Electrical Machines

1. Power transformers
2. Electric motors
3. Electric power generators
Additional content
1. Other electrical actuators
2. Transducers
Practical or Real Power Transformer
• In the Engineering Science lecture in Semester-1, we considered
ideal transformers.
• Practically, transformers are not ideal. However, sometimes, it
may be okay to assume practical transformers to be ideal to
obtain approximate results.
• Practically, or in practical transformers, the magnetic core and the
windings are not perfect. Windings have resistances. Core heats
up. Further, the magnetic coupling between the primary winding
and the secondary winding is not perfect due to flux leakages. This
results in a voltage drop. Also, the primary side draws a small
current called magnetizing current to establish the magnetic flux.
Hence, the transformer draws a small current even when there is
no electric load connected to the secondary side.

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 Fig. 1: Equivalent circuit of a practical transformer

The equivalent circuit of a transformer can be used to study the

electrical behavior of the transformer.

𝑅1 , 𝑅2 represent the winding resistances. Due to them there are

voltage drops and 𝐼2 𝑅 heat losses (or Copper losses) inside the
transformer.

𝐿1 , 𝐿2 represent the effect due to flux leakages in the core. They

result in a voltage drop inside the transformer.

𝐿𝑚 represents the magnetizing current path in the transformer.

This is the current required to establish the magnetic flux that
induces voltage in the secondary side. This current exists even
when there is no electric load connected to the secondary side.

𝑅𝑐 represents the heat losses in the core. The related current is

called the core loss current. (there will be core loss current and

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 magnetizing current even in no-load conditions. This current is
approximately 5-6% of the full-load current)
Core loss: Heat losses in the core happen due to two reasons.
1. Hysteresis loss:

The magnetic materials used in transformers, motors, and

generators cores have magnetic dipoles. Magnetic dipoles are like
tiny bar magnets. Consider a power transformer. The ac magnetic
field alternates at 50 Hz or 50 time a second. The magnetic
dipoles in the core continuously try to align with this fast
alternating magnetic field. This rapid movements create heat due
to friction. This heat loss is called the “hysteresis loss”.

2. Eddy current loss:

Fig. 2: Illustration of eddy current

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The solid iron core of a transformer itself has electrical conductor
properties. As the magnetic fields change, voltages are induced in the
core, causing currents, known as eddy currents, to circulate in the core
material. Eddy currents result in a heat loss in the core called “eddy
current loss”.

Fig. 3: Cores in power transformers, ac motors, and generators are

laminated to reduce the eddy current losses. Left: a solid core; Right: a
laminated core

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 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer
• Currents in the transformer will be different at different loading
conditions (highest in full-load and lower in low loads).
• Because of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , there is an internal voltage drop inside
the transformer. This drop will be higher at higher loads and lower
at low loads.
• Hence, the voltage at the load varies with the load. This is
undesirable because the performance of the loads (lights, fans,
compressors, machines, etc.) depend on the voltage supplied to
them.
• In better quality transformer, the terminal voltage at full-load
should not differ much from the voltage at no-load. This is called
“voltage regulation”.
• Voltage regulation for a transformer is defined as follows:
𝑉no−load −𝑉full−load
Voltage regulation = X100%
𝑉full−load
where 𝑉no−load is the terminal voltage at no-load and 𝑉full−load is
the terminal voltage at full-load or at the rated load of the
transformer.

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 • Voltage regulation is a very important performance indicators of a
power transformer.
• Ideally, we would like the voltage regulation to be zero. Better
transformers have smaller voltage regulation value.
Eg. Terminal voltages of two 3-phase power transformers were
measured at no-load and rated load (full-load) conditions. Supply side
voltage is the same at 11 kV in both cases.
T/F A: 11000 V/415 V, 60 kVA, 50 Hz, 3-phase transformer. 𝑉no−load =
412 𝑉, 𝑉full−load = 401 𝑉.
T/F B: 11000 V/415 V, 60 kVA, 50 Hz, 3-phase transformer. 𝑉no−load =
415 𝑉, 𝑉full−load = 398 𝑉.
Clearly, T/F A has a better voltage regulation.
T/F A:
412−401
Voltage regulation = × 100% = 2.74%
401

T/F B:
415−398
Voltage regulation = × 100% = 4.27%
398

Power Efficiency
Because of the internal heat losses due to 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅𝑐 , not all the power
delivered to the transformer is delivered to the load. Better
transformer have lower losses and hence higher power efficiencies.
Power efficiency is defined as:
output power to the load
Power efficiency = × 100%
input power from the source

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Example: Equivalent circuit parameters of a 60 Hz, 20 kVA, 2400 V/240 V, 1-
phase power transformer are given bellow.
Circuit parameter Symbol Value
Primary resistance R1 3.0 Ω
Secondary resistance R2 0.03 Ω
Primary leakage reactance X1 = ωL1 6.5 Ω
Secondary leakage reactance X2 = ωL2 0.07 Ω
Magnetizing reactance Xm = ωLm 15 kΩ
Core-loss resistance RC 100 kΩ

Assume that the transformer operating at rated capacity (full-load) at rated output
voltage. The load has 0.8 lagging power factor.
Find
a. The voltage regulation
b. Full-load power efficiency
Ans:

𝐼1′
′
𝐼1 𝐼𝑚 𝐼2
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑐 𝐸1 𝐸2 𝑉2
𝑉1

Because the transformer operates at rated output voltage

|𝑉2 | = 240 𝑉
We will take the load voltage angle as the reference angle. Hence
𝑉2 = 240∠0°

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Because the transformer is operating at rated capacity (full-load) of 20 kVA
|𝑉2 ||𝐼2 | = 20 × 103
Hence
20 × 103 20 × 103
|𝐼2 | = = = 83.33𝐴
|𝑉2 | 240
(Note: This is called the rated current or the maximum current the transformer can
supply to the load continuously. In other words this is the maximum current the
load should draw from the transformer. It may be okay to exceed this current for a
short period. However, if this current is exceeded, the transformer will overheat.
Rated current is obtained by dividing the rated kVA by the rated voltage.)
Because the load has 0.8 lagging power factor

𝑉2 = 240∠0°40∠0°
𝜃

𝐼2 = 88.33∠ − 𝜃°

cos 𝜃 = 0.8 𝜃 = 36.87°

Hence
𝐼2 = 88.33∠ − 36.87° 𝑉2 = 240∠0°
By writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the secondary side, we get
𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 (𝑅2 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿2 ) = 240∠0° + 88.33∠ − 36.87°(0.03 + 𝑗0.07)
= (245.5 + 𝑗3.166)𝑉 = 245.52∠ − 0.739° 𝑉
The turns ratio is
𝑁1 : 𝑁2 = 2400: 240
Hence
𝐸1 2400
=
𝐸2 240
𝐸1 = 10𝐸2 = 2455 + 𝑗32.66 𝑉 = 2455.2∠ − 0.739°

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Further
𝐼1′ 240
=
𝐼2 2400
𝐼1′ = 0.1𝐼2 = 8.833∠ − 36.87° 𝐴
Now, we have
𝐸1 𝐸1
𝐼𝑚 = and 𝐼𝑐 =
𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑚 𝑅𝑐
2455 + 𝑗32.66
𝐼𝑚 = = 0.1637 + 𝑗0.0022 𝐴
𝑗15000
2455 + 𝑗32.66
𝐼𝑐 = = 0.02455 + 𝑗0.0003266 𝐴
100000
Now
′
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0.1637 + 𝑗0.0022 + 0.02455 + 𝑗0.0003266
= 0.18825 + 𝑗0.0025266 𝐴 = 0.1883∠ − 0.76° 𝐴
From Kirchhoff’s current law
′
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼1′ = 0.18825 + 𝑗0.0025266 + 8.833∠ − 36.87°
= 0.18825 + 𝑗0.0025266 + 7.0664 − 𝑗5.2998 = 7.2546 − 𝑗5.2973
= 8.9828∠ − 36.1364° 𝐴
By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the primary side, we get
𝑉1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1 (𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 ) = 2455 + 𝑗32.66 + (8.9828∠ − 36.1364°)(3 + 𝑗6.5)
= 2455 + 𝑗32.66 + (7.2546 − 𝑗5.2972)(3 + 𝑗6.5)
= 2455 + 𝑗32.66 + 56.1956 + 𝑗31.2633 = 2512∠1.4553° 𝑉
Full-load power efficiency calculation:
Total power loss (heat loss) in the transformer at rated capacity of 20 kVA is
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = Copper loss in the primary winding
+ Copper loss in the secondary winding + Core loss
2 2
𝐸12 2 2
2455.22
= 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + = 8.9829 × 3 + 88.33 × 0.03 +
𝑅𝑐 100000
= 536.4 𝑊

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Power delivered to the load 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos 𝜃 = 20 × 103 × 0.8 = 16,000 𝑊
Power drawn from the source (𝑃𝑖𝑛 ) = Power delivered to the load + Power losses
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Tranformer full load power efficiency = × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
16000
= × 100% = 96.76%
16000 + 536.4
Voltage regulation calculation:
𝑉no−load −𝑉full−load
Voltage regulation = X100%
𝑉full−load

In no-load condition,
𝐼2 = 0 and 𝐼1′ = 0
And, the no-load voltage is
𝑁2
𝑉2 = 𝐸2 = ( ) × 𝐸1
𝑁1
′
In no-load, 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑚 . This is a very small current. Hence, it is okay to ignore the
voltage drop across 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 . Then,
𝐸1 ≈ 𝑉1
And, hence the no-load voltage is
𝑁2 240
𝑉2 = ( ) × 𝑉1 = ( ) × 2512 = 251.2 𝑉
𝑁1 2400
This is the no-load voltage at the load terminal.
251.2−240
Voltage regulation = X100% = 4.67%
240

Note: However, in practice in the industry, you make the measurements of full and
no-load voltages to calculate the voltage regulation.

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 3-Phase Transformers

Ex:
Equivalent circuit parameters of 50 Hz, 60 kVA, 11000 V/415 V, 3-phase transformer are given
bellow.
Parameters
Symbol Value
(Per-phase circuit parameter)
Primary resistance 𝑅1 6.0 Ω
Secondary resistance 𝑅2 0.03 Ω
Primary leakage resistance 𝑋1 = 𝜔𝐿1 12.0 Ω
Secondary leakage resistance 𝑋2 = 𝜔𝐿2 0.07 Ω
Magnetizing resistance 𝑋𝑚 = 𝜔𝐿𝑚 30 kΩ
Core-loss resistance 𝑅𝐶 300 kΩ

Assume that the transformer operating at rated capacity (full load) at rated output voltage. The
load is balanced and has 0.8 lagging power factor.

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Find the power efficiency and voltage regulation.

Ans:
Because the load is balanced, each phase of the transformer is equally loaded. As a result, we can
solve this problem using the single-phase equivalent circuit of the transformer.

𝐼1′
′
𝐼1 𝐼𝑚 𝐼2
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑐 𝐸1 𝐸2 𝑉2
𝑉1

Fig. : Single-phase equivalent circuit of the 3-phase transformer

Because the transformer operates at rated output voltage

415
|𝑉2 | = 𝑉
√𝟑
We will take the load voltage angle as the reference angle. Hence
415
𝑉2 = ∠0°
√3
Because the transformer is operating at rated capacity of 60 kVA
60 × 103
|𝑉2 ||𝐼2 | = = 20 × 103
𝟑
Hence
20 × 103
|𝐼2 | = =? 𝐴
|𝑉2 |

ESOFT College of Engineering & Technology, Katubedda, Moratuwa

Because the load has 0.8 lagging power factor

𝑉2
𝜃

𝐼2
cos 𝜃 = 0.8 𝜃 = 36.87°
Just follow the same steps as in the case of analysis of the 1-phase
𝑁 11000
transformer. Here, the turns ratio; 1 =
𝑁2 415

Remark:
However, if the load is unbalanced, the power, power factors, currents in
each phase will be different. You have to consider each phase separately.
Hence, the above steps have to be followed 3 times.

Eg. 42 kVA, 11000 V/400 V, 3-phase transformer supplies a 27 kW, 3-

phase pump. Pump overall power efficiency is 80% and the motor power
factor is 0.84. Is the transformer overloaded?
Now, 4 kW, 230 V, single-phase boiler load is connected to Phase-R of
the transformer. Boiler electric heater may be considered purely
resistive. Is the transformer overloaded? What is the current in the
neutral wire?
Assume an ideal transformer.
Ans.
kW of a 3-phase transformer = √3 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃
[here, V and I are line quantities]
kVA of a 3-phase transformer = √3𝑉𝐼
For this transformer, in the LV side

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 42 × 103 = √3 × 400 × 𝐼2𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
For this transformer, in the HV side
42 × 103 = √3 × 11000 × 𝐼1𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
42×103
Transformer rated current (LV side) = = 60.62 A for each phase
√3×400

Let is find the current drawn by the electrical load (3-phase motor) from
the transformer as follows.
27×103
Load power = = √3 × 400 × 𝐼 × 0.84 → 𝐼 = 58.0 𝐴
0.8

A 3-phase pump is a balanced 3-phase load. Current in each phase of the

transformer is 58 A < Rated current. Hence, the transformer is not over
loaded.
Phase-R is connected a 1-phase load. Here, 𝑍𝑚 are pump motor
impedances and 𝑍ℎ is the heater coil impedance.

𝑹 𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝑅ℎ 𝐼𝑅𝑚
𝑉𝑅𝑁
𝑍ℎ 𝑍𝑚

𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑅ℎ + 𝐼𝑅𝑚 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵

𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚
𝑵
𝑩 𝒀

𝑉𝑌𝑁

𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝑌

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Let the current drawn by the heater be 𝐼𝑅ℎ . Now, the neutral current is
𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑅ℎ + 𝐼𝑅𝑚 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅ℎ + (𝐼𝑅𝑚 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 )
Because the 3-phase pump motor is a balanced 3-phase load,
𝐼𝑅𝑚 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 0
Hence, the neutral current is
𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑅ℎ
• Neutral current is equal to the current drawn by the heater.
Let the transformer phase voltages be
400 400 400
𝑉𝑅𝑁 = ∠0°, 𝑉𝑌𝑁 = ∠ − 120°, 𝑉𝐵𝑁 = ∠120°
√3 √3 √3

Current drawn by the heater (4 kW, resistive, single phase) connected

to phase-R can be calculated as
400
4 × 103 = × 𝐼𝑅ℎ 𝐼𝑅ℎ = 17.32 A
√3
Hence, the current in the neutral wire is 17.32 A.
Because 𝐼𝑌 , 𝐼𝐵 have not changed, transformer Y and B phases are not
overloaded. Consider phase-R
𝐼𝑅ℎ 400
𝑉𝑅𝑁 = ∠0°
𝜃 √3

𝜃 = cos −1 0.84
𝐼𝑅𝑚
= 32.86°

𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅ℎ + 𝐼𝑅𝑚 = 17.32∠0° + 58.0∠ − 32.86° = 73.16∠ − 25.48°

Current in phase R, 𝐼𝑅 = 73.16 A > rated current.
Phase R of the 3-phase transformer is overloaded.
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*See the PPT file for tap-changing etc.

ESOFT College of Engineering & Technology, Katubedda, Moratuwa