3.

5 TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS

Reconsider the two-port network of Figure 3.1. Since the network is linear, the superposition
principle can be applied. Assuming that it contains no independent sources, voltage V1 and current I1 at
port 1 can be expressed in terms of current I2 and voltage V2 at port 2 as follows:

(3.5.1)

Similarly, we can write I1 in terms of I2 and V2 as follows:

(3.5.2)

Since V1 and V2 are in volts while I1 and I2 are in amperes, parameters A and D must be dimensionless,
B must be in ohms, and C must be in siemens.

Using the matrix representation, (3.5.2) can be written as follows:

(3.5.3)

Transmission parameters (also known as elements of chain matrix ) are especially important for analysis
of circuits connected in cascade. These parameters are determined as follows. If port 2 has a short
circuit, V2 will be zero. Under this condition, (3.5.1) and (3.5.2) give

(3.5.4)

and
 (3.5.5)

Similarly, with a source connected at the port 1 while port 2 is open, we find that

(3.5.6)

and

(3.5.7)
4 Scattering Parameters

As illustrated in preceding sections, Z-parameters are useful in analyzing series circuits while Y -
parameters simplify the analysis of parallel (shunt) connected circuits. Similarly, transmission
parameters are useful for chain or cascade circuits. However, the characterization procedure of these
parameters requires an open or short circuit at the other port. This extreme reflection makes it very
difficult (and in certain cases, impossible) to determine the parameters of a network at radio and
microwave frequencies. Therefore, a new representation based on traveling waves is defined. This is
known as the scattering matrix of the network. Elements of this matrix are known as scattering
parameters.

Figure 4.1: Two-port network with associated incident and reflected waves.

Figure 4.1 shows a network along with incident and reflected waves at its two ports. We adopt a
convention of representing the incident wave by ai and the reflected wave by bi at the ith port. Hence, a1
is an incident wave, while b1 is a reflected wave at port 1. Similarly, a2 and b2 represent incident and
reflected waves at port 2, respectively. Assume that a source is connected at port 1 that produces the
incident wave a1. A part of this wave is reflected back at the input (due to impedance mismatch), while
the remaining signal is transmitted through the network. It may change in magnitude as well as in phase
before emerging at port 2. Depending on the termination at this port, part of the signal is reflected back
as input to port 2. Hence, reflected wave b1 depends on incident signals a1 and a2 at the two ports.
Similarly, emerging wave b2 also depends on a1 and a2. Mathematically,

(4.1.1)

(4.1.2)

Using the matrix notation, we can write

(4.1.3)

or

(4.1.4)
where [S] is called the scattering matrix of the two-port network; Sij are known as the scattering
parameters of this network, and ai represents the incident wave at the ith port and bi represents the
reflected wave at the ith port.

If port 2 is matched terminated while a1 is incident at port 1, a2 is zero. In this condition, (4.1.1)
and (4.1.2) give

(4.1.5)

and

(4.1.6)

Similarly, with a source connected at port 2 while port 1 is terminated by a matched load, we find that

(4.1.7)

and

(4.1.8)

Hence, Sii is the reflection coefficient Γi at the ith port when the other port is matched terminated. Sij is
the forward transmission coefficient of the jth port if i is greater than j , whereas it represents the
reverse transmission coefficient if i is less than j with the other port terminated by a matched load.
 We have not yet defined ai and bi in terms of voltage, current, or power. To that end, we write
steady-state total voltage and current at the ith port as follows:

(4.1.9)
and

(4.1.10)

where superscripts “in” and “ref” represent the incident and reflected voltages, respectively. Z0i is the
characteristic impedance at the ith port. Equations (4.1.9) and (4.1.10) can be solved to find incident and
reflected voltages in terms of total voltage and current at the ith port. Hence,

(4.1.11)

and

(4.1.12)

Assuming both of the ports to be lossless so that Z0i is a real quantity, the average power incident at the
ith port is

(4.1.13)

and average power reflected from the ith port is

(4.1.14)

The ai and bi are defined in such a way that the squares of their magnitudes represent the power flowing
in respective directions. Hence,
 (4.1.15)

and

(4.1.16)

Therefore, units of ai and bi are

Power available from the source, Pavs, at port 1 is

(4.1.17)

power reflected from port 1, Pref, is

(4.1.18)

and power delivered to the port (and hence to the network), Pd, is

(4.1.19)

Consider the circuit arrangement shown in Figure 4.2. There is a voltage source VS1 connected at
port 1 while port 2 is terminated by load impedance ZL. The source impedance is ZS. Various voltages,
currents, and waves are as depicted at the two ports of this network. Further, it is assumed that the
characteristic impedances at port 1 and port 2 are Z01 and Z02, respectively. Input impedance Z1 at port 1
of the network is defined as the impedance across its terminals when port 2 is terminated by load ZL
while source VS1 along with ZS are disconnected. Similarly, output impedance Z2 at port 2 of the network
is defined as the impedance across its terminals with load ZL disconnected and voltage source VS1
replaced by a short circuit. Hence, source impedance ZS terminates

Figure 4.1 Two-port network with a voltage source connected at port 1 and port 2 is terminated.

port 1 of the network in this case. Input impedance Z1 and output impedance Z2 are responsible for
input reflection coefficient Γ1 and output reflection coefficient Γ2, respectively. Hence, the ratio of b1 to
a1 represents Γ1 while that of b2 to a2 is Γ2. For the two-port network, we can write

(4.1.20)

and

(4.1.21)

The load reflection coefficient ΓL is

(4.1.22)

Note that b2 leaves port 2, and therefore it is incident on the load ZL. Similarly, the wave reflected back
from the load enters port 2 as a2. The source reflection coefficient ΓS is found as

(4.1.23)

Since b1 leaves port 1 of the network, it is the incident wave on ZS, while a1 is the reflected wave.
The input and output reflection coefficients are
 (4.1.24)
and

(4.1.25)

Dividing (4.1.20) by a1 and then using (4.1.24), we find that

(4.1.26)

Now, dividing (4.1.21) by a2 and then combining with (4.1.22), we get

(4.1.27)

From (4.1.26) and (4.1.27),

(4.1.28)

If a matched load is terminating port 2, then ΓL = 0 and (4.1.27) simplifies to Γ1 = S11.

Similarly, from (4.1.21) and (4.1.25),

(4.1.29)
From (4.1.20) and (4.1.23), we have

(4.1.30)

Substituting (4.1.30) into ((4.1.29), we get

(4.1.31)

If ZS is equal to Z01, port 1 is matched and Γs = 0. Therefore, (4.1.31) simplifies to

(4.1.32)

Hence, S11 and S22 can be found by evaluating the reflection coefficients at respective ports while the
other port is matched terminated.
Let us determine the other two parameters, S21 and S12, of the two-port network.
Starting with (4.1.6) for S21, we have

(4.1.33)

Now, a2 is found from (4.1.15) with i as 2 and forcing it to zero, we get

(4.1.34)

Substituting (4.1.34) in the expression for b2 that is obtained from (4.1.16) with i as 2, we find that

(4.1.35)
An expression for a1 is obtained from (4.1.15) with i = 1. It simplifies for ZS equal to Z01 as follows:

(4.1.36)

S21 is obtained by substituting (4.1.35) and (4.1.36) into (4.1.6) as follows:

(4.1.37)

Following a similar procedure, S12 may be found as

(4.1.39)

An analysis of S-parameters indicates that

(4.1.40)

where Pavs is power available from the source and Pd is power delivered to port 1. These two powers will
be equal if the source impedance is conjugate of Z1; that is, the source is matched with port 1. Similarly,
from (4.1.37),

(4.1.41)

where PAVN is power available at port 2 of the network. It will be equal to power delivered to a load that
is matched to the port. This power ratio of (4.1.41) may be called the transducer power gain.
Following a similar procedure, it may be found that |S22|2 represents the ratio of power
reflected from port 2 to power available from the source at port 2, while port 1 is terminated by a
matched load ZS and |S12|2 represents a reverse transducer power gain.
5 Impedance Matching

One of the most critical requirements in the design of high-frequency electronic circuits is that the
maximum possible signal energy is transferred at each point. In other words, the signal should
propagate in a forward direction with a negligible echo (ideally, zero). Echo signal not only reduces the
power available but also deteriorates the signal quality due to the presence of multiple reflections.
Impedance matching is very desirable with radio frequency (RF) transmission lines. Standing waves lead
to increased losses and frequently cause the transmitter to mal- function. A line terminated in its
characteristic impedance has a standing-wave ratio of unity and transmits a given power without
reflection. Also, transmission efficiency is optimum where there is no reflected power. A "flat" line is
nonresonant; that is, its input impedance always remains at the same value when the frequency
changes.

Matching a transmission line has a special meaning, one differing from that used in circuit
theory to indicate equal impedance seen looking both directions from a given terminal par for maximum
power transfer. In circuit theory, maximum power transfer requires the load impedance to be equal to
the complex conjugate of the generator. This condition sometimes referred to as a conjugate match. In
transmission-line problems marching means simply terminating the line in its characteristic impedance.

A common application of RF transmission lines is the one in which there is a feeder connection
between a transmitter and an antenna. Usually the input impedance to the antenna itself is not equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line. Furthermore, the output impedance of the transmitter may not
be equal to the Zo of the line. Matching devices are necessary to flatten the line. A complete matched
transmission-line system is shown in Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1 Matched Transmission-line system

For a low-lass or lossless transmission line at radio frequency, the characteristic impedance of the line is
resistive. At every point the impedances looking in opposite directions are conjugate. If Zo is real, it is its
own conjugate. Matching can be tried first on the load side to flatten the line; then adjustment may be
mode on the transmitter side to provide maximum power transfer. At audio frequencies an iron cored
transformer is almost universally used as an impedance-matching device. Occasionally iron-cored
transformer is also used at radio frequencies. In a practical transmission-line system, the transmitter is
ordinarily matched to the coaxial cable for maximum power transfer. Because of the variable loads,
however, an impedance-matching technique is often required at the load side. Since the matching
problems involve parallel connections on the transmission line, it is necessary to work out the problems
with admittances rather than impedances.
 Impedance can be transformed to a new value by adjusting the turns ratio of a transformer that
couples it with the circuit. However, it has several limitations. There are also techniques to design other
impedance-transforming networks. These circuits include transmission line stubs and resistive and
reactive networks. Further, the techniques introduced are needed in active circuit design at RF and
microwave frequencies.

5.1 Single-Stub Matching

Although single-lumped inductors or capacitors can much the transmission line, it is more common to
use the susceptive properties of short-circuited sections of transmission lines. Short-circuited sections
are preferable to open-circuited ones because a good short circuit is easier to obtain than a good open
circuit.
For a lossless line with Yg = Yo, maximum power transfer requires Y11 = Yo , where Y11 is the total
admittance of the line and stub looking to the right at point (see Figure 5.2). The stub must be located at
that point on the line where the real part of the admittance, looking toward the load, is Yo. In a
normalized unit y11 must be in the form

Figure 5.2 Single Stub matching example

if the stub has the same characteristic impedance as that of the line. Otherwise

The stub length is then adjusted so that its susceptance just cancels out the susceptance of the line at
the junction.
6 Passive Microwave Components
Definitions

I Linear transfer characteristic

– S-parameters do not depend on the power
– A continuous wave signal does not get distorted
I Most passive components are reciprocal Sij = Sji Ferrite isolators and circulators are an exception
I For lossless two-port devices:
– Reflections at both ports are identical S11 = S22 – Energy conservation |S11 |2 + |S21 |2 = 1

Design depends on the frequency range, the required performance and other aspects (e.g. costs, size, mass,
power handling)

6.1 Termination

I Terminates a transmission line (ideally S11= −∞ dB ).

I Tapered absorbing dielectrics in waveguides, resistive films in planar or coaxial devices.
I Standard coaxial 0-18 GHz terminations specified with return loss < -26dB (VSWR<1.1), expensive
matched termination for VNA calibration have ≥ -36 dB.
I Free space terminations for anechoic chambers or radiometric calibration targets. Often made of lossy
foams with a pyramidal surface to improve the matching.

6.2 Attenuator

I Lossy two-port device to reduce the signal level by -xx dB

I Ideally well matched and frequency independent.
I Resistive networks in coaxial and planar devices, absorbing vane in waveguides.
I Often used to reduce standing waves caused by components with a bad matching.

6.3 Filter

I Used to reject certain frequency bands

I Realized as low-, high or bandpass filter (and also band-reject)
 6.3.1 Cavity Filter Example
7.8 GHz high pass filter made out a series of iris coupled waveguide resonators. Mesh of the finite element
model and simulation results.

Simulated E-fields in the rejection and transmission band

6.3.2 Planar Filter

Steps to get from a lumped element lowpass filter (a) to an equivalent microstrip design (d).

Inductors and capacitors are replaced by microstrip ”stubs”. Easy to integrate in a circuit, but degraded out of band
performance
 6.4 Power Splitter

Used to distribute an input signal at port 1 equally and in phase between the two output ports 2 and 3. An
example is a simple waveguide or microstrip T-junction.

It can be shown, however, that it is not possible to match all ports of a symmetric, reciprocal and lossless
device, i.e. the Sii parameters cannot be zero.

6.5 Directional Coupler

I 4-port device, input port 1 is isolated from port 4.

I Splits the power coming from port 1 equally or with a different coupling ratio between ports 2 and 3.
I Most important characteristics:
Directivity, bandwidth, phase and amplitude balance
I Very usefull to measure the return loss of a device.

Reflectometer setup with a directional coupler to measure the return loss ρL of a device. which corresponds
to the power ration P4 /P3.
 6.6 Hybrid Coupler
I Input power is split equally between port 2 and 3.
I For a matched and lossless device the phase difference has to be either 90 or 180 degrees.

6.7 Ferrites

I Ferromagnetic ceramic (Fe2 O3 +impurities) with high resistivity, μr > 1000, εr < 10.
I Can be magnetized permanently by an external magnetic field.
I Electromagnetic waves interact with the magnetic dipoles.

6.7.1 Faraday Isolator

I Non-reciprocal two-port device to reduce standing waves (ideally S21 = 1 and S12 = 0)
I Resistive vanes at both ports of a circular waveguide are oriented at an angle of 45◦ to each other and
absorb energy when they are parallel to the E field.
I Ferrite rod in the center rotates the polarization by ±45◦ , depending on the propagation
direction.
 6.7.2 Circulator

I Non-reciprocal three-port device with a ferrite post at the junction.

I Allows to use the same antenna for transmission and reception (radar, communications).

7 Introduction to Active Microwave Devices

I Nonlinear transfer characteristic leads to signal distortions and frequency conversion, which is not the
case on a linear curve
I Nonlinear devices can still have an almost linear behavior for small scale signals

7.1 Diode Detector

I Junction between semiconductors with different doping (p-n diode) or metal-semiconductor (Schottky diode).
I Non-linear I/V curve rectifies the RF signal. For small signals it can be approximated by a quadratic curve, and
the DC output signal is linear with the input power.
 7.2 Frequency Multiplication

A nonlinear device generates harmonics of an input signal with the fundamental frequency f0
|V(t)|

|V(t)|
Time Time

7.3 Mixers Designs

I Single ended mixer : Common for mm wavelengths. No isolation between RF and LO.
I Balanced mixer : Two mixing elements, 3dB hybrid combines LO and RF. Good LO to RF isolation, LO
noise and spurious harmonics are rejected.
I Double balanced mixer : Also IF port is isolated, dynamic range is improved.

7.4 Amplifier

I Increase signal amplitude

I Made with bipolar or FET in Transistors
I Tradeoff between low noise and high power

7.5 Oscillator

Active element (1) with a resonant feedback (2)

(1) Transistor, electrons in a vacuum tube (for high power), Gunn diode (semiconductor with negative
resistance), ...

(2) LC-circuit, microstrip and dielectric resonator, waveguide cavity, quartz crystal