King Abdulaziz University – Faculty of Engineering

EE 251: Basic Electrical Engineering

Spring 2021 - Section: DA Week 8

Eng. Abdullah Alturki

Eng. Mohammed Alsulami

Class is conducted via blackboard if possible. If not, then is conducted via Zoom
Reference: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by Charles K. Alexander and Matthew n. o. Sadiku
2nd Part of the Course: AC Circuits

1
AC Circuits Outlines
• Chapter 9: Sinusoids and Phasors.
➢ Introduction to AC circuits and the difference between DC and AC circuits.
➢ Replacement of passive elements values in phasors and Kirchhoff’s laws in AC.
• Chapter 10: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis.
➢ Applying the methods of analysis (mesh and nodal), source transformation, superposition
and theorems (Thevenin’s and Norton’s) learned in DC into AC circuits.
• Chapter 11: AC Power Analysis.
➢ Calculating the power for AC circuits.
➢ Finding the RMS value (equivalent to the DC value).
• Chapter 12: Three-Phase Circuits.
➢ Introduction to 3-phase circuits and calculations.
➢ The difference in connection of 3-phase as oppose to single phase circuits.
• Chapter 13: Magnetically Coupled Circuits.
➢ Understanding the principle of mutual inductance and thus the most important machine in
Electricity Transformers.

2
Chapter.9 Sinusoids and Phasors

3
9.1 Introduction
• So far, we have considered DC circuits.
• From now on we’ll talk about circuits where the voltage or current source is
time varying (AC), and specifically in this chapter we’ll talk about sinusoid.
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
• A sinusoidal current is called AC, and circuits driven by sinusoidal current, or
sinusoidal voltage is called AC circuits.
➢ Sinusoids.
➢ Phasors.
➢ Phasor relationships for circuit elements.
➢ The concept of impedance and admittance.
➢ Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s law in the frequency domain.

4
9.2 Sinusoids
• Consider the sinusoidal function:
➢ 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
➢ 𝑉𝑚 : the amplitude of the sinusoid (peak)
➢ 𝜔: the angular frequency in rad/s
➢ 𝜔𝑡: the argument of the sinusoid
• 𝜔𝑇 = 2𝜋
2𝜋
• 𝑇= , T: period of the sinusoid.
𝜔
• This is a periodic function (Notice how v(t) repeats itself).
• A periodic function is one that satisfies 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇) f (t), for all 𝑡 and for all integers 𝑛.
1
• 𝑓= , 𝑓 is the frequency (how many cycle in one second) and measured in Hertz (Hz).
𝑇
• T is the time of one complete cycle
• 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
• Now consider the sinusoidal function:
• 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), 𝜙: is the phase shift.

5
9.2 Sinusoids
• Let us compare the following functions:

• 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡), 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

• We say that 𝑣2 leads 𝑣1 by 𝜙 or 𝑣1 lags 𝑣2 by 𝜙.

• If 𝜙 = zero, then the two are in phase.

• If 𝜙 ≠ zero, then the two are out of phase.

6
9.2 Sinusoids
• Let us review the following trigonometric identities
➢ sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± sin 𝐵 cos 𝐴
➢ cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
• From the above two equations we can extract many equations.
➢ sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 90°) = sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 90° ± sin 90° cos 𝜔𝑡 = ± cos 𝜔𝑡
➢ cos 𝜔𝑡 ± 90° = cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 90° ∓ sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 90° = ∓ sin 𝜔𝑡
➢ sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 180°) = sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 180° ± sin 180° cos 𝜔𝑡 = − sin 𝜔𝑡
➢ cos 𝜔𝑡 ± 180° = cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 180° ∓ sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 180° = − cos 𝜔𝑡
➢ We notice that cos ωt is leading sin ωt by 90°
➢ sin(𝜔𝑡 + 90°) = cos 𝜔𝑡

7
9.2 Sinusoids
• We notice that cos ωt is leading sin ωt by 90°
➢ sin(𝜔𝑡 + 90°) = cos 𝜔𝑡
• And based on that we build the following graph of sin 𝜔𝑡 and cos 𝜔𝑡 separated by
90°, we can say
➢ 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃
• And from Pythagoras theorem
➢ 𝐶 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2
𝐵
➢ 𝜃 = tan−1
𝐴
➢ Let us take the following graph as an example
➢ 3 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 = 5 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 53.1°

8
9.2 Sinusoids
• Example.1
• Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoid
𝑣 𝑡 = 12 cos(50𝑡 + 10°)

➢ The amplitude is 𝑉𝑚 = 12 𝑉
➢ The phase is 𝜙 = 10°
➢ The angular frequency is 𝜔 = 50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2𝜋 2𝜋
➢ The period is 𝑇 = = = 0.1257𝑠
𝜔 50
1 1
➢ The frequency is 𝑓 = = = 7.958 𝐻𝑧, or it can be calculated
𝑇 0.1257
➢ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔 50
➢ 𝑓= = = 7.958 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 2𝜋

9
9.2 Sinusoids
• Example.2
• Given the sinusoid 30 sin(4𝜋𝑡 − 75°) calculate its amplitude, phase, angular
frequency, period, and frequency.

➢ The amplitude is 𝑉𝑚 = 30 𝑉
➢ The phase is 𝜙 = −75°
➢ The angular frequency is 𝜔 = 12.57 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2𝜋 2𝜋
➢ The period is 𝑇 = = = 0.5𝑠
𝜔 12.57
1 1
➢ The frequency is 𝑓 = = = 2 𝐻𝑧
𝑇 0.5

10
9.2 Sinusoids
• Example.3
• Find the phase angle difference between 𝑣1 𝑡 = 5 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 20°) and
𝑣2 𝑡 = 13 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 25°). Which voltage is leading?

➢ The phase difference is 25° − 20° = 45°

➢ 𝑣2 𝑡 is leading 𝑣1 𝑡 by 45°.
Or 𝑣1 𝑡 is lagging 𝑣2 𝑡 by 45°.

11
9.2 Sinusoids
• Example.4
• Calculate the phase angle between 𝑣1 𝑡 = −10 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 50°) and 𝑣2 𝑡
= 12 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 10°). State which sinusoid is leading.
➢ Before anything we notice two things:
➢ One function is cos and the other is sin, so they need to be unified.
➢ Cos function is negative (180° phase shift).
➢ 𝑣1 𝑡 = −10 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 50° = 10 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 50° − 180°
➢ 𝑣1 𝑡 = 10 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 130°
➢ 𝑣2 𝑡 = 12 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 10° = 12 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 10° − 90°).
➢ 𝑣2 𝑡 = 12 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 100°).
➢ Now both are unified the phase difference is 130° − 100° = 30°
➢ 𝑣2 𝑡 is leading 𝑣1 𝑡 by 30°.
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9.2 Sinusoids
• Example.5
• Find the phase angle between 𝑖1 𝑡 = −4 𝑠𝑖𝑛(377𝑡 + 55°) and 𝑖2 𝑡
= 5 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 65°). Does 𝑖1 lead or lag 𝑖2 ?

➢ To compare we’ll make it all in sin and in positive value:

➢ 𝑖1 𝑡 = −4 𝑠𝑖𝑛(377𝑡 + 55°) = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛(377𝑡 + 55° + 180°)
➢ 𝑖1 𝑡 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛(377𝑡 + 235°)
➢ 𝑖2 𝑡 = 5 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 65°) = 5 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 65° + 90°)
➢ 𝑖2 𝑡 = 5 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 25°)
➢ Now both are unified the phase difference is 235° − 25° = 210°
➢ 𝑖1 𝑡 is leading 𝑖2 𝑡 by 210°.

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9.3 Phasors
• A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
• It simplifies analyzing linear circuits with sinusoidal sources.
• A complex number can be written as:
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦, Rectangular form where,
• 𝑥: the real part of the number
• 𝑦: the imaginary part of the number with 𝑗 = −1
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜙, Polar form where,
➢ 𝑟 is the magnitude of 𝑧,
➢ 𝜙 is the phase of 𝑧.
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜙 , Exponential form

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9.3 Phasors
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦, Rectangular form
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜙, Polar form
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜙 , Exponential form
• To obtain the value of 𝑟 and 𝜙 from the rectangular form of 𝑧, we draw the
real and imaginary axis’s
➢ 𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦
➢ 𝜙 = tan−1
𝑥

➢ And if we want to know the value of 𝑟 and 𝜙, we can obtain the value of 𝑥
and 𝑦 out of 𝑧, we draw the real and imaginary axes.
➢ 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜙
➢ 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜙
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟∠𝜙 = 𝑟 (cos 𝜙 + 𝑗 sin 𝜙)
➢ How to apply the basic math operation on complex numbers?

15
9.3 Phasors
• How to apply the basic math operation on complex numbers?
➢ Addition: 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑗(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) Rectangular form
➢ Subtraction: 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑗(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) Rectangular form
➢ Multiplication: 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 ∠𝜙1 + 𝜙2 Polar form
𝑧1 𝑟1
➢ Division: = ∠𝜙1 − 𝜙2 Polar form
𝑧2 𝑟2
1 1
➢ Reciprocal: = ∠ − 𝜙 Polar form
𝑧 𝑟

➢ Root square: 𝑧 = 𝑟∠ 𝜙ൗ2 Polar form

➢ Complex conjugate : 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑥 − 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟∠ − 𝜙 = 𝑟𝑒 −𝑗𝜙
➢ Euler’s identity: 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜙 = (cos 𝜙 ± 𝑗 sin 𝜙)

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9.3 Phasors
• Phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity
𝑒 ±𝑗𝜙 = (cos 𝜙 ± 𝑗 sin 𝜙)
➢ Notice the real part {Re(𝑒 𝑗𝜙 )} is cos 𝜙 and the imaginary part {Im(𝑒 𝑗𝜙 )} is sin 𝜙
➢ Now we can represent the sinusoid voltage or current in phasors.
➢ Remember: 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 ⇔ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙
(Time-domain representation) (Phasor-domain representation)
➢ And by transforming into polar form, any other form can be converted to.

17
9.3 Phasors
• Transforming between Time-domain representation and Phasor-domain
representation (frequency-domain).
• Notice in the voltage case, the angle is represented by 𝜙 and in the current case
the angle is represented by 𝜃.
• Converting derivatives and integral from time-domain into phase-domain
𝑑𝑣
➢ ⇔ 𝑗𝜔𝑉
𝑑𝑡

𝑉
➢ ‫⇔ 𝑡𝑑𝑣 ׬‬
𝑗𝜔

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9.3 Phasors
• Example.6
1Τ
• Evaluate the following complex numbers: (a) 40∠50° + 20∠ − 30° 2

10∠−30°+(3−j4)
b) (2+j4)(3−j5)∗

a) Convert to rectangular for addition:

1Τ 1Τ
➢ 40∠50° → 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 ➢ 43.03 + 𝑗20.64 2 → 𝑟∠𝜙 2

➢ 𝑥 = 40 cos 50° = 25.71. ➢ 𝑟 = 43.032 + 20.642 = 47.72

➢ 𝑦 = 40 sin 50° = 30.64. ➢ 𝜙 = tan−1
20.64
= 25.63°
43.03
➢ 40∠50° → 25.71 + 𝑗30.64 1Τ 1Τ
➢ 43.03 + 𝑗20.64 2 → 47.72∠25.63° 2
➢ 20∠ − 30° → ? 1Τ 25.63°
➢ 47.72∠25.63° 2 = 47.72∠
➢ 20∠ − 30° → 17.32 − 𝑗10 2
1Τ
➢ Add the two ➢ 40∠50° + 20∠ − 30° 2 → 6.91∠12.81°

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9.3 Phasors
• Example.6
10∠−30°+(3−j4)
b) (2+j4)(3−j5)∗

➢ 10∠ − 30° → 8.66 − 𝑗5

➢ 8.66 − 𝑗5 + 3 − 𝑗4 = 11.66 − 𝑗9
➢ (3 − j5)∗ = 3 + j5
➢ 3 + j5 → 5.83∠59.04°
➢ 2 + j4 → 4.47∠63.43°
➢ 5.83∠59.04° 4.47∠63.43°
➢ = 26.08∠122.47°, so
11.66−𝑗9 14.73∠−37.66°
➢ →
26.08∠122.47° 26.08∠122.47°
➢ = 0.565∠ − 160.13°

20
9.3 Phasors
• Example.7
• Evaluate the following complex numbers: (a) 5 + j2 −1 + j4 − 5∠60° ∗

10+j5+3∠40°
b) (−3+j4)
+ 10∠30° + j5

a) 5 + j2 → 5.39∠21.8°
➢ −1 + j4 → 4.12∠104.04°
➢ 5.39∠21.8° 4.12∠104.04°
➢ = 22.21∠125.84° → −13 + 𝑗18
➢ 5∠60° → 2.5 + 𝑗4.33
➢ −13 + 𝑗18 − 2.5 + 𝑗4.33
➢ = −15.5 + 𝑗13.67 take the conjugate *
➢ = −15.5 − 𝑗13.67

21
9.3 Phasors
• Example.7
10+j5+3∠40°
b) (−3+j4)
+ 10∠30° + j5

b) 3∠40° → 2.3 + j1.93

➢ 10 + 𝑗5 + 2.3 + j1.93 = 12.3 + 𝑗6.93
➢ 12.3 + j6.93 → 14.12∠29.4°
➢ −3 + j4 → 5∠126.87°
14.12∠29.4°
➢ = 2.82∠ − 97.47° = −0.367 − 𝑗2.8
5∠126.87°
➢ 10∠30° → 8.66 + 𝑗5
➢ −0.367 − 𝑗2.8 + 8.66 + 𝑗5 + 𝑗5
➢ = 8.293 + 𝑗7.2

22
9.3 Phasors
• Example.8
• Transform the following sinusoids to phasors
a) 𝑖 = 6 cos 50𝑡 − 40° A
b) 𝑣 = −4 sin 30t + 50° V
• 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 ⇔ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙
a) 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 ∠𝜙
➢ I = 6∠ − 40° A
b) The voltage is in sine with a negative value
➢ 𝑣 = −4 sin 30t + 50° V
➢ 𝑣 = −4 cos 30t + 50° − 90° V
➢ 𝑣 = −4 cos 30t − 40° V = 4 cos 30t − 40° + 180° V = 4 cos 30t + 140° V
➢ V = 4∠140° V

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9.3 Phasors
• Example.9
• Find the sinusoids represented by these phasors
a) I = −3 + j4 A
b) V = j8𝑒 −𝑗20° V
a) Transform from rectangular to polar
➢ I = −3 + j4 A = 5∠126.87° A
➢ 𝑖(𝑡) = 5 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 126.87° A
b) Transform from exponential to polar
➢ 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜙 → 𝑟∠𝜙
➢ V = j8𝑒 −𝑗20° V = j8∠ − 20°, j = 1∠90° (from real and imaginary axis)
➢ V = (1∠90°)(8∠ − 20°)=8∠70°
➢ 𝑣(𝑡) = 8 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 70° V

24
9.3 Phasors
• Example.10
• Given 𝑖1 (𝑡) = 4 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 30° A and 𝑖2 (𝑡) = 5 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 20° A , find their
sum.
➢ First transform from time-domain into phasor-domain (Polar Form)
➢ I1 = 4∠30° A
➢ 𝑖2 𝑡 = 5 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 20° A = 5 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 20° − 90° A = 5 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 110° A
➢ I2 = 5∠ − 110° A
➢ Now transform both from polar form into rectangular form
➢ I1 = 4∠30° A = 3.46 + j2 A
➢ I2 = 5∠ − 110° A = −1.71 − j4.7 A
➢ I = I1 + I2 = 3.46 + j2 + −1.71 − j4.7 = 1.75 − j2.7
➢ I = 3.217∠ − 57.05° A

25
9.3 Phasors
• Example.11
• Using the phasor approach, determine the current 𝑖(𝑡) in a circuit described by
the integrodifferential equation.
𝑑𝑖
4𝑖 + 8 න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 − 3 = 50 cos 2𝑡 + 75°
𝑑𝑡
➢ Transform each part form time-domain into phasor-domain
➢ 4𝑖 → 4I
8I
➢ 8 ‫→ 𝑡𝑑𝑖 ׬‬
jω
𝑑𝑖
➢ 3 → 3𝑗𝜔I
𝑑𝑡
➢ 50 cos 2𝑡 + 75° → 50∠75°
8I
4I + − 3𝑗𝜔I = 50∠75°
jω

26
9.3 Phasors
• Example.11
8I
4I + − 3𝑗𝜔I = 50∠75°
jω
➢ ω = 2 rad/s (from the question)
8
➢ 4+ − 3𝑗𝜔 I = 50∠75°
jω

➢ 4 − 𝑗4 − 𝑗6 I = 50∠75°
50∠75° 50∠75° 50∠75°
➢ I= = = = 4.642∠143.2° A
4−𝑗4−𝑗6 4−𝑗10 10.77∠−68.2°

➢ 𝑖(𝑡) = 4.642 cos 2𝑡 + 143.2° A

27
9.4 Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements
• We studied before in DC the relationship between voltage and current
of the passive elements (resistor, capacitor and inductor) in time
domain. Now we consider the same three passive elements in phasor
domain (frequency domain).
1. Resistor (R)
• If a current passing through a resistor is
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 ⇔ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙
• Then the voltage across it by ohm’s law
➢ 𝑣 = 𝑖R = R𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 time domain
• So, in phasor domain is V = RI = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙 I = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙
• Notice how the voltage and current are in phase.

28
9.4 Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements
2. Inductor (L)
• If a current passing through an inductor is
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 ⇔ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙
• Then the voltage across the inductor is
𝑑𝑖
➢ 𝑣=𝐿 = −𝜔L𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 time domain
𝑑𝑡
• Knowing that −sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 90°)
• 𝑣 = 𝜔L𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 90°
• Drawing the phasor relationship.
• So, in phasor domain is 𝑒 𝑗90° = 𝑗
V = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜙+90°) = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙 + 90° = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼
• Notice how the voltage and current are out of phase by 90°.
• The current lags the voltage by 90°.

29
9.4 Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements
3. Capacitor (C)
• If a voltage across a capacitor is
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 ⇔ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙
• Then the current passing through the capacitor is
𝑑𝑣
➢ 𝑖=𝐶 = −𝜔L𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 time domain
𝑑𝑡
• Knowing that −sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 90°)
• 𝑖 = 𝜔C𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 90°
• Drawing the phasor relationship.
• So, in phasor domain is 𝑒 𝑗90° = 𝑗
I = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜙+90°) = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙 + 90° = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉
• Notice how the voltage and current are out of phase by 90°.
• The current leads the voltage by 90°.

30
9.4 Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements
• The following table summarizes the current-voltage relationship for the passive
elements.
• With 𝐈 being 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙
• Subsequently we can get the current from the voltage

31
9.4 Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements
• Example.12
• The voltage 𝑣 = 10 cos 100𝑡 + 30° V is applied to a 50 µF capacitor. calculate
the current through the capacitor.
➢ 𝐈 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐕
➢ 𝐶 = 50 µF
➢ 𝜔 = 100 rad/s
➢ 𝐕 = 10∠30° V
➢ 𝐈 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐕 = 𝑗 100 50 ∗ 10−6 10∠30° = 𝑗 0.005 10∠30°
= 1∠90° 0.005∠0° 10∠30° = 50∠120° mA
➢ 𝑖(𝑡) = 50 cos 100𝑡 + 120° mA
➢ Notice the current leads the voltage by 90° in a capacitor.

32
9.4 Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements
• Example.13
• The voltage 𝑣 = 12 cos 60𝑡 + 45° V is applied to a 0.1-H inductor. Find the
steady-state current through the inductor.
➢ 𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈
➢ 𝐿 = 0.1 H
➢ 𝜔 = 60 rad/s
➢ 𝐕 = 12∠45° V
𝐕 12∠45° 12∠45°
➢ 𝐈= = = = 2∠ − 45° A
𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑗(60)(0.1) 6∠90°

➢ 𝑖(𝑡) = 2 cos 60𝑡 − 45° A

➢ Notice the current lags the voltage by 90° in an inductor.

33
9.5 Impedance and Admittance
𝐈
𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈 𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈 𝐕=
𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝐕 𝐕 𝐕 1
=𝑅 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 =
𝐈 𝐈 𝐈 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝐕
• 𝐙= 𝐕 = 𝐙𝐈, (Ohm’s law in phasor form)
𝐈

• The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I,
measured in ohms (Ω).
• The impedance represents the opposition of the flow of a sinusoidal current.
• The impedance is not a phasor and depends on the frequency.
• If the frequency is zero or infinity (𝜔 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 = ∞) what will be the value of 𝐙𝐿 and 𝐙𝐶 ?
• The impedance in complex form: 𝐙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
• Is the real part of Z which is the resistance
• Is the imaginary part and is called the reactance

34
9.5 Impedance and Admittance
• The impedance in complex form: 𝐙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
➢ 𝑅 Is the real part of Z which is the resistance
➢ 𝑋 Is the imaginary part and is called the reactance
• The reactance may be positive or negative. If 𝑋 is positive then the reactance is
inductive, if 𝑋 is negative the reactance is capacitive.
𝐙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 (Inductive) 𝐙 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋 (Capacitive)
• The impedance in complex polar form: 𝐙 = 𝐙 ∠𝜃
𝑋
• 𝐙 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑅

• 𝑅 = 𝐙 cos 𝜃 𝑋 = 𝐙 sin 𝜃

35
9.5 Impedance and Admittance
• The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in
siemens (S).
1 𝐈
• 𝐘= =
𝐙 𝐕

• 𝐘 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵
➢ 𝐺 is the real part and is called conductance.
➢ 𝐵 is the imaginary part and is called susceptance.
1 1
• Note 𝐺 ≠ , and 𝐵 ≠
𝑅 𝑋

• The following table summarizes the impedance and admittance

for the passive elements.

36
9.5 Impedance and Admittance
• Example.14
• Find 𝑣 𝑡 and 𝑖 𝑡 in the shown circuit.
➢ Transform all values into phasor frequency domain
➢ 𝐕𝐬 = 10∠0° V
1
➢ 𝐙=5+
𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
➢ 𝐙=5+ = 5 − 𝑗2.5 Ω
𝑗(4)(0.1)
𝐕𝐬 10∠0° 10∠0°
➢ 𝐈= = = = 1.789∠26.57° A
𝐙 5−𝑗2.5 5.59∠−26.57°
𝐈 1.789∠26.57° 1.789∠26.57°
➢ 𝐕 = 𝐈𝒁𝑪 = = = = 4.47∠ − 63.43° V
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗0.4 0.4∠90°

➢ Convert into time domain

➢ 𝑖(𝑡) = 1.789 cos 4𝑡 + 26.57° A
➢ 𝑣 𝑡 = 4.47 cos 4𝑡 − 63.43° V, Notice the current Leads the voltage by 90°.
37
9.5 Impedance and Admittance
• Example.15
• Find 𝑣 𝑡 and 𝑖 𝑡 in the shown circuit.
➢ 𝑣𝑠 𝑡 = 20 sin 10𝑡 + 30° − 90° V = 20 cos 10𝑡 − 60° V
➢ 𝐕𝐬 = 20∠ − 60° V
➢ 𝐙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = 4 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 4 + 𝑗 10 0.2 = 4 + 𝑗2 Ω
𝐕𝐬 20∠−60°
➢ 𝐈= = = 4.472∠ − 86.57° A
𝐙 4+𝑗2 Ω

➢ 𝐕 = 𝐈𝒁𝑳 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈 = 0 + 𝑗2 4.472∠ − 33.43° = 2∠90° 4.472∠ − 33.43°

➢ 𝐕 = 8.944∠3.43° V
➢ 𝑖 𝑡 = 4.472 cos 10𝑡 − 86.57° A = 4.472 sin 10𝑡 + 3.43° A
➢ 𝑣 𝑡 = 8.944 cos 10𝑡 + 3.43° V = 8.944 sin 10𝑡 + 93.43° V
➢ Notice the current lags the voltage by 90°.

38
9.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
• KVL and KCL applies as well in AC circuits.
• KVL, for a closed loop: 𝐕1 + 𝐕2 + 𝐕3 + ⋯ + 𝐕𝑛 = 0
• KCL, the currents entering a node: 𝐈1 + 𝐈2 + 𝐈3 + ⋯ + 𝐈𝑛 = 0
• The only catch is that you need to transform the voltage or current from time domain
to the frequency domain.
• Let’s retake example.14
➢ The voltage 𝐕𝐬 = 10∠0° V
➢ And the voltage across the capacitor 𝐕 = 4.47∠ − 63.43° V
➢ Then by applying KVL the voltage across the resistor is 𝐕𝐑 = 𝐕𝐬 − 𝐕
➢ 𝐕𝐑 = 10 + 𝑗0 − 2 − 𝑗4 = 8 + 𝑗4 = 8.944∠26.57° V

39
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Consider the following circuit.
➢ The impedances are connected in series.
➢ The current through all impedances is the same 𝐈.
• Applying KVL: 𝐕 = 𝐕1 + 𝐕2 + ⋯ + 𝐕𝑁 = 𝐈(𝐙1 + 𝐙2 + ⋯ + 𝐙𝑁 )
𝐕
• 𝐙𝑒𝑞 = 𝐙1 + 𝐙2 + ⋯ + 𝐙𝑁 = (Impedance combination in series)
𝐈

• Assume two impedances in series.

𝐕
➢ 𝐈=
𝐙1 +𝐙2

➢ 𝐕1 = 𝐈𝐙1 𝐕2 = 𝐈𝐙2 , substitute with 𝐈

𝐙1 𝐙2
➢ 𝐕1 = 𝐕 𝐕2 = 𝐕, Voltage Division
𝐙1 +𝐙2 𝐙1 +𝐙2

40
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Consider the following circuit.
➢ The impedances are connected in parallel.
➢ The voltage across all impedances is the same 𝐕.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
• Applying KCL: 𝐈 = 𝐈1 + 𝐈2 + ⋯ + 𝐈𝑁 = 𝐕 + + ⋯+
𝐙1 𝐙2 𝐙𝑁
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐈
• = + +⋯+ = (Impedance combination in parallel)
𝐙𝑒𝑞 𝐙1 𝐙2 𝐙𝑁 𝐕

• 𝐘𝑒𝑞 = 𝐘1 + 𝐘2 + ⋯ + 𝐘𝑁
• Assume two impedances in parallel.
𝐙1 𝐙2
➢ 𝐙𝑒𝑞 =
𝐙1 +𝐙2

➢ 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐙𝑒𝑞 = 𝐈1 𝐙1 = 𝐈2 𝐙2 , substitute with 𝐕

𝐙2 𝐙1
➢ 𝐈1 = 𝐈 𝐈2 = 𝐈, Current Division
𝐙1 +𝐙2 𝐙1 +𝐙2

41
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Consider the Δ-Y circuit.
• To convert from Δ to Y • To convert from Y to Δ
𝐙𝑏 𝐙 𝑐 𝐙1 𝐙2 +𝐙2 𝐙3 +𝐙3 𝐙1
➢ 𝐙1 = ➢ 𝐙𝑎 =
𝐙𝑎 +𝐙𝑏 +𝐙𝑐 𝐙1
𝐙𝑐 𝐙 𝑎 𝐙1 𝐙2 +𝐙2 𝐙3 +𝐙3 𝐙1
➢ 𝐙2 = ➢ 𝐙𝑏 =
𝐙𝑎 +𝐙𝑏 +𝐙𝑐 𝐙2
𝐙𝑎 𝐙 𝑏
➢ 𝐙3 = ➢ 𝐙𝑐 =
𝐙1 𝐙2 +𝐙2 𝐙3 +𝐙3 𝐙1
𝐙𝑎 +𝐙𝑏 +𝐙𝑐
𝐙3
• Delta or wye circuit is said to be balanced if it has equal impedances in all
three branches.
1
• 𝐙∆ = 3𝐙𝑌 𝐙𝑌 = 𝐙∆
3
• Where 𝐙𝑌 = 𝐙1 = 𝐙2 = 𝐙3 , and 𝐙∆ = 𝐙𝑎 = 𝐙𝑏 = 𝐙𝑐

42
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Example.16
• Find the input impedance of the shown circuit. Assume 𝜔 = 50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
➢ First transform all passive elements into phasor domain (𝐙). 𝐙𝟏 𝐙𝟑
➢ The reason is to unify their units (Ω) for summation.
➢ The easiest way is after transformation, add series elements.
𝐙𝟐
➢ Then add the parallel impedances
1 1
➢ 𝐙𝟏 = = = −𝑗10 Ω
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗(50)(2∗10−3 )
1
➢ 𝐙𝟐 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = 3 + = 3 − 𝑗2 Ω
𝑗(50)(10∗10−3 )

➢ 𝐙𝟑 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 8 + 𝑗 50 0.2 = 8 + 𝑗10 Ω

3.606∠−33.7 12.806∠51.34
➢ 𝐙𝐢𝐧 = 𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 ║𝐙𝟑 = −𝑗10 +
3−𝑗2 + 8+𝑗10

➢ 𝐙𝐢𝐧 = 3.22 − 𝑗11.07 Ω

43
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Example.17
• Determine the input impedance for the following circuit at 𝜔 = 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
➢ First transform all passive elements into phasor domain (𝐙).
𝐙𝟑
1 1
➢ 𝐙𝟏 = 𝑅 + = 100 + = 100 − 𝑗100 Ω 𝐙𝟏
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗(10)(1∗10−3 ) 𝐙𝟐
1 1
➢ 𝐙𝟐 = = = −𝑗100 Ω
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗(10)(1∗10−3 )

➢ 𝐙𝟑 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 200 + 𝑗 10 8 = 200 + 𝑗80 Ω

➢ 𝐙𝐢𝐧 = 𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 ║𝐙𝟑 = (100 − 𝑗100) + [ −𝑗100 ║ 200 + 𝑗80 ]
➢ 𝐙𝐢𝐧 = 149.50 − 𝑗195.05 Ω

44
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Example.18
• Determine 𝑣0 (𝑡) in the circuit.
➢ 𝐕 = 20∠ − 15° V
➢ 𝑅 = 60 Ω → 𝐙𝟏 = 60 Ω
1 1
➢ 𝐶 = 10 mF → 𝐙𝟐 = = = −𝑗25 Ω
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗(4)(0.01)

➢ 𝐿 = 5 H → 𝐙𝟑 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗(4)(5) = 𝑗20 Ω

➢ Since the voltage in parallel branches is the same, we combined 𝐙𝟐 and 𝐙𝟑
➢ 𝐙𝟐𝟑 = −𝑗25 ║ 𝑗20 = 𝑗100 Ω
➢ Using voltage division
𝐙𝟐𝟑 𝑗100
➢ 𝐕𝟎 = 𝐕 = 20∠ − 15° = 17.15∠15.96° V
𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐𝟑 60+𝑗100

➢ 𝑣0 𝑡 = 17.15 cos 4𝑡 + 15.96° V

45
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Example.19
• Determine 𝑣0 in the circuit.
➢ 𝐕 = 50∠30° V
➢ 𝑅 = 10 Ω → 𝐙𝟏 = 10 Ω
➢ 𝐿 = 0.5 H → 𝐙𝟐 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗(10)(0.5) = 𝑗5 Ω
1 1 1
➢ 𝐶= = 0.05 F → 𝐙𝟑 = = = −𝑗2 Ω, Find 𝐙𝐞𝐪
20 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗(10)(0.05)

➢ 𝐙𝐞𝐪 = 10 ║ 𝑗5 + −𝑗2 = 2 + 𝑗2 Ω
𝐕 50∠30°
➢ 𝐈= = = 17.68∠ − 15° A
𝐙𝐞𝐪 2+𝑗2

➢ 𝐕𝟎 = 𝐈𝐙𝟑 = 17.68∠ − 15° −𝑗2 = 35.36∠ − 105° V

➢ 𝑣0 𝑡 = 35.36 cos 10𝑡 − 105° V

46
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Example.20
• Find the current 𝐈 in the circuit.
➢ The values are already given in phasors.
➢ To find 𝐈,first find 𝐙𝐞𝐪 .
➢ Convert the delta abc to wye.
➢ Now the circuit becomes as
➢ Calculating the values of the wye impedances.
2−𝑗4 ∗𝑗4 16+8𝑗
➢ 𝐙𝑎𝑛 = = = 1.6 + 𝑗0.8 Ω
2−𝑗4 +𝑗4+8 10
𝑗4∗8 𝑗32
➢ 𝐙𝑏𝑛 = = = 𝑗3.2 Ω
2−𝑗4 +𝑗4+8 10
2−𝑗4 ∗8 16−𝑗32
➢ 𝐙𝑐𝑛 = = = 1.6 − 𝑗3.2 Ω
2−𝑗4 +𝑗4+8 10

47
9.7 Impedance Combinations
• Example.20
• Find the current 𝐈 in the circuit.
➢ 𝐙𝑎𝑛 = 1.6 + 𝑗0.8 Ω, 𝐙𝑏𝑛 = 𝑗3.2 Ω, 𝐙𝑐𝑛 = 1.6 − 𝑗3.2 Ω
➢ 𝐙𝐞𝐪 = 𝒁𝒄𝒏 + 8 + 𝑗6 ║ 𝒁𝒃𝒏 − 𝑗3 + 𝒁𝒂𝒏 + 12
➢ 𝐙𝐞𝐪 = 9.6 + 𝑗2.8 ║ 𝑗0.2 + 13.6 + 𝑗0.8
➢ 𝐙𝐞𝐪 = 13.6 + 𝑗1 = 13.64∠4.2° Ω
➢ 𝐕 = 50∠0° V
𝐕 50∠0°
➢ 𝐈= = = 3.666∠ − 4.2° A
𝐙𝐞𝐪 13.64∠4.2°

48
Review Example Questions

49
Review Example Questions

50
End of Chapter.9

51