va btic xa la cac hat vi mo co khoi ItiOng tinh
nhti chtim dien tti, proton, mezon, deuteri, hat alpha, v.v.. Viec phan chia cac tia
nhti vay chi la ttiOng do'i va de de xem xet. Thtic ra vat chat co ban chat 2 mat
sdng va hat luon luon khang k h it nhau. Trong nhting dieu kien nhat dinh nao dd,
ban chat sdng dtiOc the hien ro hon va ltic dd ban chat hat bi lu md di. Trong
nhting dieu kien khac thi ngtiOc lai.

2.1. Ti/dng tac cua hat vi md tich dien vdi vat chat
Khi chtim hat vi mo tich dien ttiOng tac vdi vat chat, ban than hat vi mo hay
dien trtidng cua no cd the ttiOng tac vdi dien tti tren quy dao hoac vdi hat nhan
cua nguyen tti vat chat. Dd la cac hat vat chat cd kho'i ItiOng va dien tich nha't
dinh. Vi vay ltic tac dung d day la ltic Coulomb F. Gitia 2 dien tich q va q’ se xuat
hien ltic hut neu chung tra i dau nhau va ltic day neu cting dau. Do ldn cua F ti le
nghich vdi binh phtidng khoang cach d gitia 2 dien tich:

F = k^-
d:

30 0
 Nha vay xac suat ttidng tac phu thuoc vao mat do, kich thtidc va dien tich
cua hat tdi dong thdi phu thuoc ca mat do, kich thtidc va dien tich cua cac thanh
phan cau tao vat chat.

2.1.1. Hat vi mo tich dien tuong tac vdi cac dien tCrquy dao
Khi ttiOng tac vdi vat chat, hat vi mo tich dien de dang truyen mot phan
nang ItiOng cua no cho dien tti dang chuyen dong tren quy dao cua nguyen tti vat
chat. Nang ItiOng hap thu dtiOc se lam dich chuyen dien tti tti quy dao thap len
quy dao cd nang ItiOng ldn hOn ma khong btit dien tti ra khoi nguyen tti. Nhti vay
la hat vi mo da dtia nguyen tti ve trang thai kich thich. Trang thai nay khong ton
tai lau dai ma nguyen tti de dang trd ve trang thai on dinh ban dau bang cach
phat ra cac photon. Nang ItiOng tti hat tdi cung cd the lam mot dien tti quy dao
btit ra khoi nguyen tti. Nguyen tti ltic dau trung hoa ve dien nay trd thanh mot
cap ion am (hoac dien tti bi bat ra) va ion dtidng (phan con lai cua nguyen tti).
Nhu vay la nguyen tti (phan tti) da bi ion hoa. Dien tti bat ra cting cd mot dong
nang nhat dinh nen cd the gay ra ion hoa tiep theo do'i vdi cac nguyen tti va phan
tti khac xung quanh. Dieu can ltiu y d day la hat vi mo tich dien tdi khi va cham
vdi nguyen tti, phan tti vat chat khdng chuyen giao toan bo nang ItiOng cua no
trong mot lan va cham. Nang ItiOng tti tia tdi chi mat mot gia tri nhat dinh va
htidng di cua tia tdi bi lech di nhieu it tuy thuoc ltic ttiOng tac F va do ldn cua tiet
dien tac dung. P hln nang ItiOng cua tia tdi mat di dtidc dung de btit dien tti ra
khoi quy dao va cung cap cho dien tti dd mot dong nang nhat dinh. Dd la sU ion
hoa trtic tiep. Tren dtidng di qua vat chat, mot hat vi md tich dien cd nhieu lan va
cham nhti vay va cd the tao ra rat nhieu cap ion. Nang ltidng cua tia tdi giam dan
tren quy dao. O cuoi quy dao, cac hat vi md khdng con nang ludng dti ldn de ion
hoa vat chat, se lien ket vdi cac ion trai dau de thanh nguyen tti (phan tti) trung
hoa ve dien hoac ton tai tti do d trang thai chuyen dong nhiet. Vi the ngtidi ta goi
qua trin h dd la sti ion hoa trtic tiep.
Nhti vay, doc theo quy dao cua hat vi md tich dien xuyen qua vat chat, xuat
hien nhieu cap ion. Cac ion nay khdng ton tai lau ma gay nen cac phan ting hoa
hoc tiep theo hoac ket hop lai vdi nhau de thanh nhting phan tti trung hoa ve
dien. De bieu dien do ldn cua kha nang ion hoa nay ngtidi ta dung khai niem do
ion hoa tuyen tinh. Do ion hoa tuyen tinh dtidc do bang so' cap ion do hat vi md tdi
tao ra tren mot ddn vi chieu dai doc theo dtidng di cua no. Vdi mot hat vi md xac
dinh, khi ttiOng tac vdi vat chat thi xac suat ttiOng tac de gay ra ion hoa ti le vdi
kho'i ItiOng, dien tich va tdc do hat tdi. Dien tich va kho'i ltidng cang ldn. to'c do
cang be thi xac suat tUdng tac cang ldn. Vi vay d cuoi quy dao, so' cap ion bao gid
cting nhieu hdn 0 doan dau. Chinh vi vay mat do ion hoa tuven tinh cua cac hat
alpha ldn hdn nhieu so vdi dien tti. Sti lech htidng tren quy dao xay ra doi vdi hat
alpha cung it hdn so vdi dien tti. Vi vay quy dao cua hat alpha thtidng it gap khuc
hdn quy dao cua dien tti. Chum tia alpha phat ra tti mot nguon xa thtidng ddn
nang (nang ltidng cua cac tia rieng biet trong mot chum gan bang nhau) nen do
vay kha nang dam xuyen cua cac tia alpha tti mot nguon dd cung giong nhau.
Ngtidi ta goi kha nang dam xuven trong vat chat cua mot chum tia la quang chav.
Thong thtidng quang chay R cua tia alpha khdng vtiot qua 10 cm trong khdng khi;
0,1 mm trong ntidc va 0.06 mm trong nhom. Vi vay viec che chan chum tia alpha
de thtic hien.

301
 Hiidng cua hat beta khi tticfng tac v6i v&t ch&'t bi lech di nhieu hdn, tao ra
mot quy dao co hinh gap khuc. Vi vay quang chay R cua tia beta khong phai 1&
quy dao thtic te trong vat chat ma dtidc tinh b&ng be day ctic dai cua ldp v&t chft't
ma no cd the xuyen qua dtiOc. Pho nang ltidng cua mot chum beta 1& da n&ng (ttic
la gom cac tia tti nang ltidng thap den n&ng ltidng cao) do v&y co khai niem quang
chay trung binh cua chtim beta.
Trong y sinh hoc, cac hieu ting xay ra phu thuoc vao do ion hoa tuyen tinh.
Nhting de ap dung cho tat ca cac btic xa ke ca photon ngtidi ta con dung mot khai
niem ntia la sti truyen tai nang ItiOng tuyen tinh viet t it theo tieng Anh la LET
(linear energy transfer) de d iin dat gia tri nang ltidng chtim tia da chuyen giao
cho vat chat:
AE
LET = —— (9.4)
Ax

AE la gia tri nang ltidng tti hat vi mo hoac photon dtiOc chuyen giao tren
chieu dai Ax cua quy dao. Ddn vi do cua LET la J/m hoac keV/fim. Gia tri LET
cung ndi len kha nang ion hoa va ti le vdi do ion hoa tuyen tinh cua chtim hat vi
mo cd khoi ItiOng tinh. Nhti vay vdi cac tia tdi khac nhau co cung mot nang ltidng
th i gia tri LET khac nhau vi kha nang idn hoa cua chung khac nhau. LET cua hat
alpha ldn hon cua hat beta va cua photon gamma. Gia tr i LET d doan cuoi quy
dao cua mot hat nao dd cung ldn hon d dau quy dao vi d cuoi quy dao van toe hat
cham hon, xac suat ttiOng tac ldn hon va do dd do ion hoa cung ldn hon.

2.1.2. Hat vi mo tich dien tuong tac vdi hat nhan nguyen tu
Cac hat vi md tich dien cd the gay ra phan ting hat nhan tao ra cac hat nhan
nguyen tii mdi nhti th i nghiem cd dien cua Rutherford da thtic hien vao nam 1919:

f:]Al(a,n)™P

Day la kha nang rat hiem xay ra nen chung ta khdng de cap ki d day.
Kha nang de xay ra hdn la khi mot hat vi md tich dien tdi gan hat nhan
nguyen tii vat chat (cting mang dien) th i chting se ttiOng tac vdi nhau. Sti ttiOng
tac dd se tao ra ltic hut hoac day tuy theo dau dien tich ciia hat mang tdi. Do ldn
ciia ltic tinh dien nay cung phu thuoc vao cac yeu to' da neu d tren. Nhin chung
khoi ItiOng cua hat tdi nhd hdn nhieu so vdi hat nhan nguyen tii nen quy dao va
van tdc ciia no bi thay ddi nhieu, tao ra chuyen dong cong. Dd la chuyen dong cd
gia tdc. Theo dien dong ltic hoc co dien, khi hat vi md tich dien chuyen dong cd gia
tdc thi se phat ra sdng dien tti (btic xa photon). Hien ttiOng nay xay ra vdi tat ca
cac hat vi md nhting dac biet quan trong do'i vdi dien tii. Btic xa photon phat ra d
day dtidc goi la btic xa ham (Braking radiation). Nang ItiOng ciia btic xa ham phu
thuoc vao do giam van to'c (gia to'c) ciia chuyen dong, nghia la phu thuoc vao gia
tri dien tich Z cua hat nhan nguyen tii, dien tich z va kho'i ItiOng m cua hat tdi.
Pho nang ltidng ciia chum btic xa ham phat ra tti mot nguon la lien tuc. Can chti y
rang btic xa ham cung cd the phat ra tti cac to chtic cua co the sinh vat bi chieu xa

302
bdi cac nguon phat beta co n&ng liidng khoang 1,71 MeV (cua 32P). Nang ludng biic
xa ham phu thuoc nhieu v&o so Z cua nguyen tii vat chat nen trong thuc te ngUdi
ta it dung vat li£u co so' Z ldn de che chin cac nguon phat tia beta.
Trong tuong tac n&y, hat vi mo tiep tuc di chuyen lech hudng va giam dan
n&ng liidng, con vi tr i va nang liidng cua hat nhan It bi thay doi. Xac sua't xay ra
r&'t nho va no co ten goi 1& sii va cham dan hoi.
Can lUu y rin g khi phan ra phong xa til hat nhan nguyen tii co the phat ra
hat pozitron (duong tii). Hat pozitron la phan hat ciia dien tii, mang ldvdt dUdng
va ldvkl. Tuy nhien no khong ton tai lau trong dieu kien binh thiidng. Khi thoat
ra khoi hat nhan nguyen tii no d l dang gap cac dien tii til do co san trong vat chat
gay nen hien tUdng huy hat va bien doi thanh 2 photon gamma co nang lilong
blng nhau (E > 0,510 MeV) va chuyen dong theo 2 chieu ngUOc nhau.

2.2. Tirdng tac cua photon nang li/dng cao (tia y va tia X) vdi vat chat
Tren day ta biet tia y, tia X co ban chat la song dien tu: vdi budc sdng ciic
ngln, la photon nang ludng cao. Khac vdi cac hat vi md tich dien, khi xuyen qua
vat chat, photon nang liidng cao truyen het nang liidng ciia no chi sau mot lan
tUOng tac chii khdng phai sau nhieu lln tuong tac nhu cac hat vi md. San pham
cua qua trin h tUOng tac dd la nhiing hat vi md tich dien (dien tii, pozitron) co
nang ludng ldn. Cac hat vi md nay se ion hoa vat chat tiep tuc (nhu da trinh bay d
tren). Vi vay ngudi ta ndi cac photon nang liidng cao da ion hoa gian tiep vat chat
theo cO che tac dung gian tiep thong qua 3 hieu iing sau day:

2.2.1. Hieu ung quang dien

Dd la hien tUdng cac dien tii qui dao bi b iit ra khoi ldp vo dien tii ciia nguyen
tii, do tac dung cua tia y (tia X). Khi dien tii nam tren quy dao diing, no cd mot
nang ludng lien ket W xac dinh ( blng cong ion hoa). Nhu vay, muon b iit dien tii
ra khoi qui dao, tia y (tia X) phai cd nang lUdng ldn hon W. Trong hieu iing nay,
tia y tUdng tac vdi dien tii quy dao va trao toan bo nang ludng ciia no (E = h.f) cho
dien tii. Nang lUOng nay mot phan dung lam cong ion hoa, phan con lai dung lam
dong nang Ed cho dien tii:
h.f = W + Ed
Can chu y rang cong ion hoa W chi chiem mot phan nho cua h.f, con dai bo
phan ciia h.f da duoc bien thanh dong nang ciia dien tii sau khi b iit ra khoi qui
dao. Chinh vi vay no tuong tac vdi vat chat va gay hien tudng ion hoa th ii cap
trong vat chat.
Ve phia nguyen tii vat chat, khi mot dien tii bi bat ra khoi qui dao. dien tii
khac d vanh ngoai cd the den the chd. Nang ludng du thila do sii chenh lech ciia
En giiia hai qui dao. se dUOc phat ra dudi dang mot photon. Gia tri nang ludng En
phu thuoc vao cac qui dao, vao nguyen tu so' cho nen photon th ii cap nay cd nang
liidng xac dinh va dUdc goi la biic xa dac tinh (hinh 9.6).
h f = EL - Ek
El va E k la nang liidng En cua dien tii d vanh L va vanh K.

303
 Hinh 9.6. Hieu ting quang dien

Xac suat xay ra hieu ting quang dien phu thuoc vao so nguyen tti Z cua vat
chat hap thu ttic la vao dien tich cua hat nhan nguyen tti vat chat va giam di khi
nang ItiOng cua photon t6i tang len. Ngtidi ta thay hieu ting quang dien thtidng
xay ra vdi nhting chum photon co nang ItiOng nho hon 1,02 MeV.

2.2.2. Hieu ung Compton

Compton la ngtidi dau tien phat hien ra rang photon co nang ItiOng trong
khoang 0,1+ 2 MeV di qua vat chat se ttiOng tac vdi dien tti tti do co trong do. Dien
tti nay nhan toan bo nang ItiOng hf cua photon tdi, giti lay mot phan lam dong
nang cua minh de dich chuyen, phan con lai se phat ra dtidi dang mot photon
khac co tan so nho hon (nang ItiOng thap hon) va co htidng truyen lam thanh mot
goc vdi htidng truyen cua photon tdi. Ngtidi ta goi chung la dien tti ltii va photon
thti cap cua hieu ting Compton (Hinh 9.7).
Cd the viet tom tat qua trin h dd nhti
sau:
h f = h f + Ed
hf : nang ItiOng cua photon tdi.
h f : nang ItiOng cua photon thti cap.
Ed : dong nang cua dien tti tti do.
Chinh dien tti ltii vdi dong nang Ed se
tiep tuc ttiOng tac vdi vat chat, gay hien
ttiOng ion hoa nhti ta da biet trong phan Hinh 9.7. Hieu ting Compton
tren.

2.2.3. Hieu ung tao cap

Nhting photon cd nang ItiOng b£ng va ldn hon 1,02 MeV cd the gay ra hieu
ting tao cap: Khi nhting photon dd den gan hat nhan cd so' Z ldn, chung ttiOng tac
vdi trtidng hat nhan va bien mat, dong thdi xuat hien mot cap pozitron - electron.

304
Nhii v&y, nang liidng cua photon da chuyen hoa thanh cap e va e va dong nang
cua chung (Hinh 9.8).
He thtic nang liidng trong qua
trinh tao cap la:
h f = E / + E,- + 1.02 MeV

Trong do Ed+ + Ed' la dong

nang cua pozitron va electron; 1,02
MeV= 0,51 MeV x 2 la phan nang
ltidng ttidng dtidng vcii khoi ItiOng
tinh cua hai hat pozitron va
electron, tinh theo cong thtic cua
Anhstanh E = me2, trong do E la Hinh 9.8. Hieu ting tao cap
nang ItiOng ttiOng dtiOng v6i khoi
ltidng m, c la toe do anh sang trong chan khong.
Nhti vay cac pozitron va electron dtidc tao ra trong hieu ting nay cung co
dong nang. Chinh chung se ttiOng tac vdi vat chat va gay qua trin h ion hoa tiep
tuc, do do se giam dan dong nang roi chuyen ve dang chuyen dong nhiet.
Xac suat cua hieu ting nay tang ti le vdi gia tri nang ItiOng cua photon Ey
(tia X, gamma) xuyen qua va ti le vdi Z2 cua nguyen tti vat chat (hinh 9.9).
Moi btic xa ion hoa, du la dang photon hay cac hat vi mo tich dien deu mang
trong minh chting nhting gia tr i nang ltidng nhat dinh, vi vay khi gap vat chat,
nang ltidng do se dtidc truyen cho nguyen tii hoac phan tii cua vat chat.

0,01 0,1 1 10 100 £ /M e V )

Hinh 9.9. Xac suat tudng doi cua cac hieu ting phu
thuoc vao n5ng liidng tia gamma:
1- Quang dien,2- Compton,3- Tao cap

305
 9 1 ,
Nhin chung co 2 phtidng thtic cd ban ve phtidng dien v^t 11 de chuyen giao
nang ltidng tti tia qua v&t ch&'t: kich thich v& ion hoa v&t ch£ft. Kich thich 1k qua
trinh nguyen tii hoac phan tti ha'p thu mot gia tri n&ng ltidng tti tia roi chuyen v£
mot trang thai nang ItiOng mdi, khong ben vting (trang thai kich thich) mk khong
k6o theo ba't cti sti tach rdi (btit) mot dien tti c&'u tao n&o. Nguyen tti hoSc phan tii
kich thich do rat d l dang va nhanh chong phat xa n&ng ltidng da hap thu dti<?c
dtidi dang nhting photon, btic xa nhiet hoac phan ting hoa hoc de trd ve trang thai
ban d&u. Ion hoa la qua trin h nang ltidng tti tia tdi lam bat dien tii quy dao cua
nguyen tii hoac phan tii th&nh ph£n cua v£t cha't. Tti do tao ra mot c&p ion: ion
am (hoac dien tii) va ion dtidng (phan con lai cua nguyen tii hoac phan tii).

2.3. Ttfdng tac cua neutron vdi vat chat

2.3.1. Nguon phdt neutron

Neutron la hat co ban co trong hat nhan ciia hau het cac nguyen to'. No dtidc
Chadwick phat hien nam 1932 va co ky hieu la n hoac 0n' vi co kho'i ItiOng khoang
1 dvnt va khong mang dien tich. Ngtidi ta thu dtidc cac neutron tti mot vai dong vi
phong xa hoac tti lo phan ting phan chia cac hat nhan nang nhti 92U235... Cac hat
nhan U235 va Pu239 khi tiep nhan mot neutron th i se trd ve trang thai khong can
b&ng dtia den viec hat nhan bi phan chia thanh hai manh va mot so neutron khac
dtiOc phat ra. Phan ting dtidc viet nhti sau:
92U235 + on1-> 38Sr90 + 54Xe144 + 2 . ^ + y + 200 MeV
Dtidi tac dung ciia ltic Culong, hai manh nhan do se chuyen dong ngtidc
chieu nhau vdi dong nang rat ldn, con cac neutron lai co the gay nen nhting sti
phan chia hat nhan tiep theo 0 hat nhan khac. Cti nhti vay, khi co mot hat nhan
bi phan chia lam moi se dan den mot day chuyen cac phan ting ke tiep nhau. Qua
do ngtidi ta thu dtiOc mot nguon neutron rat ldn, mot nang ltidng ldn dtidi dang
nhiet va cac btic xa gamma. Do la phan ting hat nhan day chuyen.
Ngoai cac phan ting phan hach tti 23oU va 238U con co cac phan ting hat nhan
khac phat ra Neutron. Chting dtidc ting dung de che tao nhting nguon neutron
ttiOng do'i nho. Loai nguon Neutron thong dung nha't dtia vao phan ting sau: 9Be
(a, n) 12C
Cac hat a dtidc dting trong phan ting nay phat ra tti cac dong vi nhti 211Am
hoac 22(>Ra. Pho nang ltidng cua cac neutron phat ra tti cac nguon a - Berylli do
khong dOn nang nhting co cac dinh (peak) cao d cac mtic nang ItiOng 3 va 6 MeV:
nghia la cac nguon Neutron nay chu yeu phat ra cac neutron nhanh.
Mot phan ting khac dtidc dting de san xuat neutron la phan ting Gamma -
Neutron (y, n). Loai nguon Gamma - Neutron thong dung nha't gom mot hon hdp
T s

Antimon va Berylli co the tich bang nhau, trong do cac tia y nang ItiOng cao tti
Antimon-124 ban pha cac nhan Berylli va phat ra cac neutron. Dang chti y la cac
neutron tao bdi qua trin h (y, n) dtidc ting dung trong thtic tien co the xem la don
nang.

306
 2.3.2. Tuvng tdc cua neutron vdi v$t chdt - S i/ hdp thu neutron
Do khong mang di$n nen khi chuyen dong trong vat cha't neutron khong
ttidng tac vcii ldp vo dien tii cua nguyen tut, khong kich thich hoac ion hoa nguyen
tut. NhUng khi va cham vdi hat nhan, chung bi tan xa m& ket qua la nang ltidng
cua chung bi giam vh phtidng htidng cua chung thay doi. Trong mot so' dieu kien
nha't dinh neutron c6 the ttidng tac vdi hat nhan nguyen tii va gay ra phan ting
hat nhan theo bieu thtic sau day:
n + XA —> XA+1
Cac phan ting quan trong nha't trong ha'p thu neutron la:
- Tan xa ddn hoi
La tan xa trong do cac neutron va cham vdi cac hat nhan va bi "ban" di
ttidng tti nhti sti va cham cua hai qua bong billiard. Trong va cham do, neutron bi
ma't mot phan nang ltidng ban dau, do vay no se mat dan nang ltidng va cham lai.
Nang ltidng cua neutron ma’t di nay dtidc truyen cho hat nhan bia. Toan bo nang
ltidng dtidc truyen nay the hien dtidi dang dong nang cua hat nhan bia. Cac
nguyen to' nhe cd tac dung lam cham neutron tot nha't bang hieu ting tan xa dan
hoi va vi vay cac vat lieu cd ham ltidng Hydrogen cao (nhti paraffin, ntidc, be tong)
thtidng dtidc sii dung vao muc dich nay.
- Tan xa khdng ddn hoi
Trong qua trin h nay cac neutron den truyen mot phan nang ltidng cua
chting cho vat lieu gay tan xa va klch thich cac hat nhan bia. Nhting hat nhan bia
bi klch thich thtidng phat ra btic xa Gamma. Sau dd, khi chting trd ve trang thai
cd ban. Qua trin h va cham khong dan hoi nay xay ra chu yeu do'i vdi cac hat nhan
nang.
- Cdc phan iing bat neutron
Cd nhieu loai. trong cac phan ting nay cac neutron bi bat bdi cac hat nhan
rci tiep theo chung khti klch thich bang cach phat ra mot hat hoac photon khac.
Mot phan ting bat neutron ra't quan trong la: 10Be ( n, a ) 'Li
Tam quan trong cua phan ting nay, theo quan diem che chan la cac hat bi
ban ra (hat a) rat de bi ha'p thu. Do vay, viec dtia Bery-10 vao cac vat lieu che
chan se cd tac dung ha'p thu neutron va hat a dtidc sinh ra se khong con gay kho
khan cho viec che chan ntia. Dieu khong may la phan ldn cac phan ting bat
neutron thtidng gap nha't lai dan tdi viec phat xa cac tia Gamma cd kha nang
xuyen sau. vl du: ^sFe ( n, y ) ;,9Fe
Btic xa Gamma nay thtidng can dtidc ltiu y trong thiet ke che ch in va do vay,
mot vat lieu cd nguyen tii so' cao thtidng dtidc ket hdp de hap thu cac tia Gamma
nay. Vi vay che chan btic xa neutron ra't phtic tap vi khoang nang ltidng cua no
thtidng ra't rong. cd kha nang dam xuyen ldn va gav hieu ting sinh hoc cao. Cac
phan ting vdi neutron dtidc minh hoa bang sd do tren hinh 9.10.

307
 <3— ► O
Hat nhan (a ) T a n xa d an hoi.

(b) Tan xa phi dan hoi.

< 3 — ►

Hat nhan Hat nhan bj kich thich.

thiidng phat n3ng li/ong
d ii thiia difdi dang cac tia y

o ( c) B3t neutron.

Hat nhan khoi Hat nhan khoi liiOng nguyen tCr

lifong nguyen tCr
(A) (A+1) thi/dng phat tia y

Hinh 9.10

3. SIT HAP THU NANG Ll/ONG BLfC XA - LIEU LUONG BlfC XA

3.1. Sir hap thu nang lirdng burc xa. Sir suy giam cirdng do bufc xa
Do cac qua trin h ttidng tac tren, khi btic xa ion hoa di xuyen qua vat chat,
nang ltidng , mat do chtim tia co the giam di va do do ctidng do chtim tia se giam
di. Tuy nhien, theo ban chat va dac diem cua moi loai tia, qui luat giam ctidng do
dtidc the hien khac nhau.

3.1.1. Quy luat giam m at do tia a

Cac hat a trong chtim tia noi chung co nang ltidng dong deu nhti nhau, quy
dao cua hat a trong vat chat la dtidng thang. Do ttidng tac nang ltidng cua tting
hat a se giam dan doc theo quy dao cua no cho den khi dting lai. Vi vav vdi tia a,
ton tai quy luat giam mat do tia (J) nhti sau. Goi J0 la mat do chum tia a song
song, co cung nang ltidng xuyen vuong goc vdi be mat cua ldp vat chat, x la chieu
day ldp vat chat chtim tia xuyen qua, J la mat do chtim tia lo sau khi di qua ldp
vat chat, ta co:
J = J0 neu x < R (9.5)
J = 0 neu x > R
Trong do R la quang chay cua chtim tia a trong vat chat ma no di qua.

308
3.1.2. Quy luat giam c itin g do tia (tia y, tia X, tia (?)
Do'i vdi hat beta, do chum tia p* co pho nang lien tuc, quy dao cua hat p1
trong vat chat la dtidng gap khuc quanh co. Ctidng do cua chtim hat beta giam
giong nhti cua chtim tia gamma. Do hieu ting ttidng tac cua tia y, tia X vdi vat
chat xay ra theo quy luat xac suat, nen do'i vdi cac chtim tia nay khong ton tai quy
luat giam mat do ddn gian nhti do'i vdi tia a ma thay vao dd la quy luat giam
ctidng do tia. Goi I 0 la ctidng do chtim tia y, (hoac tia X, hoac tia P*) tdi mat ban, I
la ctidng do sau khi ra khoi ban, x la chieu day cua ban (tinh bang cm) ngtidi ta
chting minh dtidc:
/ = I e ~ ^ x'x
Q (9.6)

Trong dd fix goi la he so' giam bac nhat. Neu btic xa ion hoa cd ban chat
(dang) khac nhau, nang ltidng khac nhau, vat chat ma no xuyen qua khac nhau
thi jix se khac nhau. Do'i vdi sti giam ctidng do btic xa, khoang chieu day cua mot
ban vat chat tfnh bang ddn vi dai chtia neu het dtidc kha nang lam giam ctidng do
btic xa cua ban dd. Gia tr i p cang ldn thi sti giam cang manh. Vi vay de neu het
dtidc kha nang lam giam ctidng do btic xa cua mot so' ban vat chat chieu day x
(cm) cd mat do vat chat p (g/cm3) ta phai dting tich so: d = x.p
d goi la chieu day kho'i cua ban vat chat, dtidc do bang ddn vi g/cm3.
o , o.

Cong thtic 9.6 tren cd the bien doi nhti sau:

I = I 0.e p = V '" ' 0 -7 )

Trong dd fi = )j.x /p dtidc goi la he so' lam giam kho'i. Ddn vi de do fi la cm2/g.
Do'i vdi tia p1, sti giam ctidng do nay la do sti lech htidng cua hat p1 sau ttidng
tac vdi hat thanh phan cua vat chat va sti dting cua hat P* trong vat chat khi nang
ltidng cua no giam xuo'ng b&ng nang ltidng cua chuyen dong nhiet. He so ha'p thu
kho'i |i phu thuoc vao nang ltidng ctic dai cua hat p* cd trong chtim tia dd.
Do'i vdi tia y, tia X, sti giam ctidng do la do sti bien mat va sti suy giam nang
ltidng cua chtim tia khi xay ra mot trong cac hieu ting da neu.
Ta cd: fi = i + a + x
Trong dd : |a la he so ha'p thu kho'i (toan phan) cua tia y, tia X.
x la he so ha'p thu theo hieu ting quang dien
a la he so' ha'p thu do tan xa Compton
X la he so hap thu theo hieu ting tao cap.
Cac he so ha'p thu khoi (a, x, a, x va ti le cac gia tri cua x. a, x trong he so hap
thu khoi toan phan (a phu thuoc vao nang ltidng cua photon. Hinh 9.9 cho biet sti
phu thuoc vao nang ltidng tia y. tia X cua xac sua't ttidng doi cua ba qua trin h ha'p
thu quang dien. tan xa Comtdn va hieu ting tao cap.

309
 Quy luat giam ctidng do cua chum tia beta v& gamma nhti ta da thay d tren
la theo ham so' mu. Nhti vay ve ly thuyet khong the che ch in de c6 dtidc gia tri
ctidng do chtim tia bin g 0. Tren thtic te ngtidi ta co the chan het mot chum tia
beta vi kha nang ttidng tac cua no ldn do do sti dam xuyen cua no thap. Doi vdi
chtim tia gamma thi chi cd the che chin de dat den mot gia tri rat nho cd the ch&p
nhan dtidc. Vi vay de bieu dien kha nang che ch in cua mdt ldp vat chat n&o dd doi
vdi tia gamma ngtidi ta dting khai niem chieu day hap thu mot ntia.
Chieu day hdp thu mot nita (Half Value Layer: HVL) la chieu day thtfc te
cua mot ldp vat chat md ctidng do chiim tia khi xuyen qua do thi bi giam di mot
ntia so vdi citdng do ban dau, dtidc ky hieu la d 1/2.
Tti cong thtic (9.7) ta cd the tfnh dtidc moi ttidng quan gitia di/2 va he so hap
thu p la:
0 ,6 9 3
dy 2 = -------- (9.8)
M
Khai niem HVL cd fch de tfnh toan nhanh gia tri g in dting can che chin bdi
vi 1 HVL lam giam 1/2 ctidng do chtim tia, 2 HVL giam xuo'ng con 1/4, 3 HVL
giam xuo'ng con 1/8 va cti the' tiep tuc theo quy lu&t ham so' mti cua hien ttidng
ha'p thu btic xa. Thong so' nay gitip cho viec tfnh toan che chan tia dtidc nhanh chong
va de dang hdn.

3.2. Lieu lUdng btic xa

Trong thtic hanh. dac biet la thtic hanh y hoc de danh gia tac dung cua chtim
tia ion hoa len vat chat noi chung va len cd the song ndi rieng, ngtidi ta dting mot
dai ltidng goi la lieu ltidng btic xa. Cd sd de dinh nghia lieu ltidng btic xa la ket
qua ttidng tac gitia tia ion hoa vdi vat chat thong qua cac qua trin h ma ta da noi d
tren. Trong thtic te tuy trtidng hdp cu the ngtidi ta dting hai loai lieu ltidng: lieu
ltidng ha'p thu va lieu ltidng chieu. Trong phong xa sinh hoc con dting den lieu
ttidng dtidng va lieu hieu dung.

3.2.1. Lieu chieu (Lieu ion hoa)

Lieu chieu chi dting cho tia y va tia X. Lieu chieu la dai ltidng cho biet tong
so' dien tfch cua cac ion cung dau dtidc tao ra trong mot ddn vi kho'i ltidng khong
khf d dieu kien tieu chuan dtidi tac dung cua cac hat mang dien sinh ra do tia
gamma hoac tia X ttidng tac vdi cac nguyen tti, phan tti khf.

Dc =-Q <9-9)
A/w

Trong he SI ddn vi lieu chieu la Culong tren kilogam (C/kg). Dd la lieu chieu
cua mot chum tia y hay tia X ma neu chum tia ay chieu vao khong khf d dieu kien
tieu chuan thi se gian tiep hoac trtic tiep ion hoa va tao ra dtidc mot ludng dien
tfch tong cong la mot Culong (cong theo mot dau) trong mot kilogam khong khf.
Ddn vi khac cua lieu chieu la Rdnghen (R). Gitia R va C/kg cd moi lien he sau:

310
 1 R = 2,57976. 10'4 C/kg hay 1 C/kg a 3876 R
R 1& ddn vi trUdc day hay dung trdng y hoc phong xa va phong xa sinh hoc.
Rdnghen 1& lieu chieu cua chum photon khi chieu vao 1 cm3 khong khi (tiic 1,293
mg) d dieu kien tieu chu^n se tao ra mot so ion ma dien tich tong cong cac ion
cung dau la mot ddn vi dien tich (tiic la khoang 2,09 x 109 cap ion). NgUdi ta con
goi lieu chieu la lieu bieu kien.

3.2.2. Lieu hap thu

Lieu hap thu D la ti so' giuta nang liidng AE ma mot do'i tUdng ha'p thu tii
chum tia chieu tdi va kho'i liidng Am cua no:

D=— (910)
Am

Trong he SI ddn vi cua lieu hap thu la Jun tren kilogam (J/kg), dUdc dat ten
la Gray (Gy). Gray la lieu ha'p thu cua mot chum biic xa ion hoa do'i vdi mot do'i
tUdng nao do khi do'i tUdng nay bi chieu bdi chum tia do thi cii moi kilogam vat chat
cua no nhan dUdc mot nang lUdng la mot jun. Mot ddn vi khac cua lieu ha'p thu la
rad. Giiia rad va Gray co mo'i lien he sau: 1 rad = 0,01 Gy hay 1 Gy = 100 rad.

3.2.3. Lieu twang duong

NgUdi ta quan sat tha'y cung mot lieu hap thu cua cac loai biic xa khac nhau
lai gay ra nhiing ton thudng khac nhau. Vi vay dua them he so' chat liidng tia Q
de noi nen dac diem nay tii do ta co lieu tUdng dUdng.
Lieu tudng dUdng = Lieu ha'p thu x Q
TrUdc day lieu tUdng dUdng cd ddn vi thUdng dung la Rem. NhUng hien nay
trong he SI lieu tudng dudng tinh bang Sievert (viet tat la Sv) vdi cac Udc so'
mSv, (iSv.
Dudi day la gia tri Q cua mot vai loai biic xa:
- Tia X, y, dien tii: 1
- Ndtron nhiet: 5
- Proton va neutron nhanh: 20
- Cac hat anpha: 20

3.2.4. Lieu hieu dung

Cac mo khac nhau nhan cung mot lieu tUdng dUdng nhu nhau lai cd ton
thudng sinh hoc khac nhau. Dd la do do nhay cam phong xa cua cac mo khac
nhau, de dac trung cho tinh chat nay ngUdi ta dua ra khai mem trong so cua mo.
Lieu hieu dung dude tinh:
Lieu hieu dung = Lieu tUdng dUdng . W

311
 D d n vi c u a lie u h ie u d u n g c u n g la S v

Dudi day la mot vai gia tri W cua cac mo: Than: 0,20; phoi: 0,12; gan: 0,05;
da: 0,01...

3.3. Nguyen ly va cac thiet bj ghi do burc xa ion hoa

Cd sd cua viec ghi do biic xa ion hoa la cac phan iing hoa hoc hoac hieu iing
vat If cua sii tUdng tac giiia biic xa va vat chat hap thu. Ve phudng dien vat li. khi
khao sat he ghi do, ngUdi ta lUu y 3 yeu to' sau day:
- Dang cua vat chat hap thu (dac, long, khi)
- Ban chat cua cac hieu iing vat 11: kich thich hay ion hoa.
- Cach the hien ket qua ghi do, neu la xung dien thi bien do xung la co' dinh
hay ti le vdi nang ludng hap thu dUdc.
Dudi tac dung cua tia phong xa, cac nguyen tii va phan tii cua vat chat bj
kich thich va ion hoa, tii dd gay ra cac hieu iing khac nhau. Miic do cac hieu iing
dd xay ra tuy thuoc vao ban chat va nang lUdng chum tia. Vi vay chung ta cd the
diia vao cac hieu iing dd de ghi va do biic xa ion hoa.

3.3.1. Cac loai dau do (detector)

3.3.1.1. Ghi do phong xa dua vao su bien doi hoa hoc va tao quang anh tren phim
Cd mot so' hoa chat bi bien doi khi chiu tac dung cua biic xa ion hoa. Hien
tudng dd ngay nay it dUdc ap dung vi kem nhay ngoai tr ii viec ap dung rong rai
cac phim anh de ghi do phong xa. Tia phong xa gay cac bien doi d tinh the muoi
Halogen bac trong nhu tUdng. Cau tao cua phim va nhu tUdng anh bao gom cac
tinh the muoi Halogen bac phan bo' deu trong nhu tUdng. Do nhay cua phim phu
thuoc vao mat do va kich thudc cua tinh the muoi va be day cua nhu tUdng:
- Phim anh cd ldp nhu tUdng day khoang lOfim, kich thudc tinh the khoang
0,5 h- 3 ^im. Mat do tinh the khoang 6 x 109/cm3. Phim nay thudng dung de ghi do
tia X, tia gamma.
- Nhu tudng hat nhan cd ldp do day 5 +10 fj.m, kich thudc tinh the muoi la
0,1- 0,4 pm va mat do la 1013/cm3. Nhu tudng cd hieu sua't tUdng tac ldn vdi cac
biic xa alpha, beta va gamma mem.
Khi tia phong xa tudng tac vao nhu tUdng, cac dien tii cd the bj b iit ra khoi
nguyen tii cau tao. Cac dien tii nay cd xu hudng tap trung ve mot diem trong
mang tinh the muoi bac. Sau dd cac ion Ag+ cung bj loi cuon ve cac diem nay va
nhan cac dien tii de trd thanh nguyen tii bac Ag. So' liidng nguyen tu Ag trong
diem dd phu thuoc vao so' dien tii cd mat tiic la phu thuoc vao cUdng do chum tia.
Cac nguyen tii Ag cd kha nang xue tac lam cho tinh the de bj khii. Vi vay khi
nhung cac nhu tUdng nay vao cac dung djch khu manh nhu hydroquinol. metol thi
cac tinh the cd cac nguyen tii Ag trong dd bj kh ii con cac tinh the khac th i khong.
Toe do khii cung phu thuoc vao so' liidng nguyen tii Ag cd trong tinh the.

312
 Nhu vay, sau khi trang ruta, cd the quan sat dUdc qua trin h do b£ng cac
dung cu do mat do quang hoc. Ngay nay ngUdi ta dung cac loai phim va nhu tUdng
de ghi do phong xa trong cong viec do lieu hap thu ca nhan bang test- phim, trong
ki thuat phong xa tii chup (autoradiography), v.v...

3.3.1.2. Ghi do phong xa di/a vao dac tinh phat quang cua tinh the va dung dich
Khi hap thu nang liidng tif chum tia phong xa, mot so' tinh the co kha nang
phat quang. Mat do va nang lUdng biic xa phat ra phu thuoc vao nang ludng hap
thu dUdc. Do vay co the do dUdc nang lUdng chum tia da truyen cho tinh the bang
cach do nang lUdng chum tia th ii phat tu: tinh the do.
Hien nay tinh the co dac tinh phat quang thudng dung la:
- Tinh the muoi ZnS phat quang dudi tac dung cua tia X, tia gamma.
- Tinh the Antraxen phat quang khi hap thu nang liidng tu: chum tia beta.
- Dung dich hon hdp PPO (2,5 diphenil oxazol) va POPOP (2,5 phenyloxazol-
benzen) hoa tan trong dung moi toluen hay dioxan, phat quang khi hap thu nang
lUdng yeu cua cac tia beta phat ra tii 3H va 14C. Dung dich nay la thanh phan
chinh cua ki thuat ghi do dac biet goi la ki thuat nhap nhay long, thudng dung
trong cac nghien ciiu y sinh hoc.
- Tinh the Iodua N atri (Nal) trong do co tron lan mot ludng nho Tali (TI)
hoac tinh the KI (TI); Csl (TI); L il v.v... co kha nang phat ra mot photon th ii cap
(phat quang) khi co biic xa gamma tac dung vao. DUdc dung trong cac thiet bi diia
vao dac tfnh phat quang dac biet la o'ng dem nhap nhay.
Quan trong nhat trong loai nay la tinh the muoi Nal dUdc hoat hoa bang TI,
phat quang dudi tac dung cua tia gamma. Cac tinh the nay dUdc dung de tao ra
dau do. Vi nang ludng cua chum tia phat quang rat yeu nen phai dUdc khuye'ch
dai b&ng cac ong nhan quang. Ki thuat ghi do bang tinh the phat quang co hieu
suat ldn, nen ngay cang dUdc sii dung rat rong rai.
So liidng cac photon phat quang (thii cap) do ti le vdi nang liidng cac tinh the
nhap nhay hap thu dUdc tii tia tdi. Trung binh cii 30 + 50 eV nang ludng hap thu
dUdc se tao ra mot photon phat quang th ii cap. Nhu vay, mot tia gamma co nang
liidng khoang 0,5MeV dUdc hap thu se tao ra khoang 104 photon th ii cap trong
tinh the. Neu cac photon huynh quang do dUdc tiep xue vdi ban photocatod th i se
tao ra mot chum cac dien tii (Hinh 9.11). Bo phan tiep theo cua dau dem nhap
nhay la ong nhan quang. Ong nhan quang dUdc cau tao bdi nhieu ban dien ciic co
dien the tang dan de khuech dai tiing budc van toe cua chum dien tii phat ra tif
photocatot. Mot o'ng nhan quang co 10- 14 doi dien ciic, co the khuech dai van to'c
dien tii len 106 den 109lan. Tuy vay do van chi la nhiing xung dien yeu can phai
khuech dai niia mdi ghi do dUdc.
Ong dem nhap nhay dung tinh the vo cd Nal (TI) ngay nay dUdc dung rat
pho bien va dat du'dc hieu sua't do 20%- 30% do'i vdi tia gamma va 100% vdi cac
hat vi mo. Thdi gian chet ciia chung cung rat ngan (khoang vai ps ma thoi).

313
 Ong dem nhap nhay khong nhiing ghi do dUdc cUdng do biic xa m& con cho
phdp ghi do dUdc pho nang liidng cua chat ph6ng xa. M uon do pho n&ng liidng c&n
co them may phan tich bien do.

Hinh 9.11
Vdi cac ki thuat hien dai, ngUdi ta co the tao dUdc cac tinh the nhap nhay co
kich thudc ldn va nhiing hinh dang thich hdp. T ii dd cd the tao ra cac may moc ghi
do hien dai sii dung cho cac muc dich khoa hoc khac nhau. Trong y sinh hoc cd cac
may do biic xa phat ra tii trong cd the, tii toan than, tii cac phu tang sau hoac tii
cac mau benh pham.

3.3.1.3. Ghi do dua vao su ion hoa cac chat khi

Sii ion hoa chat khi:
Cac th i nghiem co dien da cho thay, moi trUdng cac chat khi cd the dan dien
khi cd tac dung cua biic xa ion hoa. Thi nghiem cho thay cUdng do dong dien qua
moi trUdng chat khi phu thuoc vao hieu dien the cua no (hinh 9.12). T ii dd ngUdi
ta tao ra nhieu thiet bi ghi do phong xa diia vao sii ion hoa cac chat khi. Do thi
dUdc chia lam 4 giai doan: giai doan I, II la dien the hoat dong cho cac buong ion
hoa; giai doan III cho o'ng dem ty le va giai doan IV cho o'ng dem GM. Day la ki
thuat ghi do quan trong nha't.
Cd cac loai thiet bi sau day:
+ Buong ion hoa dung de do lieu ca nhan, chuan lieu (Calibrator) va bao
hieu phong xa (Laboratory Monitor).
+ Ong dem Geiger- M uller (G.M)
Sau day la mot vai dung cu ghi do phong xa thUdng diing:
Buong ion hod

Cac buong ion hoa deu cd cau tao nhu trong hinh 9.14. Dien the dUdc cung
cap bang pin, acquy hoac dien ludi va cd gia tri trong doan II cua hinh 9.12. Trong

31 4
 binh chiia khong khi kho d ap su&'t binh thudng. Buong ion hoa thudng dUdc dung
de do lieu lUdng b&ng cac tinh dien ke cd bang the hien ket qua la R/h hoac mR/s.
Moi loai buong ion hoa cd the do dUdc mot pham vi lieu liidng khac nhau va dUdc
che' tao vdi nhieu dang khac nhau: loai ldn dat d phong th i nghiem, loai xach tay
di da ngoai, loai but cai de do lieu nhidu xa cua moi ca nhan v.v...

Hinh 9.12
Mot dung cu do quan trong thuoc loai nay la buong chuan lieu (dose
calibrator). Dd la mot buong ion hoa cd dien ke chinh xac va mot bo phan chiia
dung cac o'ng nghiem can xac dinh lieu liidng phong xa.
Ong dem G .M

Ong dem G.M la dung cu ghi do phong xa dUdc su dung rat rong rai. Cd
nhieu loai o'ng dem G.M vdi cong dung va tinh chat khac nhau nhUng nguyen tac
lam viec deu giong nhau. Cd hai loai thong dung la o'ng dem khi hiiu cd va ong
dem khi Halogen.
+ Ong dem khi hiiu cd
Vd ngoai o'ng dem hiiu cd thUdng bang thuy tinh, hinh chuong, dudng kinh
khoang 20mm. Chinh giiia cd mot cUc dUdng lam bang sdi vonfram rat manh vdi
dudng kinh khoang 0,1mm. Ciic am la mot la dong cuon d trong long o'ng thuy
tinh noi vdi mot sdi vonfram ra ngoai. Day o'ng lam bang la mica mong thudng
dUdc goi la ciia so de cho cac biic xa beta yeu cd the lot qua. Sau khi hut het khong
khi ben trong. ngu'di ta nap cac khi hiiu cd (hdi rUdu Etylic, Benzen, Isopentan
v.v...) vdi ap suat khoang 1 mmHg va khi trd (thudng la Argon) ap sua't khoang
9mmHg.
+ Ong dem Halogen
Ciic dudng cua ong dem G.M loai Halogen d giiia cung la sdi day vonfram.
Ciic am la mot ong thep khong gi cuon ben trong hoac dung ki thuat phun muoi
SnCl2 vao mat trong o'ng.
Cac kh i Halogen nhu Brom,Clo v.v... dUdc bdm vao trong ong thay cho khi
hiiu cd d loai tren. Loai ong dem Halogen de do tia beta va gamma.

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 Cac khf hiiu cd hoac Halogen
• 9
co tac dung hap thu bdt nang liidng diidc san
/ ^

sinh ra trong qua trin h ion hoa de dap tat no, tao ra cac xung dien ngan.

Hinh 9.13. Ong G - M Hjnh 9 1 4 Buong ion hoa

M - ciic am; E - ciic duong
S - thanh thuy tinh; AB - ciia so mong

Dien ap lam viec cua o'ng dem G.M noi chung nam d doan IV tren hinh 9.12.
Cd che tao xung nhu da trin h bay d tren. Mot yeu to' quan trong cua o'ng dem G.M
la thdi gian chet. No co y nghia nhu sau: Khi biic xa lot vao trong ong dem. se gay
nen ion hoa cac phan tu khf. Cudng do dien trUOng tac dung len cac ion rat manh
gay nen sii ion hoa th ii cap va so' liidng ion dUdc san sinh nhieu len. Tuy vay cac
dien tu (ion am) co kho'i ludng nho dich chuyen nhanh hdn ve ciic dUdng con cac
ion dUdng co kho'i liidng ldn dich chuyen cham hdn ve ciic am. Trong mot thdi gian
nhat dinh nao do, cac ion dUdng tao ra mot man chan xung quanh ciic dUdng lam
cho cUdng do dien trUdng bi giam di. Luc nay neu co mot tia khac lot vao o'ng dem
th i se khong ghi nhan diidc. Mai den khi ldp ion dUdng do da hoan toan bi cuon
hut ve ciic am, dien trUdng hoi phuc lai nhu cu th i o'ng dem mdi ghi nhan dUdc tia
mdi. Thdi gian giiia 2 lan o'ng dem co the ghi nhan dUdc ay goi la thdi gian chet
cua o'ng dem. Do dai cua no khoang 100 - 300 jis do'i vdi o'ng dem G.M.
Mot dac trUng niia cua o'ng dem G.M. la hieu sua't dem. Do la xac sua't de
mot biic xa lot vao ong co the dUdc ghi nhan. Hieu sua't do'i vdi tia beta la 100%
nhiing vdi tia gamma chi khoang 1%. Sd di the vi sii ion hoa trUc tiep cac phan tii
khf cua tia gamma rat nho.
Do la cac nguyen tac chung ve ghi do phong xa. Trong y te thudng co cac
trang bi dac biet ma ket qua do dUdc the hien bang con so' do thi, hinh anh phan
bo va mat do phong xa tai cac mo. phu tang hoac he tho'ng hoat dong chiic nang
ciia cd the. Cac ki thuat do giup xac dinh sU co mat (dinh tfnh) va sii bien doi ve
lieu lu'dng va mat do phong xa (dinh lUdng). Tren cd sd cac thong so do ngUdi ta co

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 the suy doan dUdc cac hoat dong chiic nang sinh 11 va benh If cua te bao, mo, phu
tang trong cd the.
Ghi do dua vao hien tUdng nhiet huynh quang
Mot so'chat nhu L iti Florid(LiF), Canci Sunfat(CaS04 ), Canci Florid (CaF2)
hoat hoa b&ng Mn , L iti Borat co cau true dac biet trong mang tinh the. Chung se
trd thanh trung tam phat huynh quang dudi tac dung cua biic xa ion hoa khi dUdc
kich thich bang nhiet. Cudng do chum photon huynh quang do ty le vdi lieu biic
xa dUOc hap thu. Do la nguyen ly cua ky thuat ghi do nhiet huynh quang (TLD).

4. TAC DUNG CUA BlfC XA ION HOA LEN VAT CHAT SONG
■ • ■

Da tii lau con ngudi biet den tac dung cua biic xa ion hoa len cac to chiic
sinh hoc va nhiing hau qua cua no. Nhiing hieu biet sau sac ve cO che tac dung,
cac yeu to' anh hudng den hau qua tac dung do lam cho con ngUdi co the Idi dung
hoac ngan ngiia, han che tac dung sinh hoc do biic xa ion hoa. Co the tom tat cac
qua trinh tac dung do theo sO do bieu dien 6 trang sau.

4.1. Cd che tac dung

O cac phan tren chung ta da khao sat ban chat cac hien tUdng vat ly trong
qua trinh tUOng tac gitia biic xa va vat chat. Tuy nhien qua trinh truyen nang
lUdng cua biic xa len to chiic sinh hoc va gay tac dung 0 do co nhiing cO che phiic
tap hon.

Hien nay ngUdi ta van cho rang co hai cd che tac dung cua biic xa ion hoa len
to chiic sinh hoc.

4.1.1. C a c h e tac dung trifc tiep

Nang ludng cua biic xa trUc tiep chuyen giao cho cac phan tii cau tao to chiic
sinh hoc ma chu yeu la cac dai phan tii hiiu cO. Nang ludng do gay nen cac qua
trinh kich thich va ion hoa cac nguyen tu, phan tu. Tiep theo la cac phan iing hoa
hoc xay ra giiia cac phan tii mdi tao thanh sau khi bi klch thich hoac ion hoa. Hai
giai doan nay xay ra rat nhanh trong khoang phan ngan m ill giay. Cac phan tii
hiiu cd quan trong bi ton thudng gay nen cac tac dung sinh hoc tiep theo nhu ton
thudng chiic nang hoat dong, gay dot bien gen, huy diet te bao, v.v... NgUdi ta co
the mo ta hinh hoa cac qua trin h tren bang sd do sau day:
------»AB -> (AB)* -> AB + hu
—»AB -» (AB)* -> A* + B* hoac A’ + B’
Do la klch thich phan tii. Nang liidng tia ~~— > co the truyen cho phan tii AB
va dUa AB ve trang thai klch thich (AB)*. 6 trang thai do, phan t u (AB)’ de ket
hdp vdi cac phan t u khac tao ra phan iing hoa hoc mdi hoac chuyen giao nang
liidng da tiep nhan diidc hf cho phan t u khac de trd ve trang thai on dinh ban dau
AB.
Cung co khi phan tu d trang thai klch thich (AB)* bi phan ly thanh cac phan
tii nho hdn va cung d trang thai klch thich A*, B*, de gay cac phan iing hoa hoc

317
mdi vk cac phan tu mdi vdi nhiing dong nfing nh&'t dinh A ’, B ’ di chuyen trong moi
triidng.

Buc xa ion hod

jq -16 s | Hap thu nang luong
1
Kich thich va ion hod vat chat

Tdc dung true tiep Tdc dung gian tiep

10"5 s (thong qua goc tu do)
Y
Thay ddi d cdc phan tif
A
s -5-gia
T Ton thuong sinh ly / Ton thuong hod sinh
A
m in -r g ia Phat trien cdc
►M ton thuong
V Dot bien di truyen hod sinh
A
Ton thuong cau true vi mo

gid *5- nam

^ Ton thuong cau true vf mo
Ton thuong thuc the ^

Tebao chet

1 ,

C o the chet

Cac phan tu bi ion hoa theo sd do sau:

—»AB -> (AB)+ + e

A+, B’ hoac B+, A’

Nang ladng tia (~-— >) cd the ion hoa cac phan tii hiiu cd tao ra cac ion am
(AB) hoac dudng (AB)+. Cac ion nav de ket hdp vdi nhau hoac tu phan ly thanh cac

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ion A*, B+, A’, B vk cac phan tii nho hOn vdi nhulng dong nang nhat dinh A’, B’.
Cac san ph^m mdi nky de tao ra cac phan iing hoa hoc mdi vdi cac phan tii hiiu co
khac trong to chiic sinh hoc.
Cac qua trinh kich thich vk ion hda cac nguyen tii, phan tii, cac phan iing
hoa hoc xay ra giiia cac phan tii triidc het gay nen cac ton thUdng tai do va sau cd
the lan truyen ra cac phan tii khac d xung quanh.

4.1.2. C achS 'tdc dung gian tiS'p

Tuy nhien vdi ly thuyet cd che tac dung triic tiep ngUdi ta khdng giai thich
dUdc mot so' ket qua thuc nghiem va quan sat thuc te.
- Vi du 1: Lieu chieu toan than 500-1000r cd the gay tii vong d ngudi. Qua
thiic nghiem ngudi ta tinh dUdc r&ng vdi lieu hap thu 1 rad trong 1 /j m3 d mo chi
cd 2 phan tii hiiu cd bi ton thuong. Moi te bao trung binh cd khoi liidng khoang
500 /u m3 va chiia khoang 1012 phan tii hiiu co. Vay neu hap thu 1 rad trong te bao
se cd khoang 1000 phan tii bi ton thudng triic tiep. Ty so' dd rat nhd ( 103/ 1012 =
1/109) so vdi hau qua thuc te (tii vong).

- Vi du 2: Thiic nghiem da cho thay la tac dung sinh hoc con phu thuoc vao
do linh dong ciia phan tii, vao ham liidng nUdc mot so' chat (oxy ching han) cd
trong to chiic sinh hoc.
Ta biet nUdc chiem mot ty le rat cao (70% den 90%) trong cac to chiic sinh
hoc. Vi vay cd the coi to chiic sinh hoc nhii mot moi trUOng bao gom cac phan tu
hiiu cO va nUdc. Do vay cd the nghi rang ben canh cd che tac dung trUc tiep con cd
mot cd che khac khong kem phan quan trong vdi vai tro to ldn ciia cac phan tii
nUdc lam trung gian. Dd la ly thuyet cd che tac dung gian tiep ciia biic xa ion hda
len to chiic sinh hoc.

Biic xa ion hda tac dung len cac phan tii nUdc, gay nen nhiing bien doi d dd
tao ra cac san pham hda hoc mdi la cac ion dUdng hoac am (H20 , H20 \ H+, O H )
va cac phan tii d trang thai klch thich (H20*, H*, OH*, H 0 2*, v.v...). Cac san pham
mdi nay se gay nen cac phan iing hda hoc vdi cac phan tii hiiu cd cua to chiic sinh
hoc va lam bien doi chung. Nhu vay nang liidng ciia chum tia da tac dung len cac
phan tii hiiu cd ciia to chiic, gian tiep thong qua phan tii nUdc cd trong dd.
Lee la ngUdi dau tien da lam nhieu thi nghiem va chiing minh dUdc cac qua
trinh cua cd che tac dung gian tiep. Cd the tom tat cac qua trinh dd bang sd do
sau day:

Klch thich phan tii nUdc:

H*
-------» H , 0 -> H ,0*

OH*
- Ion hda phan tii nUdc: Biic xa lam bat dien tii cua phan tii nUdc va bien no
thanh ion dudng (H 20 ) +.

319
 > H 20 —> (H 20 ) + e

H+ OH*
Phan tii nUdc co the nhan dUOc mot dien t ii va trd thanh ion am (H 20 )
OH
e + H 20 -> (H 20 )
H*
Cac phan tii d trang th a i kich thich H \ OH* ra t d l ket hdp v6i nhau tao ra
cac san pham hoa hoc mdi:
H* + H* -> H*2
OH* + H* -> H 20*
OH* + OH* -> H 20 2
H 20 2 la mot hdp chat rat doc do'i v6i cac phan tu hiiu cd vi do la mot chat oxy
hoa rat manh. Tren thUc te liidng H 20 2 dUdc san sinh ra nhieu hdn vi co cac phan
iing sau day neu trong to chiic co nhieu 0 2:

(H 20)* + 0 2 -> OH + HO*2

Hoac: H* + 0 2 -> H 0 2
H 0 2 + H 0 2 —> H 20 2 + 0 2
Neu ham lUdng oxy trong moi trUdng cang nhieu thi liidng H 20 2 dUdc san
sinh cang 16n. Neu trong nU6c co cac chat hoa tan thi ( H 0 2)* se lay dien tu cua
chat do va bien thanh (H 0 2) roi sau do tUdng tac v6i H cung de thanh peroxyd.

(H 0 2)*+ e‘ -» (H 0 2) + H +^ H 20 2
Phan 16n cac phan tu h iiu cd (RH) trong to chiic bi pha huy bdi cac phan tu
H 20 2. Ngoai ra cac goc tu do (phan tii, nguyen tu d tra n g th a i kich thich) H \ O H’
cung de phan iin g v6i cac phan t ii h iiu cd gay nen n h iin g bien doi ta i do va tao ra
them n hiing goc kich thich R* va R 0 2* theo cd che sau day:
RH + H* -> R* + H 2 va RH + (OH)* —> R* + H 20
Cac goc R* bi kich th ich cung de gav ra cac phan iin g hoa hoc mdi lam cho so
ludng cac phan t ii h iiu cd bi ton thudng tang len ra t nhieu vi cac phan iin g day
chuyen sau day:
R + 0 2 —> R 0 2
R 0 2* + RH ROOH + R’
Diia vao ly thuyet nay ngUdi ta hieu diidc tac dung lan truyen ra xa. tac
dung keo dai sau khi chieu xa. tac dung cua ham liidng nUdc, oxy trong moi
trUOng chieu va nhieu hien tUdng khac trong phong xa sinh hoc.

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 Trong cd che tac dung cua biic xa ion hoa len to chiic sinh hoc, hai ly thuyet
tac dung true tiep va tac dung gian tiep deu co gia tri quan trong cua no. Tuy
thuoc moi trUOng va dieu kien ma co luc cO che nay co vai tro va vi tri ldn hdn cO
che kia. Hai cO che do ho trO cho nhau va giup chung ta hieu dUOc sau s i c hOn ban
chat cua cac qua trinh phong xa sinh hoc, lam cho chung ta hanh dong co hieu
qua hdn trong cong tac thUc tien.

4.2. Cac ton thirdng d cd the sinh vat dirdi tac dung cua burc xa ion hoa

4.2.1. Ton thwffng o m u t do phan tif

Trong cac to chiic sinh hoc co cac phan tii vo cO va hiiu cO nhung quan trong
nhat la cac dai phan tu hiiu cO. Cac ton thUOng d phan tii hiiu cO la cO sd d&u tien
gay nen ton thUOng d miic do te bao, mo va toan cd the. Nang liiOng cua chum tia
dUdc truyen trUc tiep hay gian tiep cho cac phan tii hiiu cO tai cho chieu hay lan
ra xa xung quanh. N hu tren da noi, biic xa ion hoa co the kich thich hoac ion hoa
cac nguyen tii cau tao nen phan tii. Tu: do pha vd cac moi lien ket, phan ly cac
phan tif, tao ra cac san pham hoa hoc mdi gay nen ton thuong ldn hdn va lan rong
hdn. Do vay sau khi chieu xa, xuat hien trong to chiic sinh hoc cac phan tii co
trong liidng phan tii nhd hOn, co cau true khac trUdc.

Bieu hien cua cac ton thUOng phan tii do chieu xa la:

- Giam ham liidng cua mot hdp chat hiiu cd nhat dinh nao do sau chieu xa
so vdi trUdc luc chieu xa. Thong thudng do la cac men sinh hoc (enzym), cac
protein dac hieu, cac axit nhan v.v...Ham ludng ciia cac hop chat bi giam vi qua
trinh tong hdp va san sinh chung bi kim ham hoac do chung bi phan huy trong
qua trinh chieu xa ma chii yeu la do cac nhom chiic hoa hoc nhu goc amin (NH2),
cacboxyl (COOH), goc SH...bi tach lia khoi cau true ciia phan tii hiiu cd.
- Hoat tinh sinh hoc ciia cac phan tii hiiu cd bi suy giam hoac mat han do
cau true phan tii bi pha vd hoac bi ton thUOng. Ta biet moi phan tii hiiu cO co mot
cau true nhat dinh. Cau true do quyet dinh chiic nang hoat dong cua no. Biic xa
ion hoa tach rdi hoac pha huy cac nhom chiic hoa hoc khoi cau true phan tii lam
cho khong con tac dong sinh hoc dac biet niia.

- Tang ham lUdng mot so' chat co san hoac xuat hien nhiing chat la trong to
chiic sinh hoc. Thong thudng do la nhiing chat co hai, doc cho to chiic sinh hoc. Do
la san pham mdi cua sU phan huy ciia cac phan tii hiiu cd hoac ciia cac phan iing
hoa hoc mdi xay ra do chieu xa. Dien hinh la H 20 2, histamin, v.v...
Cac phan tii hiiu co bi ton thuong, anh hudng den sii phat trien va hoat dong
ciia te bao, giam kha nang hoat dong chiic nang mot so' mo. Mot trong nhting ton
thuong phan tii anh hudng den chiic nang sinh hoc quan trong la ton thudng phan
tii ADN. Tai do co the bi tach bo hoac bi pha huy goc punn. purim idin, goc NH 2,
goc diidng v.v...Cac manh con lai co the chap noi sai lac tao ra cac ADN bat
thudng. Tat ca cac ton thuong do anh hudng trUc tiep den hoat dong di truyen cua
te bao.

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4.2.2. Ton thuong a muc do te b a o - £)<5 nhay cam phong xa

4.2.2.1. Tdn thitong chifc nang

Khi cac phan tu cau tao nen te b&o bi ton thuong do biic xa th i hoat dong
chiic nang cua te bao cung bi anh hudng. Qua trin h oxy-phosphoryl hoa trong ty
lap the te bao bi giam xuong 1 gid sau khi chieu. Khi bi chieu xa te bao giam ho&c
mat kha nang san sinh cac protein dac hieu phuc vu cho hoat dong cua te bko. Vi
vay kha nang ho hap, chuyen hoa, trao doi chat va nang liiOng, mien dich cua te
bao deu bi giam. Mot chiic nang quan trong cua te bao rat de bi anh hudng do
chieu xa la kha nang phan chia te bao de tai sinh san. So di the vi trUdc het c6 ton
thuong ve cau true hoac trinh tu sip xep cua cac phan tu ADN trong gen tao nen
cac dot bien gen. Ngiidi ta da tinh duoc rin g vdi lieu l r xac suat dot bien gen la
10 8; lieu 50r - lOOr ty le dot bien gen b ln g 2 lan ty le dot bien tu nhien. Ton
thUOng do anh hudng den chiic nang sinh san te bao ma trUdc het co the tao ra cac
te bao mdi khong co kha nang hoat dong binh thudng nhu cac te bao the he cu.
Ngoai ra tia phong xa co the lam giam liiOng ADN duoc tong hop va do vav cung
anh hudng den to'c do phan chia te bao.
Cac dot bien gen do neu xay ra 6 cac te bao sinh due con co the gay ra cac
hau qua tai hai 0 cac the he sau cua sinh vat bi chieu niia.

4.2.2.2. Ton thuong cau true

Tuy thuoc vao loai te bao, lieu liiOng va dieu kien chieu ma cau true cua te
bao bi hu hai vdi nhieu miic do khac nhau:
- Ton thUOng mang te bao xay ra rat sdm va rat tinh vi. TrUdc het sii hu hai
mang lam cho cac qua trin h trao doi vat chat va nang liiOng qua mang bi roi loan:
tinh tham chon loc cua mang va gia tri cac gradien ton tai d hai phia cua mang bi
thay doi. Vdi lieu ldn, mang co the bi thung, rach va de dang dan den sU tieu huy
te bao.
- Khi bi chieu xa cac thuoc tinh cua bao tUOng bi thay doi. Dudi kinh hien vi
quan sat thay bao tUOng bi quanh lai nhu khi bi dun nong. Lieu ldn hon se pha
huy cac tieu the d trong bao tUOng nhu ty lap the, lizozom. Ribozom v.v... Khi do
cac men chiia trong do bi tran ra bao tUOng va moi trUOng co the gay hai cho bao
tUdng va te bao. Tuy vay neu bi hu hai nhe, cac ton thUOng d bao tUOng con de hoi
phuc hon ton thUOng d nhan va mang.
- Nhan te bao nhay cam nhat vdi tia phong xa, nen rat de bi ton thuong.
Du'di kinh hien vi thay nhan bi trUOng len, m it ne va bien dang. Nhan co the bi
pha ra thanh nhieu manh neu lieu chieu ldn hdn. Cac manh nhan do n lm rai rac
trong bao tUOng roi dan dan bi tieu huy. Su tieu huy nhan keo theo sU huy diet ca
te bao. Ton thudng nhan trUdc het bieu hien d ton thudng cua the nhiem sic. Cac
nghien ciiu thuc nghiem cho thay cac tia phong xa co the tao ra cac the nhiem sic
bat thudng: bi diit doan. bi gay. Cac doan gay nay co the bi tieu tan hoac tu g in
lai vdi nhau, gan vao the nhiem sac khac tao ra the nhiem sic khong lo. 2 tam
hoac the nhiem sac ma trat tu gen bi xao tron trong cau true cua no. Ton thuong
the nhiem sac do biic xa ion hoa gay ra la mot trong nhiing chi so' theo doi tac

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dung cua biic xa len te b&o. N hii v&y sii thay doi dac tinh cua te bao co the xky ra
ca 6 trong nhan vk nguyen sinh ch&'t cua chung sau chieu xa. Trong nhieu trUOng
hdp ngudi ta thay the tich te b&o tang len do co sii hinh thanh cac khoang trong
trong nhan vk trong nguyen sinh ch&'t chung sau chieu xa. Neu bi chieu xa lieu
cao te b&o co the bi pha huy hoan toan.
Cac ton thuong phong xa len te bao co the lam :
- Te bao chet do ton thuong nang cJ nhan va nguyen sinh chat.
- Te bao khong chet nhung khong phan chia duoc.
- Te bao khong phan chia dUOc nhUng so nhiem skc the van tang len gap doi
va trd thanh te bao khong lo.
- Te bao v in phan chia thanh hai te bao m6i nhung co sii roi loan trong co
che di truyen.

Hinh 9.15
Tat ca cac ton thuong cau true vCia neu d tren co the dan den sii huy diet te
bao. “Cai chet” cua te bao nhu vay co the khong xay ra tiic khac ma co khi xav ra
d cac the he sau khi phan chia sinh san. Nhu vay tong so te bao con ton tai sau
chieu xa hoac mot thdi gian nhat dinh sau do se giam hdn luc dau. Trong thiic
nghiem ngUdi ta theo doi so" lUdng te bao hoac vi sinh vat con song sau nhiing lieu
nhat dinh. Neu bieu dien moi tUdng quan giiia lieu chieu (D) tren true hoanh va
so liidng te bao con song (N) sau nhiing lieu do tren true tung chung ta se thu
dUOc do th i nhu tren hinh 9.15.
Do thi tren hinh 9.15 thu dUdc bang thiic nghiem vdi he ddn bao nhu vi sinh
vat la dang do thi ddn gian nhat.
Tiidng tac giiia tia va te bao bi chieu xay ra theo quy luat cua cac hien tudng
ngau nhien. Xac suat tUdng tac xay ra tang len ty le thuan vdi lieu chieu trong
mot pham vi nhat dinh. Nhu vay tren true toa do neu true tung tinh bang gia tri

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logarit va true hoanh bang gia trj bac nhat) thi do thi thu dUdc se la duong thang
va diidc goi la do thi ly thuyet (A). Tren thiic te ta thu dUdc lai la mot dudng cong
(B). N ha the nghia la de tieu diet dUdc mot liidng te bao nao do. tren thiic te phai
dung mot lieu ldn hdn lieu ly thuyet. Dieu do chiing to da co nhiing tia khong gay
dUdc tac dung diet bao. Tii hinh 9.15 ta suy ra la cang tang lieu chieu cang co mot
so" nhieu tia (hoac nang liidng cua tia) diidc hap thu vao nhung vung khong gay
nen sii tieu huy te bao: tia da khong danh trung dich hoac da danh vao nhiing
vung ma trUdc do da co nhiing tia khac danh trung va tieu diet te bao roi.
Ngiidi ta hinh dung khi chieu mot chum tia vao mot tap hdp te bao thi xac
suat tiidng tac xay ra giong nhii khi ban mot loat dan hu hoa vao mot dam dong:
co ke bi trung vao dau, vao tim va chet ngay, co ke bi thiidng nang do ton thudng
d bung d ngUc va chet sau mot thdi gian, mot so ngiidi "bi thudng nhe roi qua khoi
va co ngUdi khong trung dan. Tii do Lacatxa (Lacassagne) va Honoec (Holweck)
dua ra gia thuyet bia hay con goi la thuyet tam nhay ve qua trinh tac dung cua
phong xa len te bao. Noi dung cd ban cua gia thuyet nay la: moi mot te bao co mot
vung rat nho (khoang 1 /urn 3), d do tap trung nhieu cau true va chiic nang quan
trong cua te bao. Vung do co le nam d nhan te bao va dUdc goi la tam nhay cua te
bao. Neu tam nhay hap thu mot gia tri nang liidng nhat dinh nao do thi bi ton
thudng va keo theo sU tieu huy te bao (te bao chet). Neu gia tri nang liidng do it
hdn thi ton thudng nhe hdn, anh hudng den cac chiic nang cua te bao nhat la chiic
nang sinh san va cai chet co the xay ra d cac the he sau. Neu tia danh trung vung
khac ngoai tam nhay thi ton thudng vdi nhieu miic do khac nhau tuy thuoc gia tri
nang liidng hap thu va vung bi trung quan he it nhieu nhii the nao vdi tam nhay.
Vdi nhiing te bao ddn boi, te bao chi co mot tam nhay, quy luat xac suat ddn
gian va ta thu diidc do thi nhu hinh 9.15. Vdi cac te bao he liidng boi. tam boi, da
boi quy luat dien ra phiic tap hdn nhieu va do thi co dang hinh khac vi moi te bao
do co 2, 3 hoac nhieu tam nhay khac nhau. Cung chinh b&ng con dudng thiic
nghiem ngUdi ta thu dUdc cac dano- do thi khac nhau va bang cach ngoai suy
chung ta tim biet diidc loai te bao nao co bao nhieu tam nhay.

Tii do thi ddn gian nhat d hinh 9.15, ta xac dinh gia tri D0 hoac con co ten la
D 37. D0la lieu ly thuyet tim dUdc tren do thi ma vdi lieu do dang le ra tat ca cac te
bao deu bi huy diet nghia la so" te bao con song sau chieu xa la 0 (D,j). Tuy nhien
neu chieu tii diem do keo ve do thi thuc te thiic nghiem thi ta thay vdi lieu do v in
con khoang 37% te bao con song sot sau chieu xa. Vi vay no con dude goi la D 37.
Nhii vay gia tri D 0 tren do thi ly thuyet hoac D 37 tren do thi thuc nghiem la thudc
do miic do nhay cam cua te bao doi vdi phong xa. Gia tri do cang ldn nghia la cang
phai dung lieu cao mdi diet het dUdc te bao tiic la do nhay cam phong xa cua te
bao do cang thap.

Do nhay cam phong xa cua te bao noi len miic do mat kha nang tai sinh cua
te bao nghia la miic do bi huy diet te bao sau chieu xa. Noi mot cach khac do nhay
cam phong xa cua te bao la kha nang dap iing cua te bao doi vdi tac dung cua tia
phong xa. No ngUdc vdi siic de khang phong xa cua te bao. Gia tri cua do nhay
cam va siic de khang phong xa la so nghich dao cua nhau. Gia tri ve do nhay cam
phong xa thiidng khong cd dinh ma thay doi tuy thuoc rat nhieu yeu td.

324
 Ngay tif nam 1906 tren cd sd nghien ciiu b ln g cach chieu tia X. Becgome va
Tribongdo (Bergoni6, Tribondeau) da dua ra dinh luat ve do nhay cam phong xa
te bao.
Cdc tia X tdc dung cang manh len nhiing tebao co kha nang phan chia cang
manh, nhitng te bao cang xa giai doan cuoi cung cua qua trinh phan bao, nhitng
te bao co cau true vd chiic nang cang chita biet hod.
Chinh vi vay ma cac to chiic ung thu (sinh san manh, nhieu te bao non va co
cau true bat thUdng) co do nhay cam phong xa cao hon cac to chiic lanh.
Do nhay cam phong xa cua cac mo, cac loai sinh vat cung khac nhau. Do
nhay cam cao nhat d cac mo tao mau trong tuy xUOng, mo sinh due. Tiep theo la
cac mo niem mac, da, the thuy tinh cua mat. M o lien ket nhu sun xUOng, mach
mau co do nhay cam trung binh. Sau do la cac te bao da biet hoa cua cac phu
tang, mo tuyen noi tiet va cuoi cung cac mo cO, xUOng va than kinh co do nhay
cam phong xa thap nhat.

Chinh vi vay biic xa ion hoa co the gay cac ton thuong khac nhau 6 cac mo
khac nhau tao ra cac trieu chiing khac nhau. Sau day la ton thuong do phong xa 0
mot so mo dac biet.

4.2.3. Ton thisong 6 cac md

- Mau va CO quan tao mau (tuy xUOng)

Bieu hien sdm nhat cua tac dung tia phong xa la thay doi hinh anh cac te
bao tao mau cua tuy xUOng va so' liidng cac te bao trong mau ngoai vi. Trong mau
ngoai vi so' liidng cac te bao mau giam ma trUdc het la te bao dong bach cau nha't
la cac te bao dong lym pho va cuoi cung la dong hong cau. O tuy xUOng sii suy giam
do lai xay ra trUdc het 6 dong hong cau roi sau mdi den dong bach cau. Sii suy
giam cac te bao mau gay nen benh canh suy tuy,giam te bao mau (xanh, yeu),
giam siic de khang cua co the, d l xuat huyet, v.v...

- Bao thai
Mot yeu to' quan trong anh hudng den miic ton thuong d cac mo bao thai la
tuoi cua no. Tuy giai doan phat trien cua bao thai khi bi chieu xa ma cac loai
thuong ton xay ra khac nhau: bao thai chet, quai thai, di tat bam sinh, anh hudng
sii phat trien cua thai nhi. Tat nhien lieu liiOng cung la yeu to' quan trong niia
anh hudng den loai ton thu'Ong ke tren.

- Cac mo sinh due

Biic xa ion hda cd the tieu diet cac te bao san sinh ra tinh trung d mo sinh
due nam. Ngiidi ta tha'y vdi lieu 5-6 Gy da cd the gay nen chiing vo sinh d nam
gidi. Lieu LD:,0 doi vdi cac nang d buong triin g la 0,1 Gy. Ngoai viec tieu diet cac te
bao d buong triin g gay vo sinh nuf, tac dung sinh hoc cua tia phong xa cd the gay
nen cac roi loan hoocmon cua cac te bao buong triin g va bieu hien bang trieu
chiing roi loan kinh nguyet.
- Da va niem mac

325
 Ton thuong da va niem mac thudng xuat hien sau mot thdi ky tiem tang do
2-3 tuan. Hay gap nhat la cac viem dd da va niem mac. Tiep theo do la viem da
kho, loet. Trong viem kho da bi teo, bong, kho vi it tiet mo hoi va bien doi mau sfic
vi tfch nhieu sac to' tren be mat da. Trong viem Udt, cac to chiic da bi loet, co the
bi nhiem trung va hoai tu to chiic xuong cac mo sau hon.
Tuy vi tr i cac niem mac bi ton thuong ma co cac trieu chiing khac nhau:
niem mac da day, ruot, dudng ho hap v.v... Trong niem mac thudng co tuyen bai
tiet. Ton thuong niem mac lam anh hudng den viec san sinh cac dich do cac tuyen
dam dUOng nhu cac dich d da day va ruot. Vdi lieu ldn co the gay ra cac vet loet d
da day, ruot doi hdi phai dieu tri ngoai khoa. Mot dieu dang lUu y la ton thuong
viem loet giac mac m it, due the thuy tinh do tia phong xa gay nen hau qua mil
loa cho ngudi bi chieu xa.

4.2.4. Ton thuang toan than

Do nhay cam phong xa cua cac loai sinh vat khac nhau va tuy thuoc vao cau
true va moi lien he vdi moi trudng song cua no. Sinh vat dOn bao co do nhay cam
thap nhat. Do nhay cam phong xa cua dong vat cao hon thUc vat. Trong cung mot
loai, do nhay cam cua tiing ca the cung khac nhau va thay doi tuy theo giai doan
phat trien cua no. Luc con non, luc sinh de, luc bi benh thi tfnh cam thu cao hdn
luc trudng thanh, luc khoe manh. Con ngudi la sinh vat cao cap nhat co cau true
phiic tap va moi lien he chat che nhat do'i vdi moi trUOng xung quanh. Vi vay do
nhay cam phong xa cua con ngudi la cao nha't.
Bieu hien toan than cua ton thUOng do biic xa dUOc goi la benh nhiem xa
cap. Benh nhiem xa cap co nhieu hinh thai khac nhau phu thuoc trUdc het vao
lieu lufOng. Benh phong xa co the sinh ra do bi chieu ngoai hoac nhiem chat phong
xa vao trong cO the hoac do ca hai. Benh phong xa dUdc chia lam hai loai: benh
phong xa cap tfnh va benh phong xa man tfnh.

Benh phong xa cap tfnh xay ra khi cO the bi chieu toan than mot lieu ldn
hoac nhiing lieu khong ldn lam nhung chieu lien tiep trong mot thdi gian ngln.
Vdi sU tien bo cua cong tac an toan phong xa nhu hien nay, benh phong xa cap
thudng hiem xay ra. Benh co the gap d hai tinh huo'ng: tai nan hat nhan va dieu
tri phong xa qua lieu.
Benh phong xa man tfnh xuat hien khi co the bi chieu nhiing lieu xa nho
trong mot thdi gian dai. Benh co the gap d nhting ngudi do nghe nghiep phai
thudng xuyen tiep xue vdi phong xa.
De chan doan benh phong xa. viec xac dinh lieu chieu co y nghia quyet dinh.
Ngoai ra co the dua vao benh canh lam sang, cac trieu chiing huyet hoc. tien su
tiep xue vdi phong xa (lieu tfch luy, tfnh chat cong viec, dang tiep xue. tham men
cong tac phong xa,...), cac ton thudng d da. mem mac, nhung thay doi trong xet
nghiem mau va cd quan tao mau, xet nghiem te bao,... Doi vdi nhiem xa trong can
xac dinh them lieu toan than, do hoat tfnh cac chat thai hay dich sinh hoc nhu
nUdc tieu, phan , mau. mo hoi, do khf thd ra, do mot so cd quan xung veu nhii
tuyen giap... Bang 9.1. cho biet cac the khac nhau do cua benh nhiem xa cap.

326
 Bang 9.1. Cac the lam sang cua benh nhiem xa cap

The lam sang Lieu lUdng Trieu chiing Hau qua

(Gy)
The tuy xi/dng nhe 2.0 -f- 4,0 Buon non, non. Giam nhe so Benh phat 3 tuan sau
liidng cac te bao mau. khi bj chieu

The tuy xuong nang 4.0 -5- 6,0 Suy giam te bao mau. Non mifa, Doi hoi dieu tri tich ci/c ke
ia chay. ca ghep tuy xuong
The tieu hoa 6.0 -?■ 10,0
Non mira, ia chay, xuat huyet. Choang va co the chet
The than kinh tren 10, sau vai tuan.
Viem da cap. Roi loan dinh
hudng, choang. Chet sau vai ngay.

Doi vdi tac dung cua tia phong xa len toan cO the khong the khong noi den
tac dung gay ung thu. Ung thu co the xuat hien sdm hoac muon sau khi chieu mot
lieu ldn hoac do tac dung cua nhieu lieu nho nhung lap di lap lai. Trong thuc te
ngifdi ta da quan sat thay nhiing benh nhan bi ung thu do nghe nghiep nhu ung
thu da d cac bac si chuyen khoa X quang, ung thu phoi 0 nhiing ngudi lam viec d
ham md, ung thu xUOng d nhiing ngudi dung bot ve co chiia phospho phong xa.
Benh mau trang la mot the lam sang cua benh ung thu gap do biic xa ion hoa gay
• , / 9 9

ra do cac vu tai bien hat nhan (TrecnobUn chang han), cac vu no hat nhan do bom
nguyen tii d Nhat Ban trong dai chien the gidi lan th ii 2. Cho den nay chua hieu
ro cO che gay ung thu do cac biic xa ion hoa. Ve cO che gay ung thu noi chung, hien
nay ton tai 2 gia thuyet: gia thuyet ve dot bien gen va gia thuyet ve virut. Tia
phong xa co the da tang xac suat dot bien gen trong te bao bi chieu xa hoac da
kich thich tac dung gay ung thu cua cac viru t dac hieu tai do. Rat kho xac dinh
lieu liiOng gay ung thu trong thuc te. Tuy vay hau nhu mpi ngudi deu nhan manh
den dac diem ton tai mot giai doan ung thu tiem tang chua phat ra ngoai. Giai
doan do co the keo dai den 30 nam. Rieng do! vdi benh mau trang giai doan tiem
tang thudng ngan hdn.

4.3. Cac yeu to anh hucfng den hieu urng sinh hoc cua burc xa ion hoa
4.3.1. Anh hi/ang cua ban chat va nang Iwang tia
Tac dung sinh hoc cua chum tia phu thuoc vao so liiOng cac cap ion hoa duoc
tao ra trong to chiic sinh hoc khi tUOng tac. Kha nang ion hoa do tuy thuoc loai tia
(ban chat tia): tia X, tia gamma, beta, anpha va vao nang liiOng cua tia. Trong vat
ly hoc, dai liidng he so truyen nang liidng LET (linear energy transfer) dien dat
kha nang ion hoa cua tia phong xa. Gia tri LET cang ldn th i so' ion dUOc tao ra
cang nhieu, tac dung sinh hoc cua tia cang ldn.

Bang 9.2. Anh hiidng cua ban chat va nang luong tia vao tac dung sinh hoc
Loai tia phong xa
Gia trj LET Tac dung sinh hoc
(keV/ / j m )

Tia gamma tii nguon p0CO 0,3 Thap

Tia beta 0,6 keV 5,5 I
Chum hat neutron 45,0 i
Chum hat alpha 110,0 Cao

327
 Cac gia tri d bang 9.2. cho ta thay r5 tac dung cua cac loai tia phong xa v&o
hieu iing sinh hoc.
Ngoai ra cac loai tia phong xa khac nhau lai co kha nang xuven sau qua to
chiic khac nhau. Tia gamma va tia X co the tac dung vao cac to chiic sau trong luc
do tia beta, anpha chi co tac dung d cac td chiic nong.
Cung mot loai tia, nhUng nang liidng tia cang ldn thi kha nang xuyen sau
cang nhieu va gia tri LET cua no cang ldn, do vay tac dung sinh hoc cua cac tia do
cung khac nhau.

4.3.2. Tac dung cua lieu Itfcrng, suat lieu va yeu to thdi gian
Lieu chieu la yeu to' quan trong nhat quyet dinh tinh chat va cac ton thudng
sau chieu xa. Lieu cang ldn, ton thudng cang nang va cang xuat hien sdm.
Ro rang la hieu suat sinh hoc cua chum tia tuy thuoc nang ludng to chiic
hap thu dUdc tif chum tia. Nhu vay lieu liidng la yeu to rat quan trong quyet dinh
tinh chat va miic do ton thudng.
Tuy vay phoi hdp vdi anh hudng cua lieu liidng, yeu to' thdi gian cung co mot
vai tro quan trong. ThUc nghiem cho tha'y: neu chieu toan than chuot mot lieu 25r
ta khong quan sat tha'y ton thudng gi. Neu lieu do tiep tuc lien tuc trong 10 ngay
thi den ngay cuoi cung xuat hien cac trieu chiing nhu chieu mot lan vdi lieu liidng
250r. Neu giam sua't lieu xuo'ng 5 r/l lan thi phai sau 60 lan chieu mdi tha'y ton
thudng do. Nhu vay la co hien tUdng tich luy lieu trong cd the chuot de cuoi cung
ton thudng xuat hien do mot lieu tong cong.
NhUng neu giam sua't lieu xuo'ng 3 r/l lan hoac tot hdn lr/1 lan thi khong
tha'y ton thUdng xuat hien du lieu tong cong van len tdi 250r-f300r. Nhu vay vdi
cung mot lieu liidng nhUng neu chia nhd ra va rai ra trong mot thdi gian dai thi
tac dung sinh hoc giam di. Do la anh hudng cua thdi gian hay con goi la yeu to'
thdi gian. NgUdi ta cho rang thdi gian giiia cac sua't lieu da tao cd hoi cho cac to
chiic sinh hoc khac phuc va boi bo trd lai cac ton thudng trUdc do. Sua't lieu cang
nhd va thdi gian giiia cac lan chieu cang dai th i ton thudng cang It va kha nang
hoi phuc cang ldn de co the khong xuat hien nhiing ton thudng da co hoac chi xuat
hien sau mot tong lieu ldn hdn.
Tuy muc dich cong viec, tuy mo va do'i tUdng chieu ma ngudi ta lua chon lieu
liidng tong cong, sua't lieu va thdi gian cach quang giiia hai lan chieu cho thich
hdp trong cong viec thuc te.
Vdi cung mot lieu ha'p thu nhu nhau. thdi gian chieu keo dai se lam giam
hieu iing sinh hoc ciia biic xa. Nguyen nhan nay dUdc giai thich b ln g kha nang
phuc hoi ciia cd the d nhiing miic lieu khac nhau. Vdi nhiing sua't lieu nhd. toe do
phat trien cac ton thudng dude can blng vdi miic do hoi phuc ciia cd the. Neu tang
suat lieu len thi qua trin h hoi phuc giam xuong, miic ton thUdng tang len. hieu
iing sinh hoc cung tang len.
Trong dieu tri bln g chieu xa, de dat dUdc mot tac dung dieu tri dinh trUdc
can phai cd mot tong lieu tich luy dii ldn va nhiing sua't lieu thich hdp neu thdi
gian chieu keo dai.

328
4.3.3. Anh hudng cua moi trudng chieu
- Dien tich chieu
Miic do ton thudng sau chieu xa con phu thuoc rat nhieu vao dien tich chieu,
chieu mot phan (chieu cuc bo) hay toan bo cd the. Lieu tu vong khi chieu xa toan
than thudng thap hdn nhieu so vdi chieu xa cuc bo.
Vi du: Lieu 6 Gy chi lam do da neu chieu cuc bo, nhung la lieu LD 50/30
(lieu gay tu vong 50% so cac the bi chieu trong vong 30 ngay d lu sau chieu xa).
Dieu nay co the do khi chieu xa toan than cac ton thudng nhe d cac cd quan khac
nhau trong cd the hdp nhat lai va tao ra cac hoi chiing cua chieu xa cap.
- Hieu iing nhiet do
Giam nhiet do se lam giam tac dung cua biic xa ion hoa. Hien tUdng nay
dUdc giai thich la khi nhiet do xuo'ng thap, toe do van chuyen cac goc tu do (dUdc
tao len do xa phan cac phan tii nUdc) tdi cac phan tii sinh hoc giam xuo'ng, d in
den giam so' phan tu sinh hoc bi ton thudng do chieu xa. Hieu iing nay rat co y
nghia trong thiic te. NgUdi ta da ap dung ki thuat xa tri trong dieu kien tang
nhiet do va de bao quan cac che pham sinh hoc co gan phong xa ngUdi ta da ha
nhiet do den miic dong bang de giam cd che tac dung gian tiep cua biic xa.
- Hieu iing oxy
Do nhay cam phong xa cua sinh vat tang theo nong do oxy, giam khi oxy
giam. Khi tang nong do oxy, liidng H 0 2, H20 2 tao ra cang nhieu da lam tang so
cac phan tii sinh hoc bi ton thudng do chieu xa.
Hieu ling oxy tang dan den gia tri oxy d dieu kien binh thudng trong khong
khi (21%), sau do co tang cao hdn thi hieu iing nay cung khong con tac dung niia.
Hieu iing oxy the hien ro net d nhiing biic xa co kha nang ion hoa tha'p, vdi nhiing
biic xa co kha nang ion hoa cao nhu a, proton thi hieu iing nay bieu hien rat it
hoac khong bieu hien.
- Ham liidng nUdc
Ham liidng nUdc cang ldn thi cac goc tu do dUdc tao ra cang nhieu, so cac goc
tu do tac dong len phan tii sinh hoc cang tang do do hieu iing sinh hoc cung tang
len.
Bang 9.3. Dap iing lieu - hieu iing sau chieu xa toan than
Lieu Hieu umg
%
Khong co dau hieu ton thUdng tren lam sang. Tang sai lac nhiem sac the co the phat
0,1 Gy
hien duoc.

1 Gy Xuat hien benh nhiem xa trong so 5-7% ca the sau chieu xa.

Rung long, toe, due thuy tinh the, giam bach cau, xuat hien ban do tren da. Benh nhiem
2-3 Gy
xa gap 6 hau het cac doi tuong bi chieu. TCr vong 10-30% so ca the sau chieu xa.

Giam bach cau nghiem trong, ban xuat huyet, xuat huyet, nhiem khuan, rung long, toe.
3-5 Gy
T ii vong 50% so cac the sau chieu xa.

Vo sinh lau dai 6 ca nam va nCr. TCr vong hon 50% so ca the bi chieu, tham tri ca nhiing
6 Gy trudng hop duoc dieu tri tot nhat.

329
 - Cac chat bao ve
Qua nghien ciiu ngiidi ta thay rang co mot so chat khi dua vao cd the bj
chieu co tac dung lam giam hieu iing cua biic xa ion hoa. Nam 1942 Deili la ngUdi
dau tien nhan thay thioure co tac dung chong phong xa. Sau do mot so chat khac
nhii cystein, MEA (mercaptoethylamin),... cung dUdc chiing minh co tac dung
chong phong xa. Ngay nay ngudi ta con tim dUdc nhieu chat co nguon goc tii dong,
thiic vat, cung co tac dung nhu tren. Tuy nhien cho den nay cd che tac dung cua
chung van chua dUdc giai thich day du.

4.4. Cac nguyen tac ve kiem soat va an toan burc xa

Chung ta da thay ro tac dung to ldn cua biic xa ion hoa len cac to chiic sinh
hoc. Vi vay de ngan ngiia hoac han che dUdc tac hai cua cac tia phong xa len cd
the con ngUdi va moi trUOng song, chung ta phai thiic hien nhiing cong viec de
dam bao an toan khi sU dung va tiep xue vdi cac nguon phong xa.

4.4.1. Nhung nguon chieu xa anh hudng den con ngudi - Lieu tdi da cho phep
Cd the con ngudi co the bj chieu xa tii ben ngoai. Do la cac tia co kha nang
dam xuyen ldn nhu tia X, tia gamma, chum hat neutron, chiim tia beta ciing,v.v...
Cac dong vj phong xa cung co the bang nhieu cach khac nhau lot vao ben trong cd
the tao ra nguon chieu xa ngay tii ben trong cd the. Cac nguon xa do xuat phat tii
cac nguon phong xa tii nhien va nguon xa nhan tao.
Nguon phat xa nhan tao la biic xa ion hoa phat ra tif cac nguon phat tia X
dung trong y te va cong nghiep, tii sii o nhiem moi trudng do con ngUdi sii dung
cac nguon phong xa hd nhu 131I, 60Co v.v... hoac tii cac can ba cua cac voi no hat
nhan thi nghiem nhu 13'Cs, 90Sr, 89Sr,v.v... Lieu liidng gay ra do nguon phong xa
nhan tao rat khac nhau, tuy thuoc tiing ndi, tiing ngUdi vdi cac nganh nghe va
cong viec khac nhau.
Khuyen cao mdi nhat cua Uy ban an toan biic xa quoc te la vao nam 1990,
quy djnh lieu toi da cho phep cua nhan vien biic xa la 20 mSv/nam va cho dan
chung la 1 mSv/nam. Quy djnh cua Viet Nam cung nhu vay.

4.4.2. Cac quy djnh ve lieu chieu trong an toan b u t xa

- Chieu xa nghe nghiep
Lieu gidi han la 20 mSv/nam (cho ca chieu xa ngoai va chieu xa trong). Mot
so diem can lUu y :
Co the chap nhan lieu chieu toi da la 50 mSv/nam trong mot nam bat ki nao
do trong 5 nam lien tiep nhung lieu chieu trung binh van phai dam bao la
20mSv/nam.
Doi vdi nhiing cong viec ciiu chiia khan cap de han che tai nan. lieu chieu cd
the cho phep la 500 mSv cho mot lan duy nhat trong suot qua trin h hoat dong
nghe nghiep.

330
 Gidi han lieu khong khac nhau cho ca nam va nut. Phu nii co thai hoac dang
cho con bu khong tiep xue vdi nguon phong xa hd. Lieu gidi han trong suot thdi
gian co thai la 2 mSv.
- Chieu xa vdi ddn cit
Lieu gidi han la 1 mSv/nam. Trong nhiing trUdng hdp dac biet co the chap
nhan tang lieu trong mot nam duy nhat trong vong 5 nam nhiing van phai dam
bao lieu trung binh la 1 mSv/nam.
Cac tieu chuan cd ban diidc thiet lap lien quan tdi chieu xa ngoai cd the.
Trong triidng hdp co nguy cd chieu xa trong, ben canh cac tieu chuan cO ban can
xac lap mot so' tieu chuan th ii cap. Cac tieu chuan th ii cap la nong do toi da cho
phep (NDTDCP). De tinh NDTDCP can phai xac dinh nguon xa, dudng tham
nhap cac chat phong xa vao trong cd the, xac lap cac dac triing cua cd the ngUdi
hay mot so' cd quan dac hieu nao do.

4.4.3. Cac bien phap chu yeu de dam bao an toan phong xa

4.4.3.1. Cac phi/eng phap bao ve khi lam viec vdi nguon bifc xa kin
Nguon biic xa kin la nguon co ket cau kin va chac chan khong de chat phong
xa cua nguon lot ra moi triidng ben ngoai khi sii dung, bao quan va ngay ca khi
van chuyen.
Cac nguon biic xa kin dung trong y te nhii may chup chieu X quang, cac
nguon Co-60, Cs-137, kim Radi dung de dieu tr i cac kho'i u...
T ii dinh nghia tren ta tha'y rang nhan vien lam viec vdi nguon kin chi co the
bi chieu ngoai, vi vay moi bien phap bao ve deu diidc dat ra trong dieu kien do.
- Bao ve bang ru t ngan thdi gian tiep xue:
Rut ngan thdi gian tiep xue vdi phong xa la bien phap ddn gian nhung rat co
hieu qua de giam lieu chieu. Thao nghe la yeu to' quan trong de giam thdi gian
tiep xue vdi phong xa. Muon vay nhan vien phai luyen tap thao tac rat thanh thao
va chuan bi kl lUdng trUdc khi bat dau mot cong viec co tiep xue vdi phong xa. Doi
vdi mot thao tac mdi nen tap trUdc vdi mo hinh khong phong xa cho den miic
thanh thao mdi bat dau lam vdi phong xa. Trong chup chieu X quang, co the giam
lieu chieu cho ca nhan vien va benh nhan neu phong X quang thiic sii toi va thay
thuoc trUdc do da ngoi trong phong du lau de mat thich nghi vdi bong toi.
Vdi cac chat thai phong xa co nguon lUu giti chd den luc hoat tinh xuo'ng den
miic an toan mdi xu' li.
- Bao ve bang tang khoang cach vdi nguon xa:
Tang khoang cach tu: nguon tdi ngUdi lam viec cung la mot bien phap ddn
gian va dang tin cay. De tang khoang cach ngUdi ta thUdng dung cac bien phap
sau: sii dung cap dai, thao tac tif xa. Trong nhiing cd sd dac biet co sii dung nguon
phong xa co hoat tinh cao, ngUdi ta thudng dung ngUdi may hoac cac thiet bi dieu
khien tii dong.

331
 - Bao ve bang che chan:
Khi khong the keo dai khoang cach hdn nuta hoac mot bien phap dung
khoang cach khong du ngUdi ta thudng dung cac tam chan de hap thu mot phln
nang liidng cua biic xa. Theo cong dung, tam chan chia lam 5 loai:
+ Tam ch in dang binh chiia chu yeu dung de bao quan va van chuyen chat
phong xa trong trang thai khong lam viec, khi muon chuyen sang trang thai lam
viec, mot ciia so cua binh chiia dUdc md ra b ln g mot thiet bi dieu khien tii xa.
+ Tam ch in la mot thiet bi (glove box, hoot) bao boc toan bo nguon phat
trong trang thai lam viec co tac dung che chan de cong suat lieu ben ngoai khong
vUdt qua miic cho phep.
+ Tam ch in di dong dung de bao ve cho lam viec cua nhan vien va thudng di
chuyen dUdc trong mot vung nhat dinh (vi du: Tam chan di dong cua bac si X
quang).
+ Tam ch in la mot bo phan cua cac cong trin h xay dung: tUdng, trln , ciia
nha dUdc thiet ke dac biet de bao ve cho cac vung lan can.
+ Tam ch in bao hiem ca nhan nhu ao giap, kinh chi, quan ao, gang tay, ung
pha chi dung de bao ve cho nhan vien va benh nhan trong qua trin h chan doan va
dieu tri bang phong xa.
Vdi tia X va gamma, nguyen lieu tot nhat la chi. Nhung de giam gia thanh
ngUdi ta co the dung nhiing vat lieu re hdn nhu gang, be tong, be tong tron barit,
be tong cot sat. Ngay ca nUdc va gach cung co the dUdc dung de can tia.
Vdi biic xa beta, vat lieu thudng dUdc dung d day la thuy tinh thudng, thuy
tinh hiiu cd pha chi, chat deo, nhom.
Doi vdi nguon neutron manh can cac vat lieu cd chiia mot so ldn nguyen tii
hydro (betong, nUdc) hoac Bor, cadmi, chi va betong.
Cong suat lieu va cac dang biic xa quyet dinh chieu day va nguyen lieu cua
man chan. Khi lua chon nguyen lieu can phai phan tich den ca 3 yeu to": cong
nghe, an toan va gia ca.

4.4.3.2. Cac nguyen t$c bao ve khi lam viec vdi nguon phong xa hd
\
Nguon phong xa hd la nguon ma chat phong xa cd the lam o nhiem moi
trUdng khi sii dung.
Nhan vien lam viec vdi nguon phong xa hd khong nhiing bi chieu ngoai ma
con cd nguy cd bi chieu trong do cac chat phong xa cd the tham nhap vao cd the
qua 3 con dudng: ho hap, tieu hoa, da. Vi vay khi lam viec vdi nguon phong xa hd
phai thiic hien ca 2 bien phap: an toan chong chieu ngoai va an toan chong chieu
trong. Do vay can thuc hien tat ca cac bien phap bao ve nhu khi lam viec vdi nguon
phong xa kin. Ngoai ra do cd kha nang rdi vai, day rdt chat phong xa nen con can chu
y them cac bien phap sau day:
- Phan vung lam viec:

332
 Phan vung lam viec la bien phap n hlm cach li cong viec co tiep xue vdi
phong xa khoi nhiing cong viec co chiic nang khac.
Vung lam viec trong cd sd co sii dung chat phong xa hd d U d c phan theo
nguyen tic : lieu phong xa giam dan tii trong ra ngoai hoac tii dudi len tren neu cd
sd cd nhieu ting.

- Thong khf:
Thong khf tot nham gifl cho ndi lam viec cd hoat tfnh phong xa thap.
Nguyen tac chung la khong khf thoi tii ndi cd hoat tfnh cao den ndi cd hoat tfnh
thap. Cd the ket hdp thong khf vdi loc khf de giii bui va loc cac khf cd hoat tfnh
phong xa. Thong thudng la cac tu hot trong cac Labo.
- Thudng xuyen kiem tra o nhiem phong xa:
+ Do o nhiem be mat lam viec:
De kiem tra nhiem xa ngUdi ta dung cac detector GM, nhap nhay, buong ion
hoa... ra tren be mat lam viec vdi cac chat phong xa. Vdi biic xa a may ra khong
dUdc cao qua 5mm va di chuyen khong nhanh hdn 15cm/giay, vdi biic xa (3 khoang
cach dd la 2,5 - 5 cm vdi to'c do 10 - 15 cm/giay.
+ Do nhiem xa cd the:
Do nhiem xa ngoai: dung may phat hien phong xa ra tren quan, ao va ngoai
da.
Do nhiem xa trong bang phudng phap trUc tiep hay gian tiep.
* PhUdng phap triic tiep: bang may dem toan than.
* PhUdng phap gian tiep: bang viec do hoat tfnh cac vat p him sinh hoc: nhu
mau, nUdc tieu, md hdi, nUdc mui, ddm , khf thd ra...
- Xii If cac chat thai phong xa:
Muon dam bao dUdc sii trong sach cua moi trUdng ve mat phong xa, mot
trong van de dUdc dac biet quan tam la xU If cac chat thai phong xa. Trong y te cd
2 loai chat thai:
+ Chat thai ran: gom ong kim tiem dung mot lan, cac do thuy tinh dung chat
phong xa bi vd, giav, bong dung de tham cac dung dich phong xa day vai trong khi
pha che lieu.
+ Cac chat thai long: cac dung dich dUdc chat phong xa thifa, nUdc rUa cac
dung cu cd chiia phong xa, chat thai cua benh nhan chan doan hay dieu tri vdi dUdc
chat phong xa, chat non cua benh nhan, nUdc giat do vai bi nhiem phong xa....
Cac chat thai ran dUdc thu gom trong cac bao bi bang chat deo v a hang ngay
dUa vao be thai. Cac be thai nay dUdc xay cat tai mot noi r i e n g b ie t . dUdc c h e c h a n
va bao ve chd phan ra phong xa den miic quy dinh, sau dd dUdc t h a i ra m o i trU d n g
nhu rac thiidng.
Chat thai long trong chan doan va dieu tri vdi lieu 15 mCi cd the dua thang
vao he thong cong thai cua thanh pho. TrUdng hdp vdi lieu dac biet cao nhu trong

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dieu tri ung thu giap blng 1-131 phai dung ho xi c6 c&'u true dSe biet de xu If
rieng.
Doi vdi cdc nhan vien bite xa
Do la nhiing ngUdi thudng xuyen phai tiep xue vdi nguon biic xa c in ap dung
nhiing bien phap sau day de han che lieu n hilm v& de phong cac riii ro.
- ThUc hien day du cac noi quy ve sinh ca nhan:
- Khi lam viec phai sii dung phUdng tien phong ho ca nhan nhu q uin ao
phong ho, mu, gang tay, ao chi, tap de chi phu hdp vdi tiing loai cong viec.
- Tuan thu cac quy dinh ve an toan biic xa.
- Khong diing mom hut pipet phong xa.
- Khong hut thuoc, an uong, trang diem trong phong lam viec co chiia chat
phong xa
- TrUdc khi ra khoi ndi lam viec vdi chat phdng xa, phai kiem tra nhiem ban
phong xa d tay, q u in ad. NgUdi bi nhiem ban phong xa phai tay xa theo quy dinh.
- Theo doi lieu chieu ca nhan:
Viec theo doi lieu chieu ca nhan thudng xuyen la viec lam c in thiet va rat
quan trong giup cho viec theo doi lieu chieu thuc te cua tiing ngUdi cung nhu tao
mot cam giac an toan, yen tam khi lam viec vdi phong xa. Lieu chieu ca nhan
dUdc xac dinh hang thang hoac hang quy va tinh lieu tich luy cho ca nam, cho
suot qua trin h lam viec vdi biic xa. Tuy tiing loai biic xa ma ngUdi ta co the diing
cac loai lieu liidng ke khac nhau. Cac loai thudng dUdc sii dung la:
+ Lieu ke dung phim. Hieu iing lam den phim anh cua biic xa da dUdc sii
dung de do lieu biic xa. Phim do lieu ca nhan co the dung de do biic xa v6i giai do
tii 0,1 mSv-lOSv.
+ But do lieu ca nhan (lieu ke dung sdi thach anh): ban chat la mot buong
ion hoa nho, dUdc nap dien trUclc khi do lieu biic xa. Su xe dich cua sdi thach anh
quan sat dUdc ti le thuan vdi lieu chieu. Co cac loai but do lieu tii 0 - 2 mGy;
0-50 mGy; 0-100 mGy.
+ Lieu ke nhiet phat quang. Nhiing cau true dac biet trong tinh the
CaS04(Mn), CaF2(Mn) LjF da trd thanh trung tam huynh quang dudi tac dung
cua biic xa ion hoa. Kich thich cac trung tam nay bang nhiet ngUdi ta thu dUdc
mot photon phat quang ti le vdi lieu biic xa dUdc hap thu. Do vay ngUdi ta da tao
ra ki thuat do lieu bang hieu iing nhiet phat quang. Pham vi xac dinh cua loai
nay tii 0,1 mSv - 100 mSv.
- Kiem tra siic khoe dinh ky:
Tat ca nhan vien dUdc tuyen chon vao lam cac cong viec biic xa va nhan vien
lam viec thudng xuyen vdi biic xa phai dUdc kiem tra siic khoe dinh ky.

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 Muc dich cua viec kiem tra \k tranh dua nhiing ngudi khong phu hop ve siic
khoe vho l&m cong viec c6 tiep xue vdi phong xa va ngan chan cac tai nan phong
xa do thieu siic khoe.
An toan cho benh nh&n
Bao ve benh nhan trong chan doan va dieu tri blng biic xa rat cin dUdc
quan tam. Muc tieu chinh la tranh cho benh nhan bi chieu xa khong c in thiet va
han che lieu d miic th lp nh&'t nhUng v in dam bao dUdc yeu cau chin doan va dieu
tri. De dat dUdc muc tieu tren c in phai tuan thu 3 nguyen tac sau day:
- Chi dinh dung:
+ Moi phudng phap chan doan va dieu tri bln g biic xa phai duoc chi dinh bdi
cac thay thuoc phong xa va phai can nhac ki ludng xem co thiic su cin thiet khong
dua tren viec so sanh vdi cac phudng phap khac ve Idi ich va thiet hai. Khi co 2
phudng phap chan doan va dieu tri cung dua den mot ket qua nhu nhau thi khong
dung phudng phap phong xa.
+ Tham khao nhiing thong tin lan kham trUdc de tranh nhiing kiem tra bo
sung khong can thiet.
+ Tranh dung chat phong xa cho phu nii co thai, nghi co thai hoac dang cho
con bu tru: khi co chi dinh lam sang bat buoc. Trong trUdng hdp do phai sii dung
cac bien phap can thiet de giam lieu toi thieu cho thai nhi.
+ Chi dung dUOc chat phong xa de chan doan va dieu tri cho tre em khi
khong co cac phudng phap khac thay the va hoat tinh phong xa phai giam theo
quy dinh.
- Tan giam lieu chieu:
Trong moi trUdng hdp phai chu y giam lieu chieu cho benh nhan d miic thap
nhat nhung van dat dUdc muc dich kham chiia benh. De giam lieu chieu cho benh
nhan co 3 cach:
+ May moc thiet bi chup chieu phai dam bao cac thong so" ve ky thuat. Cac
may the he mdi co chat liidng hinh anh cao hdn va benh nhan se phai chiu mot
lieu chieu thap hdn.
+ Dam bao chat liidng cac phim chup de dua ra cac thong tin chinh xac,
tranh cho benh nhan phai chup nhieu lan.
+ Khu tru trUOng nhin trong chup chieu d miic toi thieu can thiet la mot
bien phap rat co hieu qua trong viec giam lieu chieu vo ich cho benh nhan.
B a o v e m d i tri/cmg:

- Nguon o nhiem moi trUOng:

+ Thii vu khi hat nhan: Cac vu no bom nguyen tii tao ra cac chat phan hach.
cac san pham phan hach, cac san pham kich hoat co thdi gian ban ra tu vai phut
den vai nghin nam. Cac tro bui nay dUdc tung len khi quyen trong vu no se rdi
xuong dudi dang cac hat nho. Thdi gian tro bui phdng xa luu lai trong khi quyen

335
co the keo dai vai chuc nam va roi xuo'ng mat dat tuy thuoc vao cac vu no va cac
dieu kien cua khi hau.
+ Oac cd sd khai thac va sii dung nguyen lieu hat nhan (cac mo khai thac
Uran, nha may lam sach, nha may lam giau, nha may che bien nguyen lieu hat
nhan). Trong san xuat, cac cO sd nay lam o nhiem nude, dat va ca khong khi.
+ Cac cd quan, xi nghiep, phong th i nghiem, benh vien sii dung dong vi
phdng xa. Cac chat thai cua cac cd sd nay cd the ton tai dudi dang khi. long, ran.
- Bien phap bao ve moi trUOng:
+ Su dung cong nghe san xuat hien dai, dam bao tao ra mot liidng chat thai
toi thieu va han che den miic thap nhat sii tham thau cac chat phdng xa ra moi
trUOng ben ngoai.
+ Lam vo hai: tap trung, bao quan va xii 11 dung dan chat thai phdng xa.
+ Thiic hien cac bien phap to chiic, ve sinh va phan vung lam viec.

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 Bai 10

»
MOT SO ONG DONG PHO BIEN COA VAT LY
KY THOAT TRONG NGANH Y

MUC
• TIEU HOC
• TAP
•

1. Ve dUdc dUdng truyen cua cac tia sang tao thanh anh cua mot vat nho
qua kinh hien vi trUOng sang va trinh bay dUdc cach md rong kha nang
phan ly cua kinh hien vi.
2. Trinh bay dUdc nguyen ly cua phudng phap phan tich dinh tinh va dinh
liidng cac chat bang quang pho hap thu phan tu.
3. Giai thich dUdc qua trinh tao tia X, sU hinh thanh anh trong chup bang
tia X va cong hudng tu: hat nhan.
4. Trinh bay dUdc nguyen ly iing dung dong vi phong xa trong y hoc.

1. PHLfONG PHAP HIEN VI

1.1. Nguyen ly phong dai anh vat. Kinh lup
Chung ta da biet doi tudng
nghien ciiu cua ly sinh la cac he
thong song va hoat dong cua no.
Nhiem vu cua ly sinh la nghien B
ciiu khong phai chi 0 miic te bao
ma con co kich thudc nho hdn, do
la cac dai phan tu (ADN, ARN,
Acid amin, cac phan tii dudng...).
Su sap xep cac phan tu nay tao
nen cac thanh phan cau true cd
ban cua cau true te bao nhu mang,
nhan, ty lap the,... Cac cau true
nay co kich thudc vo cung nho be.
Khi nghien ciiu phai quan
sat do dac, trong khi goc phan ly
toi thieu cua mat binh thudng la
amin = 1 phut. Ung vdi gia tri cua
goc nav, d khoang cach nhin thuan
Idi 10 = 25cm. con phan biet dUdc
hai diem A, B co khoang cach d =
7,5.10 5 m. Vdi khoang cach AB
nho hdn thi mat khong phan ly
dUdc niia, luc do A va B la anh

337
cua A, B se trung nhau va se cung kich thich len mot te bao th in kinh thi giac,
m it khong phan ly dUdc A va B.
Muon nhin dUdc cac vat co kich thudc qua b6 phai dung dung cu phong dai
anh vat. Tac dung cua dung cu phong dai thuc chat la lam t&ng goc nhin vat, m it
se quan sat anh cua vat diidi goc nhin ldn hdn.
Sau day ta se xem dung cu phong dai ddn gian nhat la kinh lup giup t&ng
goc nhin v&t nhu the nao trong th i du sau. Mot vat AB co kich thudc kha b6 dat
cach m it mot khoang toi thieu bang l0 = 25cm (doi vdi mat binh thUdng) nhung
goc nhin a0 v in nho nen nhin vat khong ro. Ta khong the tang goc nhin bln g cach
dat v&t sat m it hdn. Neu dat trUdc mat mot thau kinh hoi tu L (kinh lup) c6 tieu
cU / kha nho va dat vat sao cho AB n lm trong khoang tieu cu OF cua L nhu trong
hinh ve. Luc do m it se quan sat anh ao A ^ cua AB dudi goc nhin a > a0 (hinh
10.1). L dat d vi tr i thich hdp de cho AjBj co vi tr i n lm ngoai khoang cach nhin toi
thieu 10 = 25cm, cang xa m it cang dd moi. Luu y rin g khi AB tien d in den tieu cii
F thi anh AjBj se tien dan ra xa vo cung va do dai A jB j cung ldn d in den vo cung,
trong khi do goc nhin a van coi nhu khong thay doi. De y rang, vi mat dat sat
kinh nen a = A^OB^ = AOB , ma AOB thi g in nhu co dinh.

Nhu vay tac dung cua kinh lup khong diia tren sU tang chieu dai cua anh so
A B
vdi vat tiic la ty so' ——- khong co y nghia. Van de la 6 cho mat da co the nhin
AB
dUdc vat AB d khoang cach gan hdn nhieu so vdi khoang cach nhin toi thieu, d day
OA a OF - f < l0. K i hieu A0B0, A B la anh cua AB tren vong mac trong hai
trUdng hdp nhu tren hinh 10.1. Do phong dai k cua kinh lup va cung co y nghia la
do phdng dai goc dUdc tinh nhu sau:

A B tga I I
k = —t—r = ------ = — , tii do ta co k= — (10.1)
A0B0 tga0 f f

1.2. Kinh hien vi quang hoc trudng sang (KHVQHTS)

1.2.1. Cau tao cua kinh hien vi quang hoc trwdng sang
•>

Kinh hien vi cd hai bo phan chinh la vat kinh va th i kinh. Hai bo phan nay
mac du phiic tap, gom nhieu thau kinh nhung cung chi cd tac dung nhu hai thau
kinh hoi tu. Vat kinh va th i kinh dUdc dat cach nhau mot khoang d khdng thay
doi dUdc va rat ldn so vdi tieu cu cua chung. Tren hinh 10.2 bieu dien sd do mot
KHVQHTS dac trUng
Vat kinh la mot he thau kinh da dUdc kh ii quang sai to't, tieu cU nho. Ca vat
kinh va thi kinh deu cd tieu cU be. va chung dUdc lip d hai d lu o'ng kinh hien vi.
Tuy nhien de thuan tien cho ngUdi quan sat tren kinh hien vi, true cua thi kinh
va true cua vat kinh dUdc lam lech vdi nhau mot goc. De lam dUdc dieu dd ngUdi
ta bd tr i mot lang kinh phan xa toan p h ln guia vat kinh va thi kinh cd tac dung
lam lech phudng truyen cua cac tia sang (hinh 10.2). Ngoai vat kinh va thj kinh
ra con cd bo phan tu quang tap trung anh sang chieu vao vat. Bo phan nav co the

338
 ddn gian 1& mot gUdng c lu lom. Tuy
theo tting do'i tUdng nghien ciiu ngiidi
ta sii dung cac nguon sang S khac
nhau chieu v&o vat.
T&'t ca cac loai kinh hien vi do
deu hoan toan giong nhau ve nguyen
ly cau tao. Trong y hoc, KHV quang
hoc trUOng sang (sii dung nguon sang
phat ra anh sang trang) dtidc sii dung
rong rai.

1.2.2. Tao anh trong kmh hien vi

quang hoc trifdng sang
Nguyen tac chung ve diing anh la
sii dung cac dinh luat quang hinh nhu
dinh luat truyen thang ciia anh sang,
dinh luat khuc xa anh sang khi di qua
thau kinh.
Tren hinh 10.3 la sd do quang
hoc va nguyen ly phong dai ciia mot
KHVQHTS. De kinh hien vi tao dUdc
H inh 10.2
anh ciia vat khao sat da dtidc phong
dai nhieu lan ma mat co the quan sat
dtidc, hai dieu kien bat buoc sau day phai dtidc thoa man:
Vat quan sat AB dtidc dat n lm ngoai khoang tieu cU ciia vat kinh Lj. Anh
A,Bj ciia AB qua L x se la anh that, neu AB dat tUdng do'i gan tieu diem F, ciia L[
thi AiBj da ldn hdn AB dang ke.

Hinh 10.3

Vi tr i tuong doi ciia AB va Fj phai thich hdp de sao cho anh A ^ rdi vao
trong khoang tieu cu cua thi kinh L2 (xem hinh ve 10.3). Khi dd L, tao nen anh ao

339
A2B2cua A,B! ma mat dat sat th i kinh m6i co the quan sat dUdc. Nhu v&y th i kinh
L2 co tac dung tUdng tu nhu mot kinh lup (xem lai hinh 10.1).
De cho mat khi quan sat dd cang thang ngUdi ta thudng phai di chuyen mam
kinh (dat vat khao sat) sao cho vat AB cach tieu cii Fj mot khoang cach thich hdp
de AjBj rdi gan nhu dung tieu diem F2cua th i kinh, anh A2B2 khi do dudng nhu
n lm d xa vo cUc (hinh 10.4). Goc nhin anh A2B2 trong khi do v in coi nhu khong
thay doi (xem 1.1)

1.3. Do phong dai. Kha nang phan ly

1.3.1. Do phdng dai cua kmh hien vi

1.3.1.1. Do phong dai dai cua vat kinh

Vat kinh Lj va th i kinh L 2 lan lUdt co tieu cii la fj va f2 rat nho. Chung dUdc
dat cach nhau mot khoang cach rat ldn so vdi tieu cii cua chung. K l hieu khoang
cach F’iF2 la A (hinh 10.4) , ta cd A » f,, f2 do dd 0 ^ , = A. Khoang cach t ii vat kinh
den vat C^As OjF 1=/'7
Tu! dd do phdng dai dai cua vat kinh dUdc tinh nhu sau:

K i = AA ^ °\A\ = A
V AB 0,A f

1.3.1.2. Do boi giac cua thi kinh

Do boi giac la cach ndi khac cua do phdng dai goc. Thi kinh nhu ta da biet cd
tac dung nhu mot kinh lup. Do boi giac cua kinh lup do dd dUdc tinh nhu cong
thiic (10.1)

340
1.3.1.3. Dd phdng dai cua kinh hiSn vi
D o phong dai K cua kmh hien vi (doi khi con d u o c goi la so" boi giac G) d u o c
tfnh theo cong thiic sau:
tgcc
K = ( 10 .2)
tga o

trong do a0 la goc quan sat vat bang mat tran khi vat dat cach mat khoang
each nhin toi thieu l0, a la goc quan sat vat qua kmh hien vi. De chiing minh dUdc
rin g K = K v.K t

A./p
K = (10.3)
J f: f J 2

A con dUdc goi la do dai quang hoc cua kmh hien vi

l0 la khoang nhin ro ngan nhat cua mat ngudi binh thudng. hay lay la 25cm

fj va f2 cang nho do boi giac cua kfnh cang ldn, nhung neu lam f u f2 nho qua
thi anh hudng cua hien tUdng nhieu xa se manh ma dan tdi giam kha nang phan
ly cua kfnh.
Mot kfnh hien vi thudng cd mot sd" vat kfnh Nva thi kfnh
9
cd do phdng dai■) dai
va do boi giac khac nhau cho phep thiic hien nhieu cach td hop khac nhau de dat
dUdc do phdng dai chung cua kfnh hien vi khac nhau. Chang han kfnh hien vi
sinh hoc cd cac vat kfnh 8 \ 40x, 90x va cac th i kfnh 7X, 10x va 15x se co cac so boi
giac tii 56x den 1350x. Trong mot sd" trudng hop dac biet cd the dat den sd" boi giac
3500x.

1.3.2. Kha nang phan ly cua kmh hien vi

Gidi han phan giai cua dung cu hien vi la mot dai lifting cho biet dung cu dd
cd kha nang phan giai hai diem cd khoang cach nho nhat la bao nhieu (cd (^m).
Gidi han phan giai cang nho thi kha nang phan ly cang cao.

Cudng do sdng, I

H inh 10.5

341
 Ta biet rang anh thu diidc qua mot he quang hoc thiic chat la anh nhieu xa.
Tren hinh 10.5 bieu dien vi tr i tiidng doi cac anh nhieu xa qua kinh hien vi tc^i ciic
dai trung tam cua hai diem sang khi khoang cach I giiia chung khac nhau. Cac
diidng dam net la ciidng do sang tong hdp thu diidc tii hai anh. Qua hinh ve co the
nhan xet mot cach gan dung rang: khi khoang cach d giiia hai dinh cua hai ciic
dai trung tam ldn hdn ban kinh van sang trung tam, tiic la d > p th i anh cua hai
diem con phan biet duoc; khi d < p thi anh cua hai diem dudng nhu “hoa” vao
nhau.
*> ,
NgUdi ta da chiing minh dUdc kinh hien vi chi phan ly dUdc hai diem sang
cach nhau mot kh oang lmin la:

k
(10.4)
n sin#

vdi n la chiet suat moi trUdng giiia vat quan sat va vat kinh, 20 la goc nhin
vat kinh tu: vat (coi nhu vat la mot diem), X la budc sdng anh sang. Xhu vay moi
kinh hien vi cd mot gidi han phan giai.
Kha nang phan ly cua kinh hien vi S la dai liidng nghich dao cua /min (gidi
han phan giai)
1
5 =

1.3.3. Cach tang kha nang phan ly cua kmh hien vi

Xet bieu thiic (10.4) ta thay de tang kha nang phan ly S hay la giam khoang
cach nho nhat giiia hai diem sang Zmin, ta cd the:
- Tang goc md 20 cua vat kinh tiic la tang sinG. Viec tang 6?cung chi cd mot
gidi han nhat dinh vi goc 0 qua ldn se lam xuat hien hien tUdng quang sai.
- Tang chiet suat n cua moi trUOng giiia tieu ban va vat kinh. De thiic hien
dieu dd ngUdi ta thudng de vat kinh chim trong moi trUOng cd chiet suat ldn nhu
dau ba hudng (n = 1,4). Sii dung vat kinh chim con k h ic phuc dUdc hien tUdng
quang sai va hien tUdng phan xa toan phan d ranh gidi giiia thuy tinh va khong
khi (hinh 10.6)

Vat kinh

Th uy tinh

Hinh 10.6

342
 Chiet suat cua dau dUdc chon bln g chiet suat cua thuy tinh, khi do goc md 0
co the len tdi gan 90°. Vdi n = 1,5 thi gia tri n.sinG = 1,4 va kha nang phan giai co
the tang len tdi 4,5 lln so vdi khi khong dung vat kinh chim.
- Giam budc song X: budc song cua anh sang chieu vao tieu ban cang co budc
song ngln thi nang suat phan ly cang ldn. Mat ta chi nhin dUdc anh sang co budc
song trong pham vi tii 0,76fj.m den 0,39|im, nen neu dung anh sang trong vung tii
ngoai thi m it khong quan sat triic tiep dUOc ma phai chup anh tao thanh bang
phim hoac kinh anh ...
De quan sat de dang anh tao thanh cua kinh hien vi. ngUdi ta con chu y den
do tUdng phan cua anh tao thanh. Do tUOng phan la sU khac nhau giiia cudng do
sang tren anh cua vat va moi trUOng xung quanh hoac giiia cac p h ln khac nhau
tren anh. Do tUOng phan cang ldn thi anh cang ro net. Khi cho anh sang co budc
song xac dinh chieu vao vat can quan sat thi do tUOng phan the hien d sii hap thu
khac nhau giiia phan can nghien ciiu vdi moi trUOng xung quanh. Muon quan sat
nhan va bao tUdng cua te bao thi cUdng do sang di qua nhan va qua bao tUOng
phai khac nhau. Do dac diem rieng biet cua cau true, kha nang hap thu nang
ludng cua chung se khac nhau. Tuy nhien trong thiic te co nhiing doi tUdng song
co miic do hap thu nang liidng anh sang giong nhau vdi moi trUdng xung quanh,
do do do tUdng phan cua anh kem va anh khong ro. De giai quyet van de nay
ngUdi ta nhuom vat nghien ciiu, vat hap thu thuoc nhuom khac han va do tUdng
phan ciia anh se dUdc tang len. NhUng viec nhuom tieu ban lam chet te bao nen
khong the quan sat triic tiep cac hoat dong song cua te bao.

1.4. Cac loai kinh hien vi khac

Cac dung cu phong dai trong nghien ciiu y hoc, sinh hoc la cac loai kinh hien
vi quang hoc va kinh hien vi dien tii. Nguyen ly chung cua cac dung cu hien vi la
sii dung cac loai thau kinh co kha nang lam thay doi hudng truyen ciia tia sang
hoac ciia chum dien tii. Cac thau kinh sii dung vdi anh sang nhin thay thudng
lam blng thuy tinh Flin hoac Crao, vdi anh sang tu ngoai la thach anh, vdi chum
dien tii la cac “thau kinh” tii. Cac kinh hien vi quang hoc co kha nang phong dai
vat len tdi 1.500 - 2.500 lan, kinh hien vi dien tu co the phong dai vat len tdi
600.000 lan.

1.4.1. Kmh hien vi ti/n g o a i

Nguyen ly va cau tao cd ban giong kinh hien vi trUdng sang, chi khac d cac
diem sau day:
- Soi tieu ban bang anh sang tii ngoai (den thuy ngan)
- Cac thau kinh lam bang thach anh bdi vi thuy tinh thudng hap thu manh
tia tii ngoai con thach anh khong hap thu tia tii ngoai.
Co bo loc tia tii ngoai de tao ra chiim tia ddn sac bao gom lang kinh phan
tich, khe loc.

343
 Khong quan sat tren kinh hien vi tii ngoai bang mat thiidng dUdc vi tia tu
ngoai khong nhin thay va co tac hai ldn tdi mat. Vi vay khi nghien ciiu bang kinh
hien vi tu ngoai phai chup bang phim anh hoac kinh anh (xem them 1.4.5).
Uu diem chinh cua kinh hien vi tii Den tu ngoai Phim, man anh
ngoai la tia tu ngoai cd biidc sdng ngan
do dd lam tang nang suat phan ly cua
kinh (cd the tang gap doi so vdi kinh
hien vi triidng sang), dong thdi cung la
tang do tiidng phan cua anh vi cac
thanh phan cau true cua te bao nhu
protein, acid nucleic hap thu manh tia
tii ngoai.

1.4.2. Kmh hien vi huynh quang

Nguyen ly cua kinh hien vi huynh
quang la diia vao hien tiidng mot so' chat
khi bi tia tii ngoai kich thich se phat ra
anh sang cd biidc sdng dac triin g cho chinh no. Thi du diep luc se phat quang mau
do tiiOi. Sii phat quang cua chinh vat can nghien ciiu do tac dung ciia tia tii ngoai
tao nen anh sang huynh quang, anh sang huynh quang se tao anh cua vat qua
kinh hien vi. T ii nguyen ly nay chung ta thay cau tao ciia kinh hien vi huynh
quang cd nhiing phan giong kinh hien vi triidng sang va kinh hien vi tu ngoai, chi
them mot bo phan ngan tia tii ngoai de no khong cd trong thanh phan tao anh ciia
vat. Cd mot so' thanh phan trong cau true te bao nhu protein, acid nucleic... khong
cd kha nang phat quang do dd phai nhuom cac doi tiidng dd bang cac chat cd kha
nang phat quang.

1.4.3. Kinh hien vi trwdng toi

Mot so do'i tiidng d dang dung
dich khdng dong nha't ve mat quang
hoc do dd khi chiu tac dung ciia anh
sang se xuat hien hien tiidng giong
nhii tan xa Tyndall do'i vdi moi
triidng dung dich cd chiia cac hat la
(hinh 10.8) Hien tiidng tan xa chinh
la hien tiidng cac tia sang khi di qua
mdi triidng dung dich cd chiia cac
hat la se bi ddi phiidng so vdi
^ .i
phiidng truyen ban dau. Anh sang tan xa truyen tneo moi pnuong va cudng do cua
anh sang tan xa theo mot phiiOng nao dd phu thuoc vao kich thiidc ciia hat la,
budc sdng ciia anh sang tdi X. goc lech 9. so' hat la N va the tich ciia hat V. Trong
trudng hdp goc 0 nho, cudng do anh sang tan xa hau nhu chi phu thuoc vao /. theo
dinh luat Rayleigh Ixx - 1/ V .
Dua vao hien tUdng tan xa ngUdi ta da tao ra kinh hien vi trUOng toi. Ve cau
tao cd ban giong kinh hien vi trUdng sang chi them man chan dat dudi kinh tu

344
quang de ngan cac tia sang gan true va chi cho cac tia xa true chinh qua thau
kinh. Cac tia sang di tif ria thau kinh tu quang khi di qua tieu ban neu khong gap
hat la se khong bj tan xa do do khong lot vao vat kinh (hinh 10.9). Cac hat nho co
trong tieu ban khi bj chieu sang se trd thanh nguon th ii cap phat ra anh sang
truyen di theo moi hudng (lam tan xa anh sang) va di vao vat kinh, nhd do ma ta
quan sat dUdc cac hat la (thi du vi khuan) tren tieu ban. Ta se nhin thay hat la la
cac cham sang tren nen toi. Kinh hien vi trudng toi lam tang do tUdng phan
nhUng lai lam giam kha nang phan ly so vdi cac kinh hien vi khac. Vi the no chi
dUdc iing dung de quan sat sii di chuyen (hoat dong) cua doi tUdng song, khdng sii
dung trong nghien ciiu ve cau true dUdc.

Kinh tu quang

Hinh 10.9. Sd do kinh hien vi triidng toi

1.4.4. Kinh hien vi dien tur

Tii cong thiic (10.4) chung ta cd the thay khi chieu sang kinh hien vi bang
anh sang cd budc sdng X chi cd the phan giai dUdc cac diem cach nhau vao khoang
X. Do dd nhiing vat cd kich thudc nhd hdn X, dung kinh hien vi cd tinh xao den dau
cung khong phan giai dUOc.
NgUdi ta thay chum anh sang bang chum electron trong kinh hien vi dien tii
vi budc sdng lien ket vdi electron ciic nhd. Theo Louis de Broglie th i budc sdng lien
ket vdi dien tii la:

A=— (10.5)
mv

trong dd h la hang so" Planck; m la khoi liidng dien tii; v la van to"c dien tii.

Do eU = —mv]
2

nen A = — (10.6)
V2 meU
Trong dd e la dien tich dien tii; U la hieu dien the gia toe dien tii.

345
 De giam /*e ta co the tang U tuy y trong pham vi kha ldn. do phong dai len
den hang trieu l&n. O ki'nh hien vi dien tii, thau kinh quang hoc dUdc thay bang
thau ki'nh til va thau kfnh dien.

Nguon Nguon
■ang dien tu

T h a u k in h " T h a u k in h ’’
III q u a n g lir I

V a t ca n q u a n s a l

T hau " T h a u k in h ”

k in h L , tic 2

" T h a u kin h
ti( 3

m an anh

Hinh 10.10
So sanh K H Y d ie n t i f v d i K H Y q u a n g h o c

1.4.4.1. Cau tao kinh va su tao anh

Ve nguyen tac chung giong ki'nh hien va quang hoc, nhiing khac d cho nguon
phat biic xa chieu vao mau vat la nguon phat dien tii va phai co cac "thau kinh”
tu de lam lech hu6ng chum dien tu. X goai ra con co them mot so bo phan dac biet
phu hdp vdi tinh chat tao anh cua chum dien tii. M&u vat dUdc dat tror.g chan
khong de tranh hien tudng tan xa cua electron trong khong khi va lam tang do
tudng phan. Hinh 10.10 la sd do cau tao va nguyen tac tao anh cua kinh hien vi
dien tii trong tiidng quan vdi kinh hien vi quang hoc (loai chieu, chup anh;.

346
 Chum electron dUdc phat ra tft sdi dot bang kim loai trUdc khi di vao thau
ki'nh tCr hoi tu 1. Cac electron dUdc gia to'c d vung F co dien trUdng U=60kV. Sau
khi di qua thau kinh tCr chum dien tii chieu vao mau vat dat trong chan khong.
Sau khi qua m&u vat, chum electron di vao thau ki'nh tu12 (co vai tro nhu vat kinh
d kinh hien vi quang hoc) va tao nen anh thii nhat da dUdc phong dai. Thau kinh
tii 3 se tao anh that dUdc phong to them mot lan niia (hinh 10.10). Anh cuoi cung
dUdc ghi tren man huynh quang.
De dam bao khong co sii tan xa dien tii trong khong khi ngUdi ta dung he
thong bdm (bdm khuech tan hay bdm phan tii) de tao ra khoang chan khong ben
trong ki'nh va co mot ciia so dac biet de dua mau vat vao ma khong lam anh
hUdng den do chan khong do. Chung ta can lUu y khi chieu vao mau vat do anh
hUdng ciia mat do electron co trong mau mot so” electron bi tan xa. bi quay ngUdc
lai hoac bi nhieu xa vdi goc ldn. Chi co dien tii nhieu xa vdi goc be di vao thau
kinh tif vat kinh mdi tham gia tao anh ciia vat.

1.4.4.2. Vai trd cua kinh hien vi dien tCf trong sinh hoc va y hoc
Do co kha nang phan ly rat ldn hdn nhieu l&n so vdi cac loai kinh hien vi
quang hoc nen ki'nh hien vi dien tii dUdc dung de nghien ciiu cac doi tudng vi mo
khong nhiing d miic te bao ma con d miic phan tii nhu cac acid nucleic, acid amin,
protein... Nhd ki'nh hien vi dien tii chung ta cung quan sat dUdc mot so dai phan tii
cau tao len cac te bao nhu collagen trong to chiic lien ket, phan tii actin, myosin
trong te bao cd, mot so vi rut ma kinh hien vi quang hoc khong quan sat dUdc.
PhUdng phap nghien ciiu bang ki'nh hien vi dien tii ket hdp vdi tii chup hinh phong
xa co the khao sat moi lien quan giiia cau true va chiic nang mot so' te bao song.

1.4.5. Phirong phap chieu va chup bang kmh hien vi

Nguyen ly chung ciia phudng phap nay la qua quang he ciia kinh hien vi
phai tao ra dUdc anh that cua vat can quan sat. Muon co anh that phai bo tri “ thi
kinh” hoac vat kinh sao cho anh cua vat tao bdi vat kinh phai nam ngoai tieu
diem chinh thii nhat ciia “thi kinh” (tam goi thau kinh thii hai nhu vay con thiic
chat thi khong dat mat gan thau kinh nay de nhin).

Muon chieu anh ta chi can dat man anh tai vi tri ciia anh that, vi tri ciia
man anh phai dude dat thich hdp de cho anh ro net (xem them hinh 10.10)

Muon chup hoac quay phim chi viec dat may anh hay may quay phim vao vi
tri thich hdp va dieu chinh de anh that cua vat qua quang he hien len phim anh
giong nhif anh hien len vong mac cua mat khi quan sat.

1.5. Cach do kich thiidc cac vat nhd b ln g kfnh hien vi

1.5.1. Thudc trdc vi

Trong y sinh hoc, de quan sat va do liidng dude kich thu'6c cac doi tUdng vo
cung nho be nhu' te bao,... ngudi ta sii dung kinh hien vi quang hoc triidng sang co
them bo phan do do dai, do la thudc trie vi thi kinh (TVTK).

347
1.5.1.1. Thudc trSc vi thi kinh co dinh
Thudc TVTK co' dinh dUOc vach tren tam
kinh trong suot co mat phang la Kj. Thudc co
do dai xac dinh. dUdc chia deu thanh 8 vach tu:
0 t 8. Mat phang K, cua thudc TV TK dUdc dat
tai vi tri mat phang ma anh that cua vat qua
vat kinh rdi vao, co nghia la K, nam trong va
gan trung vdi mat phang tieu cU cua thi kinh.
Nhin vao kinh hien vi ta se luon luon thay
TVTK. Nhu vay khi anh cua vat hien ro tren
thi trUdng ta se do dUdc anh cua vat quan sat
bang TVTK. Tuy nhien gia tri moi do chia cua
TVTK chUa biet, ta can xac dinh moi do chia
nay qua thudc trac vi vat kinh.
Hinh 10.11. Thudc TVTK co dinh
1.5.1.2. Thudc trSc vi vat kinh (TVVK) va d| d o n g
T W K la thudc do do dai co do chia nho nhat 10pm. Thudc nay dUdc vach
tren mot tam kinh nho (26 x 76mm). Toan bo chieu dai cua thudc la 1mm dUdc
chia thanh 100 ph&n bang nhau. Thudc T W K se dUdc dung vdi tu cach mot vat
can quan sat, khi thudc T W K va TV TK cung d tren thi trUdng quan sat ta se co
the danh gia mot do chia cua TV TK bang bao nhieu do chia cua T W K .

1.5.1.3. Thudc trSc vi thi kinh di dong

De do dUdc anh cua vat chinh xac den phan tram gia tri do chia cua thudc
TV TK ngUdi ta dung dong thdi thudc TV TK co' dinh noi d tren va thudc TV TK di
dong. Thudc nay nam tren mot tam kinh phang K2 trong suot gan tiep xue vdi K,
va gom co hai vach song song va hai dudng giao nhau (hinh 10.11). Ta cung luon
nhin thay thiidc nay cung vdi TV TK co dinh. Thudc di dong nay (mat ph^ng K2)
dich chuyen dUdc bang num xoay oc hinh tron ben ngoai, tren vanh niim oc dUdc
chia thanh 100 phan bang nhau tif 0 -r 100. Khi num oc quay mot vong tdc la
quay dUdc 100 vach chia cua oc thi tren thi trUOng ta thay he thudc di clong tinh
tien dUdc mot doan bang do dai mot vach cua thudc TVTK. Do la cd sd cua viec do
kich thudc qua kinh hien vi vdi do chinh xac den phan tram vach ciia TVTK.

1.5.1.4. PhUOng phap do

- Xac dinh gia tri do chia cua thudc T V T K theo gia tri do chia da biet ciia
thudc T W K .

Cac tien hanh nhif sau: Dat va co dinh T W K tren mam kinh tai vi tri danh
cho mau vat, dieu chinh sao cho anh cua T W K hien ro tren thi trudng. dieu
chinh de he vach cua hai thudc song song va gan trung len nhau. tim cac vach
trung nhau ciia hai thifdc sau do dem so' khoang gidi han gitia hai vi tri vach
trung. Ta co;
 Trong do N la so khoang cf thudc TVTK, n la so khoang d thudc T W K . S la
gia tri mot do chia cua TVTK
- Do kich thudc vat
Dat doi tUdng do vao vi tri dat mau vat (mam tieu ban), chinh de cho doi
tUdng dUdc nhin thay ro nhat, nhu vay vi trf tUdng do'i cua vat can do so vdi quang
he da trung vdi vi tri cua T W K trong budc trUdc do. Sau do bang cach dich
chuyen he thudc di dong ta xac dinh kich thudc cua do'i tUdng can do (cho giao
diem cua hai dUdng giao nhau di chuyen tii diem nay den diem khac tren thi
trUOng cua KHV thi khoang cach gitfa hai diem tUdng iing vdi so vach tren oc xoay
ben ngoai).
Kich thudc cua doi tUdng la I, ta co:

d_
1= S N + pm
100

Trong dd N la so vach nguyen cua TVTK. d la phan bach phan cua vach. Vi
tri tUOng do'i cua hai vach song song cua thudc di dong cho ta biet so vach nguyen
N, d dUdc doc tren num oc chia do ben ngoai.

2. PHUONG PHAP QUANG PHO HAP THU PHAN TLf

2.1. Si/ hap thu anh sang cua moi trudng vat chat
Hien tudng ha'p thu anh sang la hien tudng mot ldp vat chat bat ki giti lai mot
phan nang ludng cua chum sang di qua no, he qua la cUdng do chum sang yeu di sau
khi di qua ldp vat chat. Nguyen nhan cua sU ha'p thu anh sang la nang luong cua
mot ph&n cac photon da dUdc bien doi thanh cac dang nang lUdng khac trong qua
trinh di qua ldp vat chat.

2.1.1. Cac djnh luat hap thu anh sang

Gia su ta cd mot ldp vat chat dong nha't
co be day I dUdc mot chum sang don sac lo
chieu vuong goc tdi (hinh 10.12). Ciidng do --------
chum sang trUdc va sau khi qua ldp vat chat --------
lan lUdt la I0 va I. Ta xet mot ldp moi trUdng --------
co be day dr. cudng do chum sang khi dap tdi --------
mat ranh gidi ldp d.v nay co cudng do la I(x), --------
nhu vay phan cudng do sang bi ldp dx ha'p _____
thu dl(x) se ty le thuan vdi I(x) va dx:

d l(x ) ~ l ( x ) dx
<-
hay dl(x) = -|a I(x) dx (10.7)
dx
trong dd u la he so ha'p thu cua moi
<- ■>
trUOng, |i phu thuoc ban chat va mat do cua
moi trUdng vat chat nhung khong phu thuoc Hinh10.12

349
vao cUdng do anh sang trong mot gidi han nhat dinh. Dau trti trong bieu thiic
(10.7) cho biet cUOng do anh sang qua ldp d(x) bi giam di.
TU (10.7) ta co:
d l(x )
-------1 - -u .d x
I (x )

khi cho x bien thien tU 0 den I thi I(x) bien thien tU I0 den I

I 'M ;

tUOng dUOng vdi In I - In I0 = -\ il

hay I =I„. e (10.8)
Can chu y r&ng |i = f(>.) trong do X la bu6c song anh sang truyen qua.
Bieu thUc (10.8) la dinh luat Bouguer cho biet qui luat giam cUdng do anh
sang khi truyen qua moi trUOng hap thu anh sang. Thudng ngUdi ta viet dinh luat
nay du6i dang sau:
I = I0 l O kl (10.9)

trong do k la he so tat, k - 0 ,4 3 /i . Neu — = 10 thi k = —

Nhu vay he so t&t co gia tri b&ng nghich dao be day ma cUdng do anh sang
qua no bi yeu di 10 lan.
Trong trUdng hdp moi trUOng hap thu anh sang la dung dich loang co nong
do la C, ta thay he so tat ty le thuan vdi C:
k -e C

Trong dd e la he so tat cua dung dich. ddn vi do cua no phu thuoc vao ddn vi
do cua nong do dung dich. Nhu vay:
I = I0. 1 0 eCl (10.10)
Dd chinh la bieu thUc cua dinh luat Bouguer- Lambert- Bear. Dinh luat nay
noi len he so hap thu cua cua mot dung dich loang ty le thuan vdi so phan tu vat
chat tren mot ddn vi chieu dai trong vung cd chum sang di qua . Dieu nay chi
dung trong trUdng hdp dung dich loang. Khi nong do dung dich tang, k h o a n g cach
gitia cac phan tu chat hap thu giam. tudng tac gitia cac phan tu la la da ng ke. ta
thay dinh luat nay khong con chinh xac ntia. Ngoai ra, trong nhieu trUdng hdp z
con phu thuoc dung moi ntia. nhat la trong trUdng hdp dung moi k h o n g "trong
suot” .

2.1.2. Cac dai luong dac trung khac

De dac trUng cho tinh chat hap thu manh hoac yeu cua moi trUdng vat chat,
ngoai he so hap thu /u . he so tat k ngUdi ta con dung cac dai lUdng sau:

350
 - He so" truyen qua T (transmittance):

T = — (thudng tinh b&ng phan tram)

‘o
- Mat do quang hoc D (optical density):

o=ig^ = ig (10.11)

Neu T tinh bang phan tram thi:

D=lg 100/T = 2 - lgT

LUu y rang, ngUdi ta con dung pho bien thuat ngti do hap thu A (absorbance)
hoan toan tUdng dUdng vdi mat do quang hoc D.
Tat ca cac dai lUdng dac trUng cho kha nang hap thu anh sang cua moi
trUdng vat chat deu phu thuoc vao budc sdng anh sang X

Oa ;e ; T ; D hay A ) = f(X)

2.1.2. Pho hap thu phan tCr

2.1.2.1. Pho hap thu phan tCf

Dudng cong bieu dien sU phu thuoc cua mot trong cac dai ludng ji ,e , T , D
(hay A) vao budc sdng X goi la pho hap thu cua mot ldp vat chat. Hinh 10.13 bieu
dien thi du ve mot pho hap thu dUdc xay dUng choD. Thong thudng luon ton tai
mot cUc dai hap thu ro ret trong do thi Ung vdi X xac dinh dUdc goi la Xmax, cac do
hap thu Ung vdi cac btidc sdng khac deu nho hon nhieu do hap thu d budc sdng
nay.
D

Hinh 10.13

351
2.1.2.2. Dai hap thu
Chung ta biet rang khong co mot lop vat chat nao cho toan bo mien biic xa
dien tCr di qua 100% hay noi khac di la khong hap thu anh sang. Moi mot chat
deu hap thu rat manh 6 mien nay hay mien khac cua pho. tu do tao nen cam
giac mau cua van vat xung quanh ta. Chang han sac to do cua mau la do
hem oglobin hap thu manh nhat cac anh sang co budc song trong vung xanh da
trdi va vung xanh la cay cua pho anh sang nhin thay, chi con anh sang vung do
di qua. La cay xanh hap thu manh nhat anh sang vung do va xanh da trdi. Nhu
vay tren pho hap thu phan tu ta se thay co cac dinh hap thu manh (cac diem D,
va D2 tren hinh 10.13) va cac budc song tai do dUdc goi la Xma%. Mot phan tii nhat
dinh se co the cd vai >.mnx tuy nhien lUu y rang do hap thu tai cac /.m„ do khong
nhu nhau. Mien pho trong do sU hap thu chuyen qua Xmnx goi la dai hap thu. Cu
the tren hinh 10.13 ta thay khoang budc sdng tU Xx den X2 Ung vdi phan dudng
cong A P,B la dai hap thu.

2.2. Ung dung cua quang pho hap thu phan tur
Quang pho hap thu phan tu dUdc Ung dung de nghien cUu thanh phan va
cau true cua cac chat. Phep phan tich cac chat bang quang pho hap thu phan tii
bao dam: nhay, nhanh, chinh xac va dac biet khong can tach rieng cac thanh
phan trong mot hon hop nhieu chat, khong lam hong mau nghien cUu. Vdi pho
hap thu phan tu ta co the thuc hien phep phan tich dinh tinh va ca phan tich dinh
ludng tat ca cac chat.

2.3.1. May quang pho hap thu mien turngoai va nhin thay
Nguyen tac chung cO ban cua cac may quang pho dung cho mien anh sang tii
ngoai va anh sang nhin thay (doi khi con goi la kha kien) la do cUdng do chum
sang gian tiep qua gia tri dong quang dien tdi han (cung con goi la ddng quang
dien bao hoa) ma chum sang dd tao nen tren te bao quang dien chan khong.

Nhu ta da biet, anh sang co budc song nho hdn budc song hong ngoai tao nen
hieu Ung quang dien ngoai (te bao quang dien dung trong cac may quang pho hien
dai cam Ung tham chi vdi cac budc song anh sang 0 dau vung hong ngoai >. < 1000
nm). Trong hieu Ung quang dien ngoai, cUdng do dong quang dien tdi han dong
bien bac nhat vdi cUdng do chum sang dap tdi te bao quang dien.

Dong quang dien phat sinh dudi tac dung cua anh sang dUdc khuech dai len
nhieu lan, co the ghi lai dong dien nay bang dien ke nhay hoac trong cac may hien
dai ngtidi ta dung bo phan tu ghi de ghi pho. M ay quang pho tu ghi hien dai cho
phep nhan duoc do thi bieu dien D, T theo X hoac theo f tren bang giay hoac tren
man hinh (display) mot cach nhanh chong. Bieu thtic (10.12) bieiu dien nguyen tac
cua phep do do truyen qua T va mat do quang hoc D gian tiep qua cac cudng do
dong quang dien tdi han (hay la bao hoa) i0v a i tUOng Ung vdi cUdng do chum sang
dap tdi te bao quang dien I 0,1 lan lUdt khi khong bi chan va cd bi chan boi ldp vat
chat can khao sat (d day thudng la dung dich).

352
 T=—=—
I i (10.12)

D = \g^- = \ g - = \giu-\gi
I i

Hinh 10.14. 1. Den (nguon sang); 2. He thong gUdng phan xa; 3. Khe vao he loc don sSc;
4. He loc don sac (cach tti nhieu xa hoac phan xa); 5. C hin sang dieu chinh dd rong cua
chum tia va mud do ddn sac; 6. Cuy vet dung dung dich khao sat; 7. Te bao quang dien;
8. Bo khuech dai ddng dien; 9. Bo ghi
Hinh 10.14 bieu dien sd do cua mot may quang pho hap thu mien tu ngoai
va nhin thay- Nguon sang la den day tdc tungsten phat ra pho lien tuc trong mien
340 -1 0 0 0 nm hoac la den phdng dien qua khi hidro deterium phat ra pho lien tuc
trong mien tii ngoai 2 2 0 -3 4 0 nm. Trong may quang pho, bang cach tti nhieu xa
hay phan xa ngUdi ta cd the tach dUdc anh sang ddn sac vdi budc sdng tuy y chinh
xac den tUng 0,1 nm. Bo ghi trong cac may hien dai thudng la so hoa dUdc hien thi
tren man hinh. Tuy theo che do lua chon ma man hinh hien thi cac dai ludng khac
nhau nhu X, T, D, ...

2.3.2. Phan tich dinh tinh bang pho hap thu phan tu
Viec phan tich dinh tinh cac chat
bang pho hap thu phan tti dUa tren moi -----------------------------------------------------
quan he vo cung khang khit gitia ban
chat vat chat va tinh chat quang pho cua
/\
chung. Moi chat dUdc dac trUng bdi cac
budc sdng hap thu cUc dai (Xmax). Gitia cac
budc song hap thu cUc dai va kich thudc
cua cac lien ket. hay noi khac di vdi cau
true vat chat, cd mot moi lien quan xac
dinh. Dieu dd dUdc giai thich bang sU ton
tai cac mtic nang ludng xac dinh cac dien
tti trong phan tu. Khi phan tti hap thu
ludng tu anh sang, dien tti co the chuyen
Hinh 10.15. Sd chuyen mtic nang li/dng
len cac mtic nang lUdng kich thich khac cua dien tti
nhau. Xac suat chuyen cua dien tti tdi
phan mtic dao dong xac dinh nao do tuan

353
theo nguyen tac Pauli va hoan toan phu thuoc vjko cau true phan tu. Budc song
(A.max) la budc song Ung vdi xac suat ldn nhat de dien tu chuyen len mUc kich thich
Em tU mUc nang lUdng En (hinh 10.15)
Em- En = AEmax = he/ ?.max (10.13)
Trong do En la mUc nang lUdng ban dau cua dien tii.
Chinh vi vay nhUng chat co cau true phan tu khac nhau co nhUng budc song
hap thu cUc dai khac nhau. Do do dua vao vi tri cUc dai cua pho hap thu ta co the
xac dinh mot chat la chat gi hay hon hop chat gom don chat nao.

Hinh 10.16. Minh hoa phep phan tich djnh tinh

NhUng ket qua thuc nghiem cho chung ta thay rang nhieu nhom chUc cho ta
cac dai hap thu dac trUng nam trong cac mien song xac dinh. Da so cac nhom chUc
hUu cd co cUc dai hap thu dien hinh nam trong mien song tU 200 nm den 500 nm.
Mien song Ung vdi cUc dai hap thu cua nhom chUc khong thay doi du nhom chUc
do co chat nay hay chat khac. Chang han cac chat khac nhau cung nhom chUc
C H a co hap thu cUc dai dac trUng 0 377,7 nm va 348,2 nm. Su co mat trong pho
hap thu cUc dai 0 budc song tUdng Ung vdi nhom chUc do cho phep ta khang dinh
su ton tai cua nhom chUc do trong hdp chat. Dua vao tinh chat nay cua vat chat
ma ngUdi ta phan tich dinh tinh cac chat. Thi du nhu de xac dinh thanh phan cau
tao cua te bao lympho chuot ngUdi ta da chup pho cua nhUng te bao do. Mat do
quang hoc cUc dai tai budc song Xmax =260 nm cho phep ta ket luan la thanh phjin
chinh cua te bao lympho la cac acid nucleic (goc pirimidin, purin....). Nhin vao
pho hap thu cua te bao lym pho nay ta thay con co mot diem dac biet la be rong
dai hap thu tUdng doi ldn so vdi pho hap thu khac: ta biet rang /. =280nm la budc
song hap thu cUc dai cua cac acid am m thdm (goc Triptophan, tyrosin).
Tinh ti so r| = D 280/D 260, trong do D JS0. D260 la mat do quang hoc cua dung dich
te bao tai cac budc song 280nm va 260nm. ngu'di ta thu dUdc gia tri r = 0 ." ldn
hdn binh thudng dieu nay chUng to rang trong te bao lympho ngoai cac acid
nucleic con cd mot phan dang ke protein.

354
 Vdi vi du tren chung ta con m uon n h an m a n h ran g giUa be rong dai hap thu
vk cau true vat cha't co mot moi quan he chat che. Be rong, hinh dang pho hap thu
phu thuoc v&o miic do phiic tap cua ca'u tao phan tu. N goai ra n h u n g yeu to' dac
trUng cho sU ha'p thu nay con phu thuoc vao tinh cha't cua moi trUdng bao quanh
chung.

PhUdng phap phan tich dinh tinh bang q u an g pho ha'p thu phan tu dac biet
co hieu qua trong nhUng trUdng hdp ma cac phUOng phap hoa hoc khong giai
quyet dUdc. T h i du ba chat noi tiet to' sinh due nU ostron, ostrion va ostradion co
thanh phan cau tao gio'ng nhau, vi the kho phan biet dUdc chung b a n g phudng
phap hoa hoc. N h u n g neu cho chung tac dung vdi H 2S 0 4 ta se dUdc cac hdp chat cd
mau xanh ia cay non cd cac cUc dai hap thu dien hinh.

Ostron - 300nm; Ostrion - 300nm va 460nm; Ostradion - 370nm va 430nm

Vi tri cU c dai cua nhom chUc hay go'c cau tao thay doi tuy thuoc vao ban chat
cua nguyen tii bao quanh nhom chUc hay nhom chUc dd. Bang dudi day cho ta biet
mien so' sdng (k) Ung vdi gia tri ciic dai cua nhom chUc Cacbonyl trong cac chat
khac nhau (k = 1/?.)

Mien so song (cm '1) Cac nhom chuc

1300 -1 4 2 0 Cac acid bi ion hoa

1550 -1 6 1 0 Cac acid khong bi ion hoa
1630 - 1700 Cac acid cua acid carboxylic
1710 -1 7 3 0 Cac ceton va acid chi/a no
1720 - 1740 Cac aldehyt chua no
1730 - 1760 Cac p. Lactam (vong khong ngting tu)
1760 - 1780 Cac (3. Lactam (vong ngifng tu)
I

TU bang nav ta de dang phan biet dang acid bi ion hoa (mien so' sdng 1300 -
14 20 cm 1) va dang acid khong bi ion hoa (mien so' sdng 1710 -1 7 3 0 cm ‘). Acid bi
ion hoa la acid bi mat ion H + trong qua trinh tUOng tac vdi nhung chat khac.
Dua vao cd sd tren ngUdi ta de dung pho hap thu phan tu de phan tich cau
true phan tu cua vat chat, nhan dang cha't tinh khiet. xac dinh (hay phu dinh) su
cd mat cua mot chat tinh khiet nao dd trong mot hdn hdp cho trUdc.

2.3.3. Phan tich dinh luong bang pho hap thu phan tCr

2.3.3.1. Tri/dng hdp dung dich can xac dinh nong do la dung dich loang:
- Cach thU nha't: ap dung dinh luat Bouguer Lambert Bear

I=I0.1 0 'ECl^ D=lg(Io/I)=e Cl

dieu do cd nghia la mat do quang hoc ty le thuan vdi nong do dung dich.
Neu dung dich ddn chat chi chUa phan tii chat A. Tu pho ha'p thu cua dung
dich A thu du'dc bang thuc nghiem hoac tU sach tra cUu chung ta biet dude >.[nax dac
trUng cho chat A. Ta do mat do quang hoc DA cua dung dich tai /.m,^ tren. Ta cd
 D a = £ CA/ (10.14)
Trong do e la he so" tat cua dung dich; I la chieu day ldp dung dich ma anh
sang truyen qua. He so tat co the biet dUdc tU cac dii lieu chuan. til cong thiic ta
se tinh duqc CA.
Neu dung dich la hon hop nhieu chat cung hap thu trong mot mien budc
sdng, bang cach do mat do quang hoc tai cac vi tri Xmax dac trUng cho moi chat va
cach tinh thfch hdp chung ta cung xac dinh dUdc nong do cua mdi chat trong dung
dich khao sat. Thi du dung dich chUa hai chat A va B vdi nong do CA. C B. Cac ciic
dai hap thu cua A va B tai cac budc sdng Ajva k2 tUOng Ung. D, va la mat do
quang hoc cua dung dich hdn hdp A va B do dUdc tai cac budc sdng . /.2 noi tren
(hinh 10.17). Ta cd

D , - £ A CA I + sB Cb Z
D2—EA CA / + £ BC BI
Trong dd ea eb, e a, e b la cac he so tat cua cac dung dich chat A va B tai cac
budc sdng A.j,A.2 tUOng Ung. Cac he so nay dUdc cho biet trUdc (xem bang cho sAn
trong cac sach quang pho) hoac cd the xac dinh bang phudng phap do thi vdi tUng
chat rieng biet.
Giai phudng trinh bac nhat hai an so' tren ta dUdc:

__ D,S
r n D-,Sn
b ib
O
SAS'B- S ' A£B
D s -D s ' (10.15)
B j |

£ A£ B ~ £ A £ B

- Cach thU hai: dung do thi chu^n.

PhUdng phap nay dUdc tien hanh theo nhUng budc sau: (hinh 10.18)
+ Pha cac dung dich loang chat A cd nong do chuan C,, C2, ..., C n.
+ Do cac mat do quang hoc D (hoac T, A ...) Ung vdi cac nong do C ; . C^.......Cn
dUdc Dj, D 2,..., D n

+ Dung do thi bieu dien cua D vao C

+ Do mat do quang hoc Dx cua dung dich A c&n dinh lUdng

+ Dua vao do thi suy dUdc tU D x ra Cx

356
 D A

Hinh 10.17. Pho hap thu cua

dung dich chi/a 2 chat AB va Hinh 10.18. Dung do thi chuan
cua cac dung dich chi chifa mot
chat A hoSc B

2.3.3.2. Trudng hdp chat can xac dinh la dung dich dac
Trong trUdng hdp nay mat do quang hoc D khong con ty le thaan vdi nong
do dung dich C ntia. Dong thdi ngay he so' tat cung thay doi. Khi dd cd the dung
phUOng phap ddn gian sau: Pha loang dung dich nhieu lan. dinh ltfdng vdi dung
dich loang roi tfnh ngUdc lai vdi dung dich dac.

3. PHUONG PHAP TAO ANH BANG TIA X VA CONG HUONG T I/ HAT NHAN

3.1. Thiet bj tao tia X

3.1.1. So do may phat tia X

Nam 1895, nha bac hoc Ronghen (Wilhelm Konrad Rontghen) trong qua
trinh nghien cUu su phdng dien trong khf kem da phat hien mot tia cd kha nang
dam xuyen qua ldp vat chat mong, lam den kfnh anh. trong khi mat ngUdi ta lai
khong the nhan biet trUc tiep binh thudng loai tia nay nhu nhan biet anh sang
nhin thav. Ronghen dat ten loai tia nay la tia X. sau dd moi ngUdi goi la tia
Rdnghen.

Tia Rdnghen cd Ung dung trong nhieu linh vuc khac nhau: ky thuat kiem tra
san pham. ky thuat dieu khien tU dong, sinh hoc... Trong sinh hoc va y hoc. tia
Rdnghen dude ung dung theo hai hudng chinh: thu nhat, khai thac tac dung cua
tia len su sdng: thu hai, khai thac dac tfnh phan anh cau true vat chat cua chum
tia sau khi xuyen qua ldp vat chat hay cua chum tia phan xa. nhieu xa tu vat can.

357
 Mot may phat tia Ronghen loai ddn gian nhat gom co hai khoi chinh

Hinh 10.19

- Kho'i thii nhat la bong Rdnghen (hinhl0.19)

Bong Rdnghen la mot bong thuy tinh kin, rut khi tdi chan khong cao do (ap
suat khi chi con 10' mmHg). Trong bong co:
+ Cathod: la mot sOi day Vonfram dUdc dot nong bang dong dien ha the
cUdng do 3 h- 5A; khi Cathod nong tdi khoang 2000°C thi se trd thanh nguon phat
nhiet dien tU. Gan sat day toe nung nong bo' tri mot ludi kim loai co tac dung tich
luy nhiet dien tii khi chua dat hieu dien the giiia hai cUc cua bong.
+ Anod : la mot thanh kim loai, tren mat phang nghieng cua dau anod gan
mot tam “bia” bang kim loai nang (thudng la Tungsten) co nhiet do nong chay cao
(khoang 3350°C). Khi co the hieu cao giua Anod va Cathod,.cac dien tu tU Cathod
ban sang, dap vao “bia” cua Anod lam no nong len rat nhanh, nen trong thuc te
ngUdi ta phai sU dung nhieu bien phap ky thuat khac nhau de lam nguoi Anod.
- Khoi thU hai chu yeu gom co: bien the ha ap cung cap hieu dien the co gia
tri 6-^12V de tao dong dien dot nong Cathod; bien the tang ap de cung cap hieu
dien the mot chieu cao (tren du'di 100 kV) giUa Anod va Cathod; cac thiet bi dieu
khien dien the va cUdng do dong dien.

Viec tich luv nhiet dien tii tai ludi kim loai la de nang cao hieu suat phat tia
X cung nhu giam thieu thdi gian tre. TrUdc khi dat the hieu cao giUa hai cuc. day
toe da dUdc dot nong san. do do mot so lu'dng ldn dien tii tu do da duoc tich trU.
Dudi tac dung cua dien trUdng cuc manh giUa Anod va Cathod (do hieu :::en the
mot chieu cao gay ra). cac nhiet dien tu chuyen dong ve phia Anod vdi van toe va
gia toe rat ldn, dap vao "bia" Anod va dUng lai dot ngot. TU Anod phat ra hum tia
Rdnghen theo moi hu'dng. De dinh hu'dng chum tia. ngudi ta sii dung r.hieu chi
tiet ky thuat khac nhau (goc nghieng bia Anod. bong boc chi kin co de u . xac

358
dinh ...). C^n chu y rang dong dien di qua bong Rdnghen chi theo mot chieu xac
dinh la do:
Ban than bong Rdnghen la mot den dien tii hai ciic, chi cho dong dien theo
mot chieu tu1Anod sang Cathod (dien tti tii Cathod sang Anod).
Co the dung mot he thong chinh lUu cao the d ben ngoai trUdc khi cho cao
the nay tac dung vao bong Rdnghen.

3.1.2. Pho phat xa cua tia Ronghen

Tia Rdnghen co ban chat la song dien tu:.
Khao sat sii phu thuoc vao budc song X cua cUdng
do chum tia <j>phat ra tu! mot bong Rdnghen, ngUdi
ta thu dUdc do thi ve tren hinh 10.20. Do la pho
phat xa cua tia Rdnghen.
Nhan xet do thi nay, ta tha'y:
- Cudng do (j) thay doi lien tuc theo budc Hinh 10.20. Pho phat xa cua
song. Nhting tia Rdnghen thuoc phan thay doi lien tia X
tuc nay goi la bUc xa ham.
- Co nhting budc song dac biet X.l5 X2 <3 do cUdng do thay doi dot ngot.
Nhting tia Rdnghen ting vdi budc song nay goi ia btic xa dac tinh.
Sii phat tia Rdnghen va pho cua tia co the dUdc giai thich nhu sau: khi chum
dien tti tti Cathod bay den Anod, qua qua trinh dUdc dien trUdng gia to'c, van toe
trUdc luc dap vao Anot co gia tri rat ldn. Theo dien dong liic hoc co dien, mot hat
tich dien khi chuyen dong co gia to'c se phat song dien tti vao khong gian xung
quanh. Dien tti d bong Rdnghen co gia to'c rat ldn nhu vay se phat song dien tti
vao khong gian xung quanh, do la tia Rdnghen. Nang lUdng cua tia Rdnghen la
dong nang cua dien tu chuyen hoa thanh. Vi luc dting lai, cac dien tti bi gia to'c rat
khac nhau nen pho tia Rdnghen phat ra la lien tuc, do la pho btic xa ham. Mat
khac, cac dien tti luc dap vao Anod co the lam cho mot so' dien tti vanh K cua cac
nguyen tti tao nen Anod bi bat khoi nguyen tti. Khi ay, cac dien tti cua cac vanh L,
M... phi'a ngoai co the nhay vao chiem cho, phan
nang lUdng du thtia cua dien tti dUdc phat ra ^ ' -----
dtidi dang btic xa dac tinh vdi budc song X thoa
M
man he thtic:

£ = h . f = h - = E LS, - E K
( 10 . 16)
xN
K
1
trong do, e la nang lUdng cua photon Rdnghen, f
la tan so' va X la budc song cua tia Rdnghen, c la jt e bj bai
van to'c anh sang trong chan khong, Ek la mtic
nang ltidng cua dien tti d vanh K; EL M la mtic
nang ltidng cua dien tti d vanh L, M...
Hinh 10.21. Cd che xuat hien btic
xa dac tinh

359
 Tren hinh 10.21 trinh bay sd do giai thich cd che xuat hien biic xa dac tinh d
dong (lam Anod). Biic xa vdi budc song ttidng ting sti dich chuyen cua dien tti tti
ldp L sang ldp K tao vach quang pho goi la vach Ka. Neu btidc chuyen thtic hien tti
ldp M sang ldp K thi tao vach Kp. Cac dien tti tti ldp M co the vao thay the cho
trong vtia dtidc tao ra d ldp L. Cac dien tti d ldp M ttidng ting vdi mtic nang ltidng
cao hdn ldp L nen cung phat ra btic xa. Tuy nhien phan nang ltidng dti thtia tti
btidc chuyen nay thap hdn phan nang ltidng ttidng ting vdi day K nen btic xa day I.
co btidc song ldn hdn btic xa day K. Thi du do'i vdi dong, btidc sdng cua cac vach
day L khoang 13A, con day K la 1,4A.

3.1.3. Djnh luat hap thu tia X. Loc tia X

Chieu mot chum tia Rdnghen song song co ctidng do I0 tdi mot ldp vat chat co
be day x (hinh 10.22). Ctidng do chum tia lb sau ldp vat chat do la I. De dang
chting minh dtidc quy luat hap thu sau:
I = I0 . e Mx (10.17)

trong do e la cd so logant tii nhien, p. goi la he so hap thu bac nhat

Nhan xet bieu thtic (10.17) ta thay:
k-
- Khi x cang ldn (ldp vat chat cang day) thi __________
ctidng do chum tia lb I cang nho, nghia la chtim __________
tia Rdnghen bi hap thu cang nhieu. __________
- Khi fi cang ldn (he so hap thu ldn) thi chum ---------------
tia Rdnghen bi hap thu cang nhieu. ---------------
Ve cd che cua hien ttidng hap thu tia
Rdnghen, ngtidi ta thay co 3 hieu ting: hieu ting I() i
Compton, hieu ting quang dien, hieu ting tao cap.
Hinh 10.22. Sii hap thu tia X
Rieng ve hieu ting quang dien la hieu ting
de xay ra doi vdi cac photon nang ltidng thap,
ngtidi ta thay cac photon cua chum tia Rdnghen bi hap thu chi trong trtidng hdp
neu nang ltidng cua chung ldn hdn nang ltidng lien ket cua dien tti trong nguyen
tti. Chinh vi vay ma btic xa ttidng ting vach cua dong kho bi dong hap thu. Kho
cd the chuyen dien tti tti ldp K sang ldp L la 16p da chtia day dien tti. Tuy nhien,
cac btic xa nay van cd the lam btit nhting dien tti nam trong ldp L va cac ldp co
nang ltidng cao hdn.

Khao sat chi tiet sti phu thuoc ciia he so hap thu bac nhat u vao cac dieu
kien, ngtidi ta thay:

- Khoi ltidng rieng p cua chat lam vat can cang ldn thi p cang ldn

- So thti tti Z cua nguyen to lam vat can cang ldn thi p cang ldn,

- Doi vdi mot chat lam vat can cho trtidc thi (a phu thuoc vao btidc song cua
tia X. Dtidng cong bieu dien sti phu thuoc cua u vao btidc sdng /. goi la pho hap
thu.

360
 M(cm') Kr K„

Hinh 10.23. Pho hap thu chum tia X Hinh 10.24. Pho phat xa cua Cu tri/dc
cua dong va sau khi loc

Tren hinh 10.23 trinh bay pho hap thu tia Rdnghen trong dong, ta de dang
thay ngay pho hap thu khac vdi pho phat xa.
Nhiing budc sdng ma he so hap thu d day thay doi dot ngot dtidc goi la bien
hap thu. Cac photon cua nhiing chum tia Rdnghen ma budc song nam phia ben
trai bien K cd nang liidng du de biit dien tti tti ldp K, con nhiing photon cua chiim
ma btidc sdng nam phia ben phai cd nang ltidng nho khong du de ion hoa ldp nay.
Doi vdi nhiing bien hap thu khac, ta cung co tinh huong ttidng tti, do dd ta cd
kha nang thu dtidc chtim tia Rdnghen hau nhti ddn sac tti chum tia Rdnghen
khong ddn sac bang cach chon nhting tam loc ttidng ting phu hdp. Bien K d Niken
d vi tri 1,48A, bdi vay tam loc Niken cho qua vach Ka cua dong con hap thu manh
vach Kp. Nguyen to tiep theo d bang tuan hoan la Coban, bien K nam d 1,60A do
dd nguyen to nay se hap thu manh ca hai vach Ka va K|Scua dong. Nhti vay cd the
chon chieu day cua cac tam loc bang nhting kim loai nay de cho ket qua chung la
chung cho qua vach ddn sac Ka cua dong.

3.2. Phwong phap tao anh bang tia X trong chan doan benh
Viec chan doan benh bang tia X (chieu, chup) dtia vao hai tinh chat dac biet
cua tia X la:
- Kha nang dam xuyen sau cua tia X so vdi anh sang nhin thay va nhieu btic
xa ion hoa khac.
- Sti hap thu khac nhau cua vat chat doi vdi tia X tuy thuoc ban chat va mat
do cua vat chat hap thu (cong thtic 10.17). Trong cd the ngtidi. cac phan mem
thtidng dtidc cau tao bang nguyen to' nhe nhti C. H. 0 . N con bo xtidng thi cau tao
chu yeu bang cac nguyen to' cd so' Z ldn nhti P va Ca. Mat do vat chat cung khong
tap trung dam dac nhti nhau d cac mo: cd ndi vat chat d dang khi (phoi) hoac nude
(tim, mach) hoac the ran (xtidng). Vi vay, khi cd cung mot chiim tia X di qua. vat
chat hap thu khac nhau tao ra chum tia lo cd ctidng do khac nhau. Tti do. ta ed cac
hinh anh quang tuyen X dam nhat khac nhau.

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3.2.1. Mo hinh tao anh b£ng chum tia X
Mot thiet bi tao anh bang tia X gom 3 phan chinh la may phat tia X vdi ban
dieu khien (a), bo phan lam hien hinh (c) va tat nhien phai co doi tuong can kham
xet (b): mo, tang, cd the.
Tuy nhien, do mat ngtidi khong nhin thay dtidc tia X nen phai dung nhting
phtidng phap dac biet de co the nhin thay dtidc cac hinh anh do. Co cac cach nhti
sau:
- Dung man huynh quang
Do la mot tam gtidng ldn thuy tinh co quet mot ldp muoi sulfua kem. Khi
chum tia X tdi do se tao ra anh sang huynh quang co btidc song khoang 500 nm va
mat ngtidi co the quan sat dtidc. Ngtidi ta goi do la chieu X quang hay chieu dien
(radioscopie). Trtidc day, ky thuat nay thtidng dung trong chieu phoi... nhting
ngay nay it dting vi ngtidi thay thuoc phai nhan mot lieu kha ldn khong can thiet.
Nhd co X quang tang sang ngay nay co the chieu de tham kham nhieu noi tang
khac ma lieu hap thu khong cao.
- Dung phim anh de chup
Nguyen ly tao quang anh tren phim da trinh bay d muc 3.3.1 bai Btic xa ion
hoa va cd the song. Nhieu khi cac mo tang chong lap len nhau va cung co he so
hap thu nhti nhau nen rat kho phan biet dtidc chung. Ngtidi ta da co sang kien tao
ra sti chenh lech ve do hap thu d cac ndi do bang cach bdm hdi hoac dtia cac chat
co do hap thu cao (co chtia iot) goi la cac chat can quang (contrast subtances) de
tao nen do ttiOng phan ldn hdn. Tti do tao ra cac ky thuat X quang can thiep nhti
chup mach, chup dtidng tiet nieu... cd dien.

3.2.2. Cach lam rd anh

Hinh anh X quang la nhting bong cua cac bo phan cua cd the chieu len mot
mat phang. Cd the con ngtidi lai co cau true khong gian nhat dinh. Vi vav. hinh
anh tao tti chum tia X bi chi phoi bdi mot so quy luat quang hinh hoc. Dieu do doi
hoi phai khac phuc de hinh anh dtidc ro net va trung thtic hdn. Sau day la mot vai
diem phai chu y trong thtic te:

3.2.2.1. Quan he kich thudc giCra anh va vat

Man anh hoac phim dat xa vat chieu chting nao thi sti khac nhau ve kich
thtidc cang ldn vi tuy nguon phat tia X kha nhd (doi am ctic Anot) nhting chum tia
X phat ra theo nhieu htidng tao ra mot chtim phan tan nen phong dai anh len
(hinh 10.25 va 10.26).Vi vav, khi soi, chup cang de phim sat benh nhan cang cd
kich thtidc tren phim trung thtic vdi cau true that. Tuy nhien cac phu tan g d sau
khong the keo sat phim dtidc, luc do can de bong ra xa de lam giam do ph an tan
cua chum tia X tdi. Nhting khi dtia bong ra xa, ctidng do chum tia cung giam theo
rat nhanh. Muon co ctidng do thich hdp phai tang thdi gian chup. Neu thdi gian
nay qua dai se tao ra nhung bong md do rung dong (cti dong cua benh nhan. hoat
dong chtic nang cua tim. phoi ... ).

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 Ngtidi ta da ti'nh dtidc r&ng neu vat cach phim 10 cm ma bong de cach dtidi
2m thi hinh anh ldn len khong dang ke, co the tin cay dtidc.

Hinh 10.25 (trdi). Bong den X -quang

cang xa thi anh cua vat cang it bi lan
len.
Hinh 10.26 (phai). Vat cang gan
phim hoac man chieu thi anh cua vat
cang bi Icm len.

3.2.2.2. Chat lUOng hinh anh

Co nhieu nguyen nhan lam cho hinh anh X quang bi md, khong ro net hoac
meo mo. Do la do cac quy luat cua quang hinh hoc nhti:
- Bong X quang du nho may thi do’i am ctic, ndi phat chum tia X van co kich
thtidc dang ke, khong phai la nguon diem. Do nguon phat la mot mat phang nen
anh cua mot diem cung se khong phai la rat nho nen de bi md.
- Do tac dung cua tia thti cap, co nang ItiOng thap hdn (X ldn hdn) nen anh
cua mot diem cung trai ra tren mot doan thang. Ngtidi ta ap dung nhieu ky thuat
de loai trti bdt tia thti cap cho hinh anh bdt nhoe.
- Do vat di dong (hoat dong cua tim, phoi,
da day, ruot, v.v...), benh nhan cti dong (bat
tinh, tre con...) nen hinh anh bi nhoe, md.
- Hinh bi meo do vat d cach xa tia trung
tam xuyen thang goc vao mat phang chtia vat
quan sat.
- Hinh chong cheo len nhau do sii sap xep
tti nhien trong cd the hoac do thay doi benh ly
(gan de len phoi. tim chong len phoi...).
De khac phuc dieu nay, ngtidi ta phai tim
ra cac tti the chup thich hdp de lam ro nhting
vi tri quan tam (trong chup so nao, chup
chuyen khoa tai mui hong...). Hinh 10.27. Hinh meo do
hu'dng cheo cua tia tdi
3.2.3. Khai niem ve chup tilt lop
Cac phu tang trong cd the co do day mong. to nho khac nhau va khong nam
tren mot binh dien ma chong lap len nhau. Da so chung lai co do hap thu tia X ldn
nen kho phat hien dtidc cac thay doi benh ly. Vdi may X quang thtidng. ngtidi ta
da tim cach tang do ttidng phan bang cac chat can quang. Ve sau. X quang tang
sang truyen hinh da xuat hien, giup ta thay dtidc cac hinh anh chieu X quang
hang loat. quan sat trong anh sang binh thtidng (khong can trong bong toi). Tuy

363
nhien tren phim chup thtidng, nhieu ton thtidng lai bi che lap bdi cac mat phang
chong de len nhau. Tti lau ngtidi ta da tim cach chup cat ldp (tomographie). nhat
la doi vdi phoi va trung that.
Dau tien ngtidi ta tim cach chup nhieu anh cua cung mot doi ttidng nhting
dtia vao cac quy luat quang hinh hoc la moi anh chi cho thay ro mot ldp mong
nhat dinh, cac ldp khac (trtidc va sau) ldp quan tam do khoang cach tti bong tia X
den ldp do khac (ldn hdn hoac nho hdn) se cho anh md. Nguyen ly chinh cua
phtidng phap nay la cho bong tia X va phim nam ve hai phia cua benh nhan
chuyen dong deu va ngtidc chieu nhau. Lam nhti vay hinh anh cua tat ca cac diem
cung trong mot mat phang vdi true quay deu co dinh tren phim nen thay ro, trai
lai cac diem d sau hoac trtidc mat phang do se bi md, mat phang cang xa diem
muon quan sat cang md di. Do la chup cat ldp co dien

- Collimator - ong chuan true

co tac dung tao chum tia
mong det, hinh re quat
- Detector - cam bien dien tif

Hinh 10.28. Sd do chup X quang cat ldp vi tinh

Chup cat ldp vi tinh (Computed Tom ography hoac Computed Tom ography
Scanner - CT- Scanner) dang thinh hanh hien nay lai theo mot nguyen'ly va cau
tao khac han.

3.2.3.1. Cau tao co ban cua CT - Scanner

Trong CT - Scanner van cd bong phat quang tuyen X nhting de ghi nhan
chtim tia lo sau khi xuyen qua cd the benh nhan, ngtidi ta dung bo cam bien dien
tti (Electronic Detector). No eo do nhay ldn hon phim X quang gap hang tram lan.
Ngtidi ta co the dung nhieu bo cam bien nay sap lien ket vdi nhau.

Cac may CT- Scanner hien dai co nhieu cam bien dien tti dtidc sap xep vong
tron de thu nhan tin hieu tti 360" lo ra tti phia benh nhan. Sau khi churr. v.a X di
qua benh nhan, den tac dong vao bo cam bien dien tti, tin hieu dtidc truyer. ve he
thong thu nhan dti kien (Data Accquisition System: DAT) de ma hoa v ; truyen
vao may vi tinh (Computer). Do la thong tin ve do hap thu cua to chtic r r . c h u m
tia X di qua.

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 Tuy nhien, hinh anh cua mot lan hap thu nhu vay khong du de tao nen cau
true cua vat chat. Vi vay, tia X phai dich chuyen vong quanh benh nhan va d moi
vi tri cua chum tia, mot ma so've do giam tuyen tinh (Linear Attennuation) dtidc
ghi vao bo nhd. Khi chuyen dong quet (to scan) do ket thuc, bo nhd da ghi dtidc
mot so' rat ldn nhting so do ttidng ting vdi nhting goc khac nhau trong mat phang
quet. Nhd may vi tinh, cac so lieu do the hien bang cac con so. Tti cac so do do.
may vi tinh lai tai tao nen hinh anh cau true cua ldp cat, the hien tren man hinh
(Monitor). Can ltiu y rang cung nhd may vi tinh, cac so' do ttidng ting vdi cac mat
ph^ng d tren hoac d dtidi mat phang quan tam da dtidc khti bo (substraction). Do
day cua mat phang quan tam tuy thuoc tting loai may.
Nhti vay, may CT- Scanner co bong phat tia X, bo cam bien dien tti thu nhan
chum tia X sau khi da bi ha'p thu va may vi tinh lam chtic nang thu thap va bien
doi dti lieu, cat bo dti lieu khong can thiet va tai tao hinh anh ldp cat.

3.2.3.2. Nguyen ly cau tao anh theo ma tran (matrix):

Hieu ddn gian ra, ma tran d day la mot tap hdp so dtidc phan bo tren mot
cau true gom cac day va cot. Moi o nhti vay la mot don vi cua ma tran va dtidc goi
la ddn vi the tich cd ban (Volume Element) hay la Voxel. Chieu cao cua moi Voxel
phu thuoc vao chieu day ldp cat (tti 1 h- 10 mm). Tti moi Voxel se tao ra mot ddn vi
anh cd ban (Picture Element) goi la Pixel. Tong cac anh cd ban do tao ra mot
quang anh. Cac Voxel co mat do hay ty trong quang tuyen (Radiologic Density)
khac nhau va tao ra cac Pixel co do dam nhat khac nhau. Cau true ha'p thu tia X
cang nhieu thi mat do quang tuyen cang cao. Chinh vi vay, ngtidi Phap goi ky
thuat nay la chup cat ldp theo ty trong (Tomo-densitometrie). Ngtidi ta do ty trong
nay bang ddn vi Hounsfield. Ma tran tai tao cang ldn thi cho anh cang chi tiet.
Thong thtidng. ngtidi ta dung cac ma tran sau day: 252 x 252, 340 x 340. 512
x 512 va the he may mdi nha't (the he 4) co ma tran 1024 x 1024. ttic la chia mot
lat cat quan sat ra 1.048.575 Voxel, nghia la moi chieu cua lat cat chi bang phan
tram cua mm. Trong kham xet hang ngay, dung loai ma tran 340 x 340 la du.
nhting muon kham nhting chi tiet nho trong tai, trong nao thi dung ma tran ldn
hdn.

3.2.3.3. Quan sat hinh anh CT- Scanner

Nhd tinh tiu viet cua may vi tinh, co the chia cd the con ngtidi ra 2000 h-
4000 mtic do khac nhau ve ty trong quang tuyen, tti cau true khi (phoi) den cau
true dac, ran (xtidng). Nhting mat thtidng khong the phan biet dtidc sti khac nhau
nhti vay ve do den trang. Vi vay, ngtidi ta dung phtidng phap md ctia so gan vdi
bac thang xam tren man hinh de quan sat. Moi ctia so dtidc xac dinh bang mot
diem gitia (Center hoac Level) va do rong md ctia so (width) theo giai don vi
Hounsfield. Neu ctia so md het cd, xtidng se xuat hien bang hinh trang. con phoi
(khi) thi cho mau den, cau true dich cho mau xam nhti tren X quang thtidng.

Nhting neu chon diem gitia cua moi ctia sd la sd do ty trong trung binh cua
mot cau true can kham xet, no cho ta nhting hinh anh trang roi tti do dieu chinh
do rong thich hop vdi cau true. Ty trong eo gia tri tren dtidi gia tri gitia cua ctia so
se cho mau den. Nhti the la ta da dtia do den trang ve gia tri hep. chenh lech it.

365
thich hdp vdi kha nang phan biet cua mat ngtidi. Tti d6 ta c6 th§ co hinh anh d cac
ndi khac nhau trong cd the bang cach chon ctia so ve ty trong quang tuyen
Hounsfield thich hdp. Do la y nghia ldn lao cua thang do Hounsfield. Tren phim X
quang thtidng, cac thong tin can la do sang, tdi cua phim hoac man hinh, con
trong CT - Scanner la toan bo thong tin ve ty trong quang tuyen. dtidc ltiu giti
trong bo nhd cua may vi tinh.
Ngtidi ta thtidng chup theo cac mat phang cat ngang cd the (thang g6c vdi
cot song). Tuy nhien, nhting mat cat ngang nay thtidng lien tiep nhau nen may
tinh co kha nang rap cac mat cat nay lai tao ra hinh anh cua mat thang dting doc
(sagital) hoac mat dting ngang (frontal) ta quan tam. Thong thtidng, hinh anh
thang dting khong ro net bang cac hinh cat ngang. Do phan giai (Resolution) cua
hinh anh phu thuoc vao chieu day va khoang cach gitia cac mat cat theo true
ngang, ttic la phu thuoc vao gia tri ma tran da neu d tren. Ngay nay con c6 may
chup xoan oc (Helical hay Spiral). Luc nay bong phat tia X va bo cam bien quay
lien tuc, con benh nhan dtidc chuyen dong dan vao khoang may. Do do. sd do qu6t
va tao anh se la mot dtidng xoan oc lien tuc. Anh cua no co do phan giai cao hdn.
May CT- Scanner dtidc A.M. Cormack (ngtidi Anh) phat minh nam 1971 va
dtidc hoan thien dan. Phat minh nay co tam quan trong ngang vdi phat minh tia
X nen nam 1979, Cormack va Hounsfield dtidc nhan giai Nobel ve y hoc. Vdi
nhting may luc dau, muon co mot quang anh phai mat den hai ngay. Ngay nay,
vdi may hien dai, thdi gian do chi keo dai tti 1/10 den 3/10 giay. Ngay nay, phoi
hdp nhieu ky thuat khac nhau bang X quang can thiep, tang do ttidng phan bang
thuoc can quang, dung bong tia X tang sang, truyen hinh, chup cat ldp va ky
thuat so", nganh chan doan hinh anh bang tia X mang lai gia tri to ldn cho chan
doan benh.

3.3. Chup hinh b ln g cong hu’dng tCr hat nhan

3.3.1. C a s a vat ly cua phuong phap cong huong tCrhat nhan
3.3.1.1. Mo men tif hat nhan
Hat nhan nguyen tti gom co hai loai hat: proton va neutron. Proton la hat
mang dien tich dtidng, ve gia tri thi bang dien tich cua electron, nhting co khoi
ltidng ldn hdn cd hai nghin lan khoi ltidng electron. Proton ttidng tu nhti mot hat
mang dien dtidng tti quay tron, co momen tti. Neutron cung co spin, cung co
momen tti, co the xem neutron nhti mot qua cau co dien tich phan bo", tinh chung
ra thi dien tich bang khong (neutron trung hoa dien) nhting khi quay v i n tao ra
momen tti.

Momen tti cua proton va cua neutron co chenh lech nhau chut it. nhting rat
nho, vao cd 10 2' A .m 2. Hat nhan co the co nhieu proton va neutron, m omen tti cua
hat nhan la tong hdp (theo nhting quy tac ltidng tti) cua momen tti cac hat proton
va neutron. Co hat nhan co momen tti ldn. co hat nhan co momen tti nho. cd hat
nhan khong co momen tti. Nhting noi chung. momen tti cua hat nhan nho. chi vao
cd phan nghin momen tti cua vo electron nguyen tti. Vi vay dieu kien de co cong
htidng tti hat nhan rat khac vdi dieu kien de co dtidc cong htidng tti electron.

366
 Hat nh3n So proton So neutron
1H 1 o
,2C 6 6
13c 6 7
14N 7 7
23Na 11 12
31 p
15 16
39K 19 20

Hinh 10.30. Tii trudng xoay chieu B }

vuong goc vdi B0, quay quanh B0 vdi tan

so goc co: Bt tac dung len momen tCr |i

lire tuan hoan tan so goc co, khi co = u>0
xay ra hien tiidng cong hu'dng.

Khong nhiing the, ngiidi ta co the thiic hien cong hiidng tii ddi vdi tiing ldai
hat nhan nguyen tii. Thi du ddi vdi cd the, ngiidi ta thiidng dac biet chu y la hat
nhan cua nguyen tu' hidro vi hidro la mdt trdng hai nguyen td cau tad thanh ntidc
(H20 ), ma nude noi chung la trdng cd the cho nad cung cd. Hdn ntia hat nhan cua
nguyen tti hidrd cho tin hieu cong htidng tti rat manh.
Hat nhan cua nguyen tti hidrd rat ddn gian: chi cd mdt hat proton, momen
tti cua hat nhan hidro chinh la momen tti cua proton.

3.3.1.2. Cong hu’dng tit hat nhan

Hat nhan cd momen tti la |i khi nam trong tti trtidng B (j . se thtic hien

chuyen dong tue sai (chuyen dong Larmor), ttic la dau mut cua vectd u. vach nen
—>
nhting dtidng trdn quanh phtidng cua B0 . Hinh 10.29 bieu dien chuyen dong

Larmor cua momen tti ji dtidi tac dung cua tti trtidng Btl .

367
 Day la chuyen dong tu&n hoan, tan so phu thuoc vao B0 va p. Trong trtidng
hdp proton, tan so' do dtidc tinh theo cong thtic f 0 = g p /Jp B0 .

Neu B0 bang IT (Tesla) thi proton co tan so Larmor la 42,58 MHz.

Nhti vay hat nhan nam trong tti
—>
trtidng B0 trd thanh mot he dao dong
N,
r
vdi tan so dao dong rieng la f 0 phu

thuoc B0 . Neu chieu them mot song N, > N 2

dien tti tan so radio thich hdp, thi
bien thien tti trtidng do song radio tao
ra co the lam cho hat nhan dao dong
cong htidng. Hinh 10.30 bieu dien tac
Hinh 10.31. Trong tti trtidng B0 . N, proton cd
dung cua tti trtidng xoay chieu B]
—» —>
|i song song vdi tti trtidng, N2 proton cd fi
(5, vuong goc vdi B0 , quay quanh AN /jB0
doi song vdi tti trtidng
—> N kT
B q vdi tan sd goc co) len momen tti p.
ltic tuan hoan tan so goc co, khi co = coDxay ra hien ttidng cong htidng.

Trong trtidng hdp tti trtidng B0 = \ T , dau mut cua m omen tti cua hat nhan
hidro se quay trdn vdi tan so f 0 = 42,5&MHz . Neu tac dung them sdng radio tan
so' 42,58 M Hz thi dau mut cua momen tti cua hat nhan hidro se quay cun g vdi tan
so' nhti trtidc nhting bien do ldn hdn, momen tti cua proton nghieng xa hdn so vdi
—
► —►
phudng cua B0 , ttic la nghieng nhieu ve phtidng vuong goc vdi phtidng cua B0 .

Nhting thtic te, khdng phai la thtic hien cong htidng tti doi vdi tting hat nhan
hidro rieng le ma la cong htidng tti do'i vdi ca mot tap hdp hat nhan hidro trong
mot the tich nao dd, thi du trong 1mm3 d vd nao. Do dd ta xet ca mot tap hdp hat
nhan trong tti trtidng va xet hien ttidng cong htidng do'i vdi ca tap hdp dd.

3.3.1.3. Momen tif cua tap hop cac hat nhan trong mot the tich
Neu xet mot tap hdp cac nam cham nhd nam trong tti trtidng cd chieu xac
dinh thi cac nam cham se nam quay doc theo tti trtidng, m omen tti cua cac nam
cham nay se song song cung chieu vdi tti trtidng.

Nhting tap hdp cac hat nhan la tap hdp cac hat vi md, tuan theo nhting quy
luat ltidng tti: khi nam trong tti trtidng thi da so' cac hat nhan se cd m om en tti
quay song song cung chieu vdi tti trtidng nhting van cd nhting hat nhan cd momen
tti song song nhting ngtidc chieu vdi tti trtidng. ngtidi ta goi dd la nhting m om en tti
doi song.

368
 Cac phep tfnh toan cho thay neu

trong tu trtidng B{) tong cong co N

hat nhan thi se co N, hat nhan co
momen tti song song va N2 hat nhan
co momen tti doi song (Trong tti
—»
trtidng B0, N, proton co song song
—>
vdi tti trtidng, N2 proton co (i doi song
AN uB..
vdi tti trtidng ----- « ------- hinh 10.31),
yV kT
N, luon ldn hdn N2 va ti so chenh lech
AN N, - N - , „ H in h 1 0 .3 2 . Phan tich vecto fi thanh
co the tinh theo cong
—► —►
N N
2 thanh phan (j. va fi
thtic gan dung:

AN /.iB0
vdi B0 la ctidng do
N kT
tti trtidng tac dung, p la momen tti cua hat nhan, k la hang so Boltzmann, T la
nhiet do tuyet doi.
Tfnh ra, d nhiet do phdng T = 25° C , khi B0 = IT doi vdi hat nhan hidro, ti so
AN
vao cd 1 0 6. Ndi cach khac trong N hat nhan thtic chat chi con lai
N

A N = vV, - jV2 chiem ti le cd mot phan trieu la htidng theo chieu B() . That ra
momen tti nay deu cd chuyen dong Larmor, nhting vi khti nhau tting cap nen cuoi
cung cd the xem chi cd A N hat nhan ddng gop vao momen tti M tong cong. Tti cac
cong thtic tim dtidc ta cd :

M = AN x a = N a 2^ -
kT

Vay khi xet chuyen dong Larmor trong tti trtidng B 0 cua N hat nhan trong
the tfch V cua vat chat, thf du cua vd nao, ta chi xet den momen tti M tong cong
dd.

3.3.1.4. Cong hu'dng tir trong mot the tich co nhieu hat nhan va nhCfng hien tuong lien
quan
—>

Ta xet mot the tfch cd N hat nhan, momen tti cua moi hat nhan la ja va tti

trtidng ngoai tac dung la B{) .

369
 Ta da thay trong N hat nhan co N, hat nhan co m omen tCr song song vdi BQ

va N2 hat nhan co momen tti do’i song vdi B0 , ve mat tti tinh xem nhu chung khti
nhau tting doi mot, chi con TV, - N 2 = A N ~ 1 0 -6 hat nhan c6 dong gop v&o
momen tti tong cong. Cac momen tti khong phai n&m hoan to£n song song vdi tti
trtidng ngoai, chung dao rat nhanh quanh phtidng tti trtidng nhting goc nghieng

rat nho. Phan tich momen tti |i cua hat nhan ra thanh hai vectd : mot vectd song
-» ->
song v6i B0 , ta ki hieu la \iu va mot vectd vuong goc vdi B0 , ki hieu la |ix . Khi
—> —»
chi co B0 , co the xem co AJV hat nhan co momen tti htidng ve B0 va dao quanh

B0 . Vectd tong kha ldn, cd gan bang AN.\x . Nhting vectd tong xem
nhti bang khong khong phai chi la do gia tri cua f.i± nho ma la do cac momen tti

dao quanh B0 , tuy cung tan so' nhting khong dong p h a , cac vectd c6 the
hti6ng trtidc, sau, phai, trai mot cach Ion xon, cong vectd lai chung tn e t tieu lan

nhau. Nhti vay, khi chi co tit triidng ngoai B0 , vectd tit hod doc theo phtidng cua
—
> —
» —
> —
>
tti trtidng ngoai M f/ = ctic dai, con vectd tti hoa ngang = ^ | i bang
khdng (hinh 10.32j.

Khi chieu song radio co tan so f 0 (hay tan so' goc co0 - -— ) theo phtidng
2/T

vuong goc v6i B0 , nhti ta da thay, co cong htidng xay ra: vectd tti trtidng B] do
—>
song radio (song dien tti) tao ra, quay quanh B0 vdi tan sd goc CO0 tdc dung len

momen tit f.1 cua hat nhan mot litc tuan hoan, lam cho |i nghieng manh ve phia
—> —»
va quay quanh B0 mot cach dong pha v6i nhau. Ket qua la khi cong hiidng
—> __ —»
vectd tit hda ngang M L ^ fi_ citc dai.

—> —> —♦

Con vecto tti hoa doc. mot mat do fi nghieng ve B } nen gia tri cua u nho
di, mat khac do hap thu cong htidng nang ltidng song radio co them mot so’ momen
tti cua hat nhan quay ve phia doi song song, do do N2 tang len. N, giam xudng.
A N = N ] - N 2 giam dang ke. Ket qua la khi cong hu'dng vectd tit hod doc
—> __ —>
M = £ n bang khdng.

370
 Khi tat sdng radio, tap hdp cac hat nhan dang tti trang thai cong htidng
chuyen ve trang thai binh thtidng ban dau. Ngtidi ta goi do la qua trinh hoi phuc.

Trong qua trinh nay, vectd tti hoa doc M co do ldn tti gia tri khong trd ve gia tri
—>
ciic dai, vectd tti hoa ngang co do ldn tti gia tri ctic dai M L trd ve gia tri khong.
Tuy nhien thdi gian trd ve, ttic la thdi gian hoi p huc Tj doi vdi vectd tti hoa doc
va thdi gian hoi phuc T 2 doi vdi vectd tti hoa ngang khong nhti nhau. noi chung
T , > T 2.
Neu quanh hat nhan co nhieu phan tti nho (nhe), nhti phan tti ntidc H20 ,
viec hat nhan truyen nang ltidng da hap thu se lau hdn so vdi khi quanh hat nhan
la nhting phan tti ldn, cong kenh, thi du vdi phan tti cua cac chat md, chat beo...
Vdi cac te bao sinh hoc, ttiy theo chtia l't ntidc. nhieu ntidc, l't md hay nhieu md...
Tj thay doi tti 300 den 2000 miligiay.
Thdi gian hoi phuc T2 cung se co tri so ldn khi quanh hat nhan la ntidc va co
tri so nho khi quanh hat nhan la dich chtia cac phan tti ldn hoac nhieu chat md.
Nhting noi chung, T 2 nho hdn T,, thtidng thay doi tti 30 miligiay den 150 miligiay
va so vdi Tj thi nhay cam vdi cau true sinh hoc hdn.
Neu xet vectd tti hoa tong

cong M = M + M L thi khi cong

htidng ( M v = 0 , M ± ctic dai) dau

—>
mut cua M vach nen vong tron
—>
trong mat phang vuong goc B 0 .

Khi tat song radio, M ± vtia quay

tron, vtia co nho lai. trong luc do
-> _ ^ Hinh 10.33. Khi tat song radio, dau mut cua
M tti gia tri bang khong, ldn vectd tu1hoa M vach nen dudng xoan oc nho dan

dtin len. Do dd dau mut cua M

vach nen mot dudng xoan oc nhd dan (Hinh 10.33).
Ve nguyen tac, neu de mot cuon day dien gan day thi bien thien tti trtidng
—►
do M gay ra se lam thay doi tti thong qua cuon day va sinh ra ddng dien cam ting
trong cuon day. Trong ki thuat cong htidng tti. ngtidi ta bo tri angten de phat sdng
radio theo tting xung, khi xung tat, qua trinh hoi phuc nhti da mo ta d tren xay ra
—>
va angten cung thu ddng dien cam ting sinh ra khi vectd tti hoa A ! bien thien
theo dtidng xoay tron oic.

Tin hieu angten thu dtidc nay cd ten la tin hieu cam ting suy giam tti do FID
(tree induction decay). Ban than tin hieu FID nav manh hav veu la do vectd tti

371
 —> —>
hoa M ldn hay nho, ma do ldn cua M lai phu thuoc vao so hat nhan trong phan
tii the tich, cu the d day la so proton. Vi vay tin hieu FID cho biet mdt do proton
Phan tich ki dang cua tin hieu FID co the tim dtidc thdi gian hoi phuc tu hoa
ngang T2 v.v... Nhti vay neu chia cat cd the ngtidi ra tting the tich nho co toa do x.
y, z ttidng ting, lam cho cac hat nhan trong the tfch do dao dong cong htidng va
thu tin hieu cong htidng tti the tich dd gtii di, thi du tin hieu FID. thdi gian hdi
phuc T,, thdi gian hoi phuc T, v.v... va quy dinh do dam, nhat. trang den hoac
mau sac xanh do tim vang ting vdi tin hieu manh. yeu, dai, ngan thu dtidc. tren cd
sd so lieu cac toa do x, y, z cua phan tti the tfch va tin hieu cong htidng thu dtidc
tti phan tti dd, thi may tfnh co the ve ra tren man hinh anh cat ldp hai chieu hoac
anh ba chieu cua cd the. Tuy theo tin hieu thu de tao anh manh hay veu anh nay
cd the cho biet dau la ntidc, dau la chat md, mau, xtidng v.v...

3.3.2 Chup anh cat lop cong hu’dng turhat nhan

Trtidc het ta xet cach thiic hien
cong htidng tti hat nhan d phong thf May phat RF va may do
nghiem nghien ctiu tfnh chat vat lieu.
Thiet bi gom mot nam cham vinh ctiu
—y
de tao ra tti trtidng deu B0 gitia hai
ctic (hinh 10.34). Gia sti mau nghien
ctiu dat trong mot o'ng hinh tru chung

quanh co cuon day dien, tti trtidng B {

tao bdi cuon day vuong goc vdi B{] .

—y
Hinh 10.34. So do may cong hu’dng tii hat
Ngtidi ta dieu khien tan so' cua B,
nhan d phdng thi nghiem.
sao cho co hien ttiOng cong htidng tti
xay ra. Luc do cong sua't cua may
phat vo tuyen tang vot han. Nhti vay, theo ddi cong sua't d may phat phu thuoc
vao tan so, ta xac dinh dtidc nhting tan so' ting vdi co cong htidng tti xay ra trong
—^ ^
mau. Moi bien thien cua momen tti tong cong M cua m l u deu co the gay nen
—t

dong cam ting trong cuon day dat chung quanh mau theo nguyen t ic : M bien
thien lam bien thien tti thong di qua cuon day, bien thien tti thong sinh ra dong
—>
dien cam ting. Neu bo tri cuon day vuong goc vdi B 0 ta do dtidc bien thien cua

thanh phan M song song vdi B 0 ttic la \1 . Tti do ta do dtidc thdi gian hoi phuc

doc. Neu bo tri cuon day song song vdi BC) ta do dtidc bien thien cua tha nh phan

vuong goc M j_ , tti dd xac djnh dtidc thdi gian hoi phuc ngang. Cac tin h:eu rr.a cac

372
cuon day thu dtiOc rat nho, r&'t n g i n nhitng ki t h u a t xti If tin hieu ngay nay cho
phep do kha chi'nh xac.

Giai phap kT thuat quan trong nhat de co dtiOc anh cat 16p cong htidng tit hat
—»
nhan la do Lauterbur dtia ra nam 1973. Do la them vao tti trtidng manh B [} cac
tti trtidng yeu nhting bien thien deu theo khoang cach, noi cach khac la tao ra cac
gradien tti trtidng.
Trtidc het ta xet cach tao ra tti trtidng co gradien theo z va tac dung cua tti
trtidng nay.
—>
Cuon day sieu dan tao ra mot tti trtidng B 0 rat manh va rat deu. Ngtidi ta
—>
bo tri them mot cuon day tao ra mot tti trtidng yeu song song vdi B0 nhting bien

thien deu theo z, ttic la co dang B, = ( a + (3z ) B 0 .

Vay tti trtidng tong cong ben trong cuon

day sieu dan la: B0+ B, = (l + a + (3z).50 .

Tti trtidng nay rat manh, bien thien deu

theo z: tti trtidng ben trong hinh tru bi chia
thanh tting ldp mong, vuong goc vdi true z.
Trong pham vi mot ldp, tti trtidng co the xem la
khong thay doi . Khi di tti ldp nay den ldp kia tti
trtidng tang dan, thi du nhti d hinh ve 10.35 la
0,97T, 0,98T, 0,99T, IT, 1,01T, 1,02T, 1.03T, ...
Co the ngtidi dtiOc dat trong hinh tru rong, xet
ve mat tti co the chia ra lam nhieu ldp : ldp nam
trong tti trtidng 0,97T, ldp n&m trong tti trtidng Hinh 10.35. Do Bz co gradien theo
0,98T v.v... Tan sd cua chuyen dong dao cua z khong gian trong hinh tru dirge
momen tti hat nhan phu thuoc vao tti trtidng chia thanh nhting ldp cat mong
vuong goc vdi z, tti tri/dng B0 +BZ
ngoai, thi du do'i vdi hat nhan nguyen tti hidro,
trong moi ldp co the xem la khong
khi tti trtidng ngoai la IT, tan so" chuyen dong doi.
dao la 42,58 MHz.
Khi cO the nam trong tti trtidng ngoai co
gradien theo z, neu chieu song radio co tan so
42,58 MHz vao ca co the thi chi co cac hat nhan nguyen tti hidro nam trong tti
trtidng IT mdi bi cong htidng. Nhti vay nhd cuon day tao ra gradien tti trtidng theo
true z ta co the tao ra cong htidng tti hat nhan chi trong mot ldp vuong goc vdi z.
Ldp nay day hay mong la tuy thuoc vao tti trtidng bien thien nhanh hay cham, ttic
la phu thuoc do ldn dH/dz cua tti trtidng. Co the dich chuyen vi tri cong htidng
bang hai cach :

Cach 1 : giti nguyen tan so cua song radio, dich chuyen gradien tti trtidng.
Cach 2 : giti nguyen gradien tti trtidng. thay do’i tan sd cua song radio.

373
 CJ may tao anh c i t ldp cong hudng tii c6 t&'t ca ba cuon tao gradien tii triidng
theo phiidng x, phiidng y va phudng z. Phoi hdp sti dung ca ba cuon. ve nguyen tfic
co the tao ra diidc cong hiidng tii trong mot phlin tu the tich c6 toa do x, y, z cua cd
the va thu lay tin hieu cong hiidng tii tti the tich do phat ra. C6 the dieu khien de
chon mot ldp c i t va lan ltidt quet p h in tu the tich cong hudng theo toan bo dien
tich cua ldp c it . TU tap hdp cac so" lieu ve tin hieu cong htidng va %1 tri tUdng Ung
may tinh co the tao ra anh cong hudng tti cua ldp c it . Thu thap so lieu tti cac ldp
c i t lien tiep nhau, may tinh co the diing lai anh ba chieu trong khong gian cua doi
tudng.
Tuy thuoc vao viec lay tin hieu cong hudng nao de tao anh va cong hudng
xay ra doi vdi hat nhan nao, anh c i t ldp cong hudng tti se cho ta cac thong tin
tUdng ting. Thi du, tin hieu cam ting tti do suy giam FID phu thuoc v&o do ldn cua
vecto tti hoa M cua phan tti the tich ma M lai phu thuoc vao so m om en tti cua
proton, do do tin hieu nay manh hay yeu phu thuoc vao mat do proton ldn hay
nho, tti do ta co the ly giai nhting cho dam nhat tren anh co the tUdng ting vdi
nhting chat nao (hinh 10.36).
Thong thudng ngudi ta hay sti dung
tin hieu lien quan den thdi gian hoi phuc
doc va ngang. Nhu da neu tren, cac thdi Mat dd proton
E
gian hoi phuc T, va T 2 rat phu thuoc W «C8
C X
phan tti the tich chtia chat gi : chat nUdc, •O '>C
-a
5
■3 <cS
chat dich, nao tuy, ung thu... Do do d anh X ■o -C
cat ldp sti dung cac loai tin hieu T 1; T 2 de o U O
thay ro dau la mau, dau la md, dau la
nao... va co the phan biet mau dang chay
deu trong mach mau hay mach mau bi Hinh 10.36. So sanh mat do proton d cac
vd, mau chay ngam ra ngoai. Bang ky bo phan trong cd the.
thuat xti ly anh, nhting cho co tin hieu
cong hudng ting vdi xUOng ngudi ta cho mau trang due, cho ting vdi mau cd mau
dd, cho ting vdi md cd mau vang nhat v.v... ngudi bac si de dang nhan dinh khi
chan doan benh (hinh 10.37).

So vdi chup anh cat ldp bang tia X (X-ray com puted tom ography) va mot
vai cach chup anh dung hat nhan phdng xa, phuong phap chup anh cat ldp cong
hudng tti hat nhan cd Uu diem ldn la khong dtia vao cd the ngudi bat cti btic xa ion
hda nao. Khi chup anh, cd the ngtidi chi chiu ba tac dung vat li: tti trudng tinh rat
—>
manh B0 , gradien tti trtidng va sdng radio.

374
Hinh 10.37. May chup hinh bang cong hu'dng ti/ hat nhan (hinh tren). Hinh anh mat cat
doc cua v u n g dot song co (hinh di/di, ben trai) va hinh anh mat cat ngang cua tuy song
(hinh di/di, ben phai)

375
 Tti triidng tinh B0 dtidc sii dung thiidng vao cd 1 Tesla trd len. manh gap
20.000 l i n tif trifdng Trai Dat. Theo nhieu ket qua nghien ciiu tif triidng manh
vao cd do tham chi den 2,5 Tesla van chiia co tac hai gi den co the. Con gradien tii
triidng khi bien thien manh cung chi gay ra trong cd the dong dien cam iing vdi
mat do dong vao cd lp A /cm 2. Gia tri nay cung qua nho khong gay hai gi. Diidi tac
dung cua song radio chieu vao, cd the chi hap thu het 0,7 W, tuong iing chi co the
lam nhiet do co the tang cd 0,1-0,2°C.
Dieu han che cua phuong phap cong htidng tif hat nhan la trong cd the
khong dtidc co manh kim loai, vat lieu tif, thi du manh bom, vien dan con sot lai
neu co diidi tac dung cua tif triidng cac loai vat lieu tif nay se bi hut manh va nong
len. Dac biet la nhiing ngtidi dung may trd tim, neu dua vao tif trtidng manh, may
bi hdng ngay va ngtidi mang may kho tranh khoi tti vong.
PhtiOng phap chup anh cat ldp cong htidng tti hat nhan cd nhieu tiu diem so
vdi cac phtidng phap chup anh cat ldp khac trong y hoc. Tin hieu cong htidng de
tao ra do dam, nhat, den, trang hay mau sac tren anh rat nhay cam vdi cau tao, td
chtic sinh hoc cua CO the. Tren anh cac to chtic, cac chd bat thtidng nhti mach mau
bi ran ntit, mau ri ra ngoai, kho'i u nhd chen day t h in kinh... rat de phan biet va
phat hien.

4. PHUONG PHAP PHONG XA

Ngay nay tren the gidi phtiOng phap phdng xa dang dtidc sti dung trong
nhieu nganh khoa hoc ky thuat va km h te. No dtidc sti dung rat rong rai trong y
sinh hoc. Trong y hoc ngoai viec dting btic xa de tieu diet cac yeu td gav benh va
te bao benh, ting dung ky thuat danh dau bang ddng vi phdng xa (dvpx) vao cac
chuyen khoa khac nhau, ban than no con tao ra mot chuyen khoa mdi la y hoc
hat nhan (yhhn). B in g cac phtiOng tien khac nhau, cac ket qua ghi do hoat do
phdng xa dtiOc the hien bang nhieu hinh thtic: so" xung, do thi, hinh anh. Tti dd
cac thay thuoc cd the danh gia cau true chtic nang va c h i n doan benh. Dtidi day
gidi thieu nhting ky thuat va noi dung chinh cua phtiOng phap sti dung cac dvpx
vao y sinh hoc.

4.1. Phirong phap danh dau phong xa

4.1.1. C a s a cua phuong phap danh dau phdng xa
Cho den nay viec ting dung dvpx vao chan doan va dieu tri da kha phat
trien, bao gom nhieu ky thuat. ting dung rong rai nhat v i n la ky thuat danh dau
phdng xa. Ky thuat nay dtia vao nhting dac diem sau day:

Ddng vi phdng xa va dong vi ben chiu moi qua trinh sinh ly va sinh hda nhti
nhau trong to chtic song. Ndi mot cach khac la to chtic song tti mtic do phan tti
den toan c0 the hay ca quan the nhieu vi sinh vat cung khdng phan biet dtidc
ddng vi ben va dvpx trong hoat dong sinh hoc cua minh trong luc dd lai eo the de
ghi do chung qua cac btic xa phat ra.

Khoi ltidng cac chat danh dau thtidng rat nhd va khong gay nen m o: ;u anh
htidng nao den hoat dong cua td chtic sdng. Cac ky thuat ap dung trong y hoc hat

376
nhan thtidng la khong gay thtidng ton (Non - invasive) bdi vi cao nhat cung chi la
thu thuat tiem tinh mach.
Chat danh dau (Tracer) ly ttidng nhat can co cac dac diem sau day:
- Co ti'nh chat hoan toan giong nhti do'i ttidng c i n khao sat.
- Chat danh dau dtidc ha'p thu hoan toan, nhanh chong va chi rieng ngay
tai cd quan, mo c i n khao sat (Target Organ).
- Nong do cua no it thay doi tai cho trong suo't qua trinh khao sat.
- Sau khi khao sat xong, no nhanh chong va hoan toan dtidc dao thai ra khoi cd
the.
- Btic xa phat ra tti chat danh dau de dang ghi do dtidc bang cac phtidng
tien san co (Loai tia, nang ltidng tia).
- Tao ra lieu ha'p thu tha'p nha't.

4.1.2. Cac ung dung cua phuong phap danh dau

- Tham do chtic nang cac te bao, mo, cd quan hay he tho'ng trong cd the sdng
Nghiem phap nay bao gom:
+ Chtic nang ha'p thu, chuyen hda, dao thai...
+ Dong hoc cua cac qua trinh nhti cua he t u ln hoan, tiet nieu.
+ Ham ltidng va nong do cua cac yeu to' thanh p h ln hoac nong do cua cac
hdp chat sinh hoc trong mot do'i ttidng khao sat nao dd nhti ham ltidng cac chat
dien giai, the tich cac dich trong cd the, the tich mau. kho'i ltidng hdng clu ... nong
do cac enzym, cac hormon trong mau, trong md...
Tti cac gia tri va nong do dd ta cd the danh gia dtidc cac chtic nang cd ban
cua td chtic song hay cd quan.
Cac gia tri thu dtidc cd the la cac do thi, bieu do, so' xung hoac gia tri tuyet
doi cua ham ltidng.
De thu dtidc cac nong do dd cd the do tting mau d tting thdi diem khac nhau,
dem xung hoac do hoat tinh tong cong; cd the do d mau rdi (invitro) hoac do ngay
tren cd the benh nhan (invivo); cd the bang nhting phep so sanh do'i chieu hoac
xac dinh gia tri tuyet do'i tti cac mau do.

- Dinh ltidng bang ky thuat mien dich phdng xa RIA va IRM A (Radio
Immuno Assay va Immuno Radio Metric Assay)

Thiic ra ky thuat nay cung la de danh gia va tham dd chtic nang cua cac
tuyen noi tiet. md hay phu tang. Tuy vay do cd sd khoa hoc cua ky thuat va kha
nang ting dung rong rai cua no trong chan doan va nghien ctiu. ngtidi ta tach rieng
thanh mot noi dung cua y hoc hat nhan. Ngay nay nhieu cd sd y hoc va khoa hoc cd
the chi xay dting rieng Labo RIA va IRMA de phuc vu cho cong viec cua minh. Nam
1960 ky thuat djnh ltidng mien dich phdng xa (RIA) dude khdi dau b l n g Yellow va
Berson vdi insulin. Do phat minh nay ma ho dtidc giai Nobel v hoc.

377
 Ky thuat nav cho phep dinh ltidng den cd nanogram (10 g) va picogram
(10 12g) vi tinh dac hieu rat cao cua phan ting mien dich. Ngoai ra no con cho phep
tti dong hoa do mau de xet nghiem hang loat.
+ Nguyen ly cua phtidng phap
Khdng nguyen du danh dau phong xa hay khong se ket hdp idi khang the
dac hieu "tao ra phan iing mien dich vd co phiic hcfp mdi. Cd sd cua ky thuat RIA la
hien tiidng canh tranh giiia khdng nguyen danh dau Ag' vd khong danh clau Ag
khi ket hdp vdi khdng the Ab. Neu cho mot liidng han che Ab thi khi khdng nguyen
khong danh dau A g (chat muon dinh liidng) trong mau tang, phiic hdp A g Ab
danh dau se giam.

k,
+Ag » AgAb

Ab

+Ag •*----------- A g Ab

Goi phan gan Ag*Ab la phiic hdp gan (Bound=B) vd phan A g *kh on g gan la
tii do (free=F), khi B giam xuong thi phan F se tang len vd ngiidc lai. Do do ty le
B I F co gid tri trong tinh toan vd dinh liidng.
X ac dinh ket qua bang cach so sanh vdi do thi chuan md true tung la ty le
cua B /F mau vd true hoanh la nong do chat can xac dinh. Cung co the tinh toan
theo tiidng quan B I T hoac B I Bo thay cho ty le B / F vd nong do. Trong do T la
tong hoat tinh mau (B+F) vd Bo la phan gan (bound fraction) d diem 0 cua do thi.
(nong do = 0). Ve sau ky thuat nay dd diidc cai tien thanh phiidng p h ap mien dich
p h on g xa khong canh tranh: Im m unioradiom etric assay (IRMAj do Miller vd
Hales de xiidng nam 1968 nhiing mai den nam 1980 mdi diidc iing dung rong rai
trong lam sdng. Nguyen ly cua no la Chat can dinh liidng (hormon chang han) van
dong vai tro A g nhiing luc nay khdng cho vao mau A g * vd Ab thiidng de ket hdp
fihii trong RIA nita md cho A b * danh dau. Liidng Ab* cho that dii thiia thi hoat
tinh px cua p han gan (B) Ab*Ag se ti le thuan vdi nong do chat can dinh liidng Ag.
Ky thuat nay cho phep iing dung cdc Ab ddn ddng (monoclonalj nen cho cdc
ket qua vdi do dac hieu vd chinh xac cao hdn RIA.
- De thiic hien diidc ky thuat RIA hoac IRM A can cd
+ Chat danh dau phdng xa A g * hoac Ab*.
+ Chat gan dac hieu: khdng the (Ab)
+ He thong de tach rieng phan B vd F.
+ Chat can dinh liidng de lap do thi chuan.
Nhii vay 2 khau quan trong md mot labo rieng phai tit lam diidc l a t a o ra
Ab* hoac Ag* vd Ab dac hieu (Antiserum chiia Ab dac hieu ddi vdi A g nhdt dinh
nao do).

378
 Hien nay ky thuat nay dd ditdc dp dung rong rdi trong lam sdng va d phdng
thi nghiem.
- Ghi hinh phong xa
Viec the hien bang hinh anh (ghi hinh) biic xa phat ra tti cac mo, phu tang
va ton thtidng trong cd the benh nhan de danh gia sti phan bo" cac dtidc chat phong
xa danh d lu d do cung ngay cang tot hdn nhd vao cac tien bo cd hoc va dien tti, tin

Co nhieu ky thuat ghi hinh phong xa : ghi hinh vach thang, chup nhap nhay
(gamm camera), chup cat ldp bang ddn photon (SPECT - Single Photon Emission
Computerized Tomography) va chup cat ldp bang positron (PET - Positron
Emission Tomography).

Hinh 10.38. Tren xa hinh tuyen Hinh 10.39. Xa hinh toan than vdi MDP danh
giap co vung khong bat iod phong dau Tc-99m a benh nhan bi ung thti xi/dng
xa d day va giura thuy phai (nhan (osteocarcinoma) da di can vao phoi. Benh
lanh) do nang tuyen giap. nhan da bi thao khdp hang chi di/di ben trai.

4.2. Phtidng phap dung nguon chieu xa

4.2.1. Dung nguon chieu de chan doan benh

Vdi sti chieu tia tao ra cac phan ting hat nhan thich hdp cung co the coi ky
thuat dinh ludng kich hoat bang Neutron (Neutron Activization Analysis) la mot
ky thuat y hoc hat nhan bdi vi bang ky thuat do chung ta co the dinh ltidng cac
yeu to vi. da ltidng trong cac mau sinh hoc (mau. da. toe...) de chan doan benh.

Nguyen ly cua ky thuat nay la co the bien mot dong vi ben thanh dong vi
phong xa bang cach ban cac Neutron thich hdp vao hat nhan cua dong vi ben.
Ngtidi ta xac dinh ham ltidng dong vi ben bang cach do dem phong xa phat ra tti
dong vi phong xa mdi dtidc tao ra sau khi chieu Neutron. Vi du: !5Mn (n.y) 5(1 Mn

379
hay 16 O (n, P) 16 X trong do: 03 Mn, lb0 la nhiing dong vi ben (dong vi me). Mn va
N la nhUng dong vi phong xa (dong vi con).
Tat nhien hoat tfnh phong xa thu dUdc phu thuoc nhieu veu to nhti:

- Nong do cua dong vi me co trong mau.

Thong liidng va dac diem cua chum Xeutron.
- Tiet dien cua hieu iing.
- Thdi gian chieu.
Khi chieu neutron vao mau co the xay ra nhieu loai phan iing va co nhieu
dong vi phong xa con diidc tao ra. Vi vay can phai phan tach. tinh sach bang cac
ky thuat hoa hoc va vat ly khac nhau. Tuy vay no cho phep xac dinh rat chinh xac
nhiing yeu to vi liidng trong cd the nhii: Fe. Sc, Zn, Rb, Mn. Cr. Co. Cu. Cs. K, Th,
Au, Mg, Na, Br, As, I... hoac nhiing yeu to da liidng nhii C, O, X. Ca... trong cd
the. Til do co the chan doan duoc nhieu benh khac nhau ve roi loan chuyen hoa,
hap thu, tim mach, tieu hoa, tam than...

4.2.2. Dung nguon chieu trong dieu tri

Mot iing dung niia trong y hoc hat nhan la tac dung sinh hoc cua tia phong
xa khi dUdc hap thu vao to chiic sinh hoc. X g ay til dau ngUdi ta da thay ro tac
dung diet te bao cua biic xa ion hoa va da sii dung no trong nhieu phan nganh
khac nhau cua sinh hoc va y hoc (diet khuan va diet te bao benh). Vdi nhiing hieu
biet ngay cang sau sac ve cd che truyen nang liidng, cd che diet bao, cac dac diem
vat ly cua biic xa, cac yeu to’ anh hiidng cua moi triidng (nhiet do, nong do oxy...)
ngay cang co nhieu cai tien ve ky thuat xa tri. Day la sii dung tac dung sinh hoc
cac biic xa ion hoa len cac mam benh, te bao benh. No cung tao ra nhiing Idi fch
thiet thiic va luon luon doi mdi trong y hoc. Chung bao gom:

- Dieu tri chieu ngoai (Teletherapy)

Vdi viec sii dung cac tia X, tia gamma ciing va ca cac may gia to’c de diet cac
te bao ung thu.

- Dieu tri ap sat (Brachytherapy)

Bao gom ca ludi dao gamma (Gamma knife), cac nguon kin (kim. hat...) va
nguon hd (Applicator) su dung cac dong vi phong xa phat ra beta cung hoac
gamma mem. No bao gom ca ky thuat ddn gian de dieu tri benh ngoai da hoac ky
thuat phUc tap nhu dua ca nguon 9uY vao khoi u tuyen yen hay ket hop vdi phau
thuat de dua cac nguon xa kin vao tan cac hoc tii nhien.

Ky thuat dieu tri ap sat da dUdc cai tien rat nhieu lam xuat hien cac phudng
phap mdi nhu dieu tri nap nguon sau (After Loading Therapy), lap ke hoach dieu
tri theo kich thudc khoi u (Dim entional Treatm ent Planing) hoac dung thiet bi
dat tien (Gam m a Knife) de chua cac benh ve mach mau trong hop so.
Ngoai cac dong vi phong xa co dien nhu 222Ra, c°Co. 90Y ngay nay r.euoi ta
con dung nhieu dong vi phong xa mdi trong dieu tri ap sat nhu Palludiurr. - 107.
Samarium - 145. Am ericum - 241. Y te rb n u m - 169.

380
 - Dieu tri bang cdc nguon hd (Curietherapy)
Day thac sti la mot biidc tien dai va lam thay doi ve ban chat ky thuat xa tri.
Diia vao cac hoat ti'nh chuyen hoa binh thiidng (te bao tuyen giap hap thu lode)
hoac thay doi benh ly (kho’i ung thii hap thu nhiing phan tii hiiu cd dac hieu) ngiidi
ta cho cac nguon hd phong xa vao den cac to chiic dich (Target Tissue) bj benh de
dieu tri. Cac dong vi phong xa con diidc diia vao cac to chiic dich nhd vao qua trinh
cd hoc nhii diia vao khi phe quan va phoi nhd sii thong khi (Ventilation), vao da day
(nhd dong tac nuo’t), vao cac te bao mau (nhd tuan hoan mau)...
B ln g cac nguon phong xa h6 thich hdp ngay nay chung ta co the dieu tri
diidc mot so" benh tuyen giap, benh mau, cd xiidng khdp, tac mach vanh va nhieu
benh ung thii ciing di can cua no.

4.2.3. Mot so muc dich khac cua chieu xa

Viec ap dung cac nguon chieu xa trong nganh sinh hoc co the dat mot trong
cac muc dich sau day:
- Tieu diet cdc nam, moc, vi sinh vat gay hai:
Liidng thiic, thiic pham co the bj hu hong, kem pham chat trong thdi gian
cat giti, nhat la d vung nhiet ddi. Nhin chung, sti hao hut do bao quan thtidng la
5% va co khi len den 60%. Khong phai ltic nao chung ta cung xii ly dtidc bang
nhiet vdi khoi ltidng ldn. Dting hoa chat co khi khong co ket qua va co the gay tac
dung xau cho ngtidi sti dung cac ltidng thtic, thtic pham do. Chieu xa la de tieu
diet nam, moc, vi sinh vat, sau bo gay hti hong ltidng thtic, thtic pham. Muon vay
phai dung nhting lieu rat ldn. Cac nghien ctiu cho thay lieu 5.000 h- 15.000 R co
the han che sti sinh trtidng cua sau bo, lieu 20.000 R co the giet chet ca trting sau.
Lieu ltidng dung trtidc het phu thuoc vao loai vi khuan va moi trtidng chieu xa.
Vdi nhting lieu ldn nhti vay ngtidi ta con phai quan tam den hau qua xay ra sau
chieu xa trong ltidng thtic thtic pham. Lieu co sti phan huy va lam giam chat
ltidng dinh dtidng hoac lam xuat hien nhting chat doc hai mdi do chieu xa khong?
Qua nhieu lan thi nghiem, ngtidi ta thay vdi lieu 7.000 -h 10.000 R co the bao quan
khoai tav lau ngav khong nay mam va cung khong gay hai cho stic khoe ngtidi sii
dung. Khoai tay nay mam la do qua trinh tong hdp acid nhan d nhting diem sinh
trtidng. Viec chieu xa co the lam cham qua trinh tong hdp nay lai.
Doi vdi con trting gay hai, ngoai viec tieu diet ban than con trung bang tia
xa, ngtidi ta con muon tao ra nhting thuoc tinh di truyen bat Idi nhti gay vo sinh
cho con trung dtic roi tung chting vao moi trtidng chung sinh song. Ky thuat nay
co nhieu Idi ich vi vdi lieu khoang 8.000 R co the lam con dtic mat kha nang sinh
san, tao ra nhting trting ung va do do sau mot thdi gian, ca tap hop con trting bj
diet vong.

Tti trtidc tdi nay, thtidng khi khti trting dung cu y te. chi khau. thuoc. vaccin
bang hoa chat (thuoc sat trting. tay rtia, con...) va nhiet nang (luoc. hap, say.
dot...). Cac cach sti ly do khong phai luc nao cung ap dung dude va co the lam hti
hong mot phan hoac toan bo san pham. Tti sau dai ehien the gidi lan thti hai,
ngtidi ta ap dung rong rai viec dting btic xa ion hoa de tieu diet cac vi sinh vat d
cac san pham y te da neu d tren. Ngay nay, nhieu loai thuoc. gang tay phau

381
thu^t, dung cu tiem truyen, dung cu phau thu&t dtidc xuat xtidng sau khi ap dung
viec khii trung bang biic xa ion hoa.
Thuc ra viec xac dinh cai chet cua vi sinh vat d day rat kho Thong thtidng,
chi co the kiem tra sti "vo trung" cua san p h im ma thoi. Lay nhting mau vat cua
san pham, u trong nhiet do thuan Idi cho sti phat trien cua vi khuan <30'C, 37 C
va 55°C). Nuoi cay tiep vao nhting moi trtidng thich hdp. Neu khong thay vi
khuan phat trien (moc thanh cac khuan lac hoac lam thay doi moi trtidng nuoi
c l y vi khuan) thi dtidc coi la "vo trung".
- Kich thich cay trong, hat giong vd gay dot bien gen co lefi de tao giong mdi:
Ket qua nghien ctiu cho thay, vdi mot lieu nhat dinh co the tang thu hoach
va thuc daiy sti phat trien cua cay. Co the dieu khien sti sinh trtidng va phat trien
cua cay trong bang cach ltia chon lieu chieu xa vao nhting thdi ky phat trien nhat
dinh cua cay. Sd dl vay la vi btic xa da tac dong len sti phan chia te bao d cay.
Chieu nhting lieu nho vao hat giong trtidc khi gieo trong co the ki'ch thich sinh
trtidng nhanh, chong gay benh va rut ngan thdi gian thu hoach.
Cac nguon ldn bang j0Co va 13‘Cs thtidng dtidc dung vao cac muc dich nay.
- Biic xa ion hod co the gay nen nhiing bien doi 6 cdc chat lieu di truyen Id
A D N vd RNA, tao ra cdc dot bien:
Cd che gay dot bien rat phtic tap va tuy thuoc vao btic xa, suat lieu, lieu
ltidng, v.v... Ngtidi ta da tien hanh hang loat thi nghiem, chon lay cac ca the co
xuat hien nhting dot bien co Idi, cung co no va nhan len qua nhieu the he. Tti do co
the tao ra mot giong mdi on dinh nhting thuoc tinh mdi. Do la nhting cong viec
cong phu, keo dai hang chuc nam. Bang dtidi day cho ta mot vai vi du da thu dtidc.
Nhting dot bien thu dtidc bang chieu xa d mot so" cay trong

Dja diem va thdi gian

Cay trong Chung dot bien J u diem m d i xuat hien
tao dot bien

Cai dau he Regina Thuy Dien, 1953 N3ng suat c a o '

Lua mach mua dong Jutta O u t, 1953 C hiu ret, nang suat cao

Yen mach Florad Florida, 1960 Khang benh tan lui

Lua mach mua xuan Mari Thuy D ien, 1960 Chin sdm

Dai cuong c h ^u han,

Lua mi NP 836 An Do 1960
nang suat cao

382
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