سلايدات المنهج كامل

‫مقرر كيمياء عامة ‪101‬‬
‫‪SCCH 101‬‬
‫معلومات عن أستاذة المقرر‬
‫االسم ‪ :‬د‪ .‬فاتن محمد علي زيني‬

‫أستاذ الكيمياء التحليلة المساعد‬
‫قسم الكيمياء‬
‫كلية العلوم (فرع الفيصلية) – جامعة جدة‬
‫غرفة رقم ‪308‬مبني ‪ 235‬الدور الثالث‬
‫من ‪ 11-10‬االثنين والربوع‬
‫البريد اإللكتروني ‪f.zainy@hotmail.com‬‬
‫الظياطح الىاجة على الطالثح االلتشام تها‬
‫ػلى الطالبت االلتزام بالتالً‪:‬‬
‫حضىر المحاضزة فً وقتها المحذد‪ ،‬ػذم تكزار التؤخز ػه المحاضزة‪ ،‬حضىر االمتحاواث فً‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫مىػذها المحذد‪ ،‬أداء الىاجباث المطلىبت‪.‬‬
‫الطالبت التً تزٌذ وسبت غٍابها ػه ‪ %25‬مه مجمىع المحاضزاث (أي بما ٌؼادل ‪ 8‬محاضزاث)‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫دون ػذر‪ ،‬تحزم مه دخىل االمتحان الىهائً‪.‬‬
‫الطالبت التً تتخلف ػه االختبار له ٌؼاد لها االختبار (إال فً حالت الظزوف القاهزة ال سمح هللا)‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ػذم ارتذاء الؼباءة فً قاػت االمتحان‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ٌجب ػلى الطالبت إحضار األدواث التً تحتاجها فً االمتحان واَلت الحاسبت الخاصت بها‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ػذم استخذام الجىال كآلت حاسبت فً االمتحان‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫فً حالت الغش تسحب ورقت الطالبت فىراً وتحزم مه استكمال االختبار وتقذم للجىت تؤدٌبٍت‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫مغ أطٍب التمىٍاث بالتىفٍق‪،،،،‬‬

‫تىسيع الدرجاخ‬
‫‪COURSE GRADING‬‬
‫‪First exam: 30‬‬ ‫‪ 30‬درجت‬ ‫‪ ‬امتحان دوري أول‪:‬‬

‫‪Second exam: 30‬‬ ‫‪ ‬امتحان دوري ثاوً‪ 30 :‬درجت‬
‫‪ 40‬درجت‬ ‫‪ ‬امتحان وهائً‪:‬‬
‫‪Final term exam: 40 marks‬‬ ‫____________________‬
‫‪Total: 100‬‬ ‫‪ 100‬درجت‬ ‫‪ ‬المجمىع‪:‬‬
‫التقذٌزاث‬
‫الدرجاخ‬ ‫التقديز‬
‫‪100-95‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬
‫‪94-90‬‬ ‫‪A+‬‬
‫‪89-85‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬
‫‪84-80‬‬ ‫‪B+‬‬
‫‪79-75‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬
‫‪74-70‬‬ ‫‪C+‬‬
‫‪64-60‬‬ ‫‪D‬‬
‫‪˃ 60‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
Lecture Presentation
Chapter 1
Introduction:
Matter and
Measurement
Deia Abd El-Hady

University of Jeddah
Saudi Arabia
CHEMISTRY
 Chemistry is the
study of the
properties and
behavior of matter.
 It is central to our
fundamental
understanding of
many science-related
fields.
MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and takes
up space.
MATTER
 Atoms are the
building blocks of
matter.
 Each element is
made of a unique
kind of atom.
 A compound is
Note: Balls of different colors are made of two or more
used to represent atoms of different different kinds of
elements. Attached balls represent
connections between atoms that
elements.
are seen in nature. These groups of
atoms are called molecules.
METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION
 State of Matter
 Composition of Matter
STATES OF MATTER  The three states of
matter are
1) solid.
2) liquid.
3) gas.
 In this figure, those
states are ice, liquid
water, and water
vapor.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
BASED ON COMPOSITION
If you follow this 
scheme, you
can determine
how to classify
any type of
matter.
Homogeneous 
mixture
Heterogeneous 
mixture
Element 
Compound 
Matter
And
Measurement
COMPOUNDS AND COMPOSITION
 Compounds have a definite composition. That means
that the relative number of atoms of each element
that makes up the compound is the same in any
sample.
 This is The Law of Constant Composition (or The
Law of Definite Proportions).
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER—MIXTURES
 Mixtures exhibit the properties of the substances
that make them up.
 Mixtures can vary in composition throughout a
sample (heterogeneous) or can have the same
composition throughout the sample
(homogeneous).
 Another name for a homogeneous mixture is
solution.
TYPES OF PROPERTIES
Physical Properties can be observed without
changing a substance into another substance.
◦ Some examples include boiling point, density,
mass, or volume.
 Chemical Properties can only be observed when
a substance is changed into another substance.
◦ Some examples include flammability,
corrosiveness, or reactivity with acid.
TYPES OF CHANGES
 Physical Changes are changes in matter that do not
change the composition of a substance.
◦ Examples include changes of state, temperature,
and volume.
 Chemical Changes result in new substances.
◦ Examples include combustion, oxidation, and
decomposition.
CHANGES IN STATE OF MATTER
 Converting between the
three states of matter is a
physical change.
 When ice melts or water
evaporates, there are still
2 H atoms and 1 O atom
in each molecule.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS (CHEMICAL
CHANGE)
In the course of a chemical reaction, the reacting

substances are converted to new substances. Here,
the elements hydrogen and oxygen become water.
Chapter 1 Chemistry
The Study of Change
• 1.7 Measurement (p.15-20)

•SI units .
•Mass and Weight
•Volume
•Density
•Temperature Scales.
•Table 1.2 & Table 1.3
•Examples 1.1-1.2-1.3
1.7 MEASUREMENT.
International System of Units
The SI System
Metric System
Length Mass Weight Volume

(L) (M) (W) (V)
Density Temperature Time

(D) (T) (second)
International System of Units (SI)
‫استخدام البادئات (مضاعفات أو أجزاء) هو من أجل التبسيط واالختصار للكميات المقاسة‬
‫‪1.7‬‬
Exa (E)= 1018
PETA (P)= 1015 ‫المضاعفاخ‬
Tera (T)= 1012
Gega (G)= 109 Bigger unit
Mega (M)= 106
kilo (k)= 103
hecto (h)= 102
deca (da)= 101
unit (meter-m), (gram-g), (liter-L)

dece (d)= 10-1
centi (c)= 10-2
mili (m)= 10-3
micro (m)= 10-6
nano (n)= 10-9
smaller unit pico (p)= 10-12
femto (f)= 10-15
atto (a)= 10-18
‫األجـــشاء‬
Example
The SI prefixes giga- and micro represent,
respectively:
(a) 10-9 and 10-6
(b) 106 and 10-3
(c) 103 and 10-3
(d) 109 and 10-6
‫‪ -1‬التحىيل تين وحداخ أكثز من الىحدج األطاطيح (المضاعفاخ)‬
‫(نأخذ فزق األطض المطلقح تين الىحداخ المزاد التحىيل تينها)‬
‫)‪TERA (1012‬‬ ‫‪KILO‬‬ ‫)‪(103‬‬
‫‪12  3‬‬
‫‪ 10‬‬ ‫‪ 10123  109‬‬
‫‪ -2‬التحىيل تين وحداخ أصغز من الىحدج األطاطيح (األجشاء)‬
‫(نأخذ فزق األطض المطلقح تين الىحداخ المزاد التحىيل تينها)‬
‫)‪dece (10-1‬‬ ‫)‪nano (10-9‬‬
‫‪1  9‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪ 10‬‬ ‫‪ 1019  10‬‬ ‫‪ 108‬‬
‫‪ -3‬التحىيل تين المضاعفاخ واألجشاء مزورا تالىحدج األطاطيح‬
‫(نجمع األطض المطلقح للىحداخ المزاد التحىيل تينها)‬
‫)‪Mega (106‬‬ ‫)‪nano (10-9‬‬
‫‪6  9‬‬
‫‪ 10‬‬ ‫‪ 10 69  1015‬‬ ‫ملحوظة مهمة‬
‫في حالح التحىيل من وحدج كثيزج إلى وحدج صغيزج نضزب في معامل تأص مىجة ‪10  n‬‬
‫أما في حالح التحىيل من وحدج صغيزج إلى وحدج كثيزج نضزب في معامل تأص طالة ‪10  n‬‬
Which of the following is the smallest
distance?
(a) 21 m → 21m
(b) 2.1 x 102 cm → 2.1m
(c) 21 mm → 21 x 10-3 = 0.021 m
(d) 2.1 x 104 pm → 2.1 x 10-8 m
Put all of them in the same unit

Measurement
mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in
an object
SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g
weight - force that gravity exerts on an object
The Mass of an object doesn't change when an object's
location changes. Weight, on the other hand does
change with location.
weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh

on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth
on moon, c ~ 0.1
0.1 kg on moon
VOLUME
 Note that volume is not a base
unit for SI; it is derived from
length (m × m × m = m3).
 The most commonly used
metric units for volume are the
liter (L) and the milliliter (mL).
 A liter is a cube 1 decimeter
(dm) long on each side.
 A milliliter is a cube 1
centimeter (cm) long on each
side, also called 1 cubic
centimeter (cm × cm × cm =
cm3).
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)
Volume = width × length × height
= m × m × m = m3
1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
Common unit of volume is liter (L) and milliliter (mL)
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

The relationship between (L), (mL) and metric system
1 mL = 1 cm3
1 L = 1 dm3
Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/m3
mass m
density = volume d= V
m
1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3
d v
1 g/mL = 1×10-3 g/L
A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5 g/cm3 has a

volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass?
m
d= V
m = d x V = 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3 = 96.5 g
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.2
TEMPERATURE
 In scientific measurements, the Celsius and
Kelvin scales are most often used.
 The Celsius scale is based on the properties
of water.
 0 C is the freezing point of water.
 100 C is the boiling point of water.
 The kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.
 It is based on the properties of gases.
 There are no negative Kelvin temperatures.
 The lowest possible temperature is called absolute
zero (0 K).
K = C + 273.15
TEMPERATURE
 The Fahrenheit scale is not used in scientific

measurements, but you hear about it in
weather reports!
 The equations below allow for conversion
between the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales:
 F = 9/5(C) + 32
 C = 5/9(F − 32) C = (F − 32) / 1.8
Temperature Scales
There are three temperature scales, their units
are:
1. Degrees Celsius 0C
2. Degrees Fahrenheit 0F
3. Kelvin K
Kelvin is the SI Base

Unit of Temperature
K = 0C + 273.15
273 K = 0 0C
373 K = 100 0C
0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
32 0F = 0 0C
212 0F = 100 0C
Convert 172.9 0F to degrees Celsius.
0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
0F – 32 = 9 x 0C
5
5 x (0F – 32) = 0C
9
0C = 5 x (0F – 32)
9
0C = 5 x (172.9 – 32) = 78.3

9
Example 1.3:
(a) Convert 224 0C → 0F?
 °F = [(9 /5 ) × °C ] + 32
 [°F = (9 /5 ) × 224 °C] + 32 = 435 0F
(b) Convert -452 0F → 0C ?

 °C = (5 /9 ) (°F - 32 )
 °C = (5 /9 ) (-452 - 32 ) = -269 0C
(c) Convert -38.9 0C → K ?

 ° K = -38.9 °C + 273.15 = 234.3 K
Temperature Units Conversion
 K → °C or °C → K
K = °C + 273.15
°C = K - 273.15
 °F → °C or °C → °F
°F = [ (9/5) × °C] + 32
°C = (5/9) (°F - 32)
No relatationship between

K → °F or °F → K
Thus: K → 0C → 0F or 0F → 0C → K
1 Which of the following is not an SI base unit?
A) kilometer
B) kilogram
C) second
26/12/39
D) kelvin
2. Which of the following SI base units is not commonly
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
used in chemistry?
A) kilogram
B) kelvin
C) candela
D) mole
3 Which of the following prefixes means 1/1000?

A) kilo
B) deci
C) centi
D) milli
42
4. What temperature is 95 °F when converted to degrees
Celsius?
A) 63 °C
B) 35 °C
26/12/39
C) 127 °C
D) 15 °C
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
5. What temperature is 37 °C when converted to kelvin?
A) 310 K
B) 99 K
C) 236 K
D) 67 K
. 6 What temperature is 77 K when converted to degrees

Celsius?
A) –296 °C
B) 105 °C
C) –196 °C
D) 25 °C
43
7. Lithium is the least dens metal known (density= 0.53 g/cm3 ). What is the volume
occupied by 1.2x103 g of lithium?
A. 0.0875 cm3
B. 11.4 cm3
C. 0.44x10-3 cm3
26/12/39
D. 2.26x103 cm3
8. Convert -77F to kalvin ?
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
A. 212.6 K
B. -212.6 K
C. -28.1 K
D. +13.5 K
9 Express 7.5 ng as Tg
A. 7.5 X10-21Tg
B. 75 X1024 Tg
C. 0.75 Tg
D. 7.5 X1021 Tg
44
10 What is 22.6 m when converted to decimeters?
A) 0.226 dm
B) 2.26 dm
26/12/39
C) 226 dm
D) 2.26 x 10–3 dm
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
11 What is 25.4 mg when converted to kilograms?
A) 2540 kg
B) 2.54 x10–5 = 25.4 x 10–6kg
C) 2.54 kg
D) 2.54 x 104 kg
12 At what temperature does the numerical reading on a

Celsius thermometer equal that on a Fahrenheit
thermometer?
A) 0 °C
B) –40 °C
C) 100 °C
D) –32 °C
45
13. The SI prefixes giga and micro represent, respectively:
A. 10-9 and 10-6.

B. 106 and 10-3.
C. 103 and 10-3.
26/12/39
D. 109 and 10-6.
E. 10-9 and 10-3.
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
14. Ammonia boils at -33.4C. What temperature is this in F?
A. -60.1F
B. -92.1F
C. -28.1F
D. +13.5F
15. Which of the following prefixes is not correct?
A.Kilo- k 10-3
B. micro- µ 10-6
C. nano- n 10-9
D.deci- d 10-1
46
16. Candela (cd) is the SI base unit of
A. time
B.length
C. luminous intensity
D.electrical current
26/12/39
17. Express 5500 nm as picometers.
A.5.5  10-6 pm
B.55.0 pm
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
C.550 pm
D.5.5  106 = 5500 x 103 pm
18. The SI prefix giga represents:
A.10-6
B.106
C.103
D.109
19 Which of the following prefixes means 106 ?

A. Mega
B. nano
C. Tera
D. milli
47
20. A piece of iron (Fe) metal weighing 194.3 g is placed in a graduated cylinder containing
242.0 mL of water. The volume of water now reads 260.5 mL. From these data calculate
the density of iron.
A.10.5 g/cm3
B.1.25 g/cm3
26/12/39
C.0.746 g/cm3
D.21.0 g/cm3
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
21 Which of the following SI base units is used to measure Electrical Current?
A. candela
B. kelvin
C. Ampere
D. mole
22 Which of the following prefixes means 1/100?

A. kilo
B. deci
C. Centi
D. milli
48
23 Which of the following SI base units is not commonly used in chemistry?
A. kilogram
B. kelvin
C. ampere
26/12/39
D. mole
24. The diameter of an atom is approximately 1  10-7 mm. What is this
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
diameter when expressed in nanometers?
A. 1  10-18 nm
B. 1  10-15 nm
C. 1  10-9 nm
D. 1  10-1 nm
25. Express 75 Tg as pg
A. 7.5 pg
B. 75 X1024 pg
C. 0.75 pg
D. 75 X10-24 pg
49
26. The SI unit of time is the
A. hour
B. Second
C. minute
D. ampere
26/12/39
27 The following procedure was used to determine the volume of a flask.
The flask was weighted dry and then filled with water. If the masses of empty
flask and filled flask were 56.12g and 87.39g,respectively, and the density of
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
water is 0.9976g/cm3, Calculate the volume of the flask in cm3 ?
A. 56.255 cm3
B. 87.6 cm3
C. 31.345 cm3
D. 143.855
28. Express 2200 nm as picometers
A. 2.2X10-7 pm
B. 22.0 pm
C. 220 pm
D. 2.2X106 = 2200 x 103 pm
50
29. The SI prefixes kilo and milli represent, respectively:
A. 10-9 and 10-6
B. 106 and 10-3
C. 103 and 10-3
D. 109 and 10-6
E. 10-9 and 10-3
26/12/39
30. The SI prefixes Tara and nano represent, respectively:
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
A. 10-9 and 10-6
B. 106 and 10-3
C. 103 and 10-3
D. 1012 and 10-9
31. The density of octane is 0.702 g/cm3. what is the mass of 65 mL of octane?
A. 45.6 g
B. 92.6 g
C. 22.5 g
D. 110 g
51
32. How many cubic centimeters are there in exactly one cubic meter?
A. 1  10-6 cm3
B. 1  10-3 cm3
C. 1  10-2 cm3
D. 1  106 cm3
26/12/39
33. 6.0 km is how many micrometers?
A. 6.0  106 µm
B. 1.7  10-7 µm
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
C. 6.0  109 µm
D. 1.7  10-4 µm
34. Ammonia boils at -33.4C. What temperature is this in F?
A. -60.1F
B. -92.1F
C. -28.1F
D. +13.5F
35. At what temperature does the numerical reading on a Fahrenheit

thermometer equal that on a Celsius thermometer?
A. 0 °F
B. –40 °F
C. 100 °F
D. –32 °F
52
36. How many cm2 are there in exactly m2 ?
A. 1  10-6 cm3
B. 1  10-3 cm3
C. 1  10-2 cm3
D. 1  104 cm2
26/12/39
37. Which of these quantities represents the largest mass?
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
A. 2.0  102 mg
B. 0.0010 kg
C. 1.0  105 mg
D. 2.0  102 cg
38. Which of these quantities represents the smallest mass?

A. 2.0  102 mg
B. 0.0010 kg
C. 1.0  105 mg
D. 2.0  102 cg
53
39. Convert -77F to kalvin ?
A. 212.6 K
B. -212.6 K
C. -28.1 K
D. +13.5 K
26/12/39
40. Which of the following prefixes is not correct
A. deci- d 10
Dr.S.Al-Mhyawi
B. kilo- K 103
C. Pico - p 10-12
D. micro- M 10-6
41. A lead sphere has a mass of 1.2x104 g, and its volume is 1.05x103 cm3.
Calculate the density of lead ?
A. 0.0875 g/cm3
B. 11.4 g/cm3
C. 1.26x107 g/cm3
D. 0.8 g/cm3
54
ANSWER KEY
1- A 5-A 9-B
2-C 6-C 10-D
3-D 7-C
4-B 8-B
 Problems
 1.17 - 1.18 – 1.19 – 1.22 - 1.23 – 1.25 – 1.26
Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Atomic Theory of Matter
The theory that atoms

are the fundamental
building blocks of
matter reemerged in the
early nineteenth
century, championed by
John Dalton.
Modern atomic theory and the laws that led
to it
Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier)

 The total mass of substances present at the
end of a chemical process is the same as the
mass of substances present before the
process took place.
 This law was one of the laws on which
Dalton’s atomic theory was based.
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
10 g 5g 15 g
16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y
The Law of Definite Proportions
• All samples of a given compound, regardless of

their source or how they are prepared, have the
same proportions of their constituents
• Example: the decomposition of 18.0 g of water

results 16g of oxygen and 2g of hydrogen always,
regardless of it’s origin.
• Mass ratio= 16.0g oxygen ÷ 2.0g hydrogen
=8.0 or 8:1
Law of Multiple Proportions (Dalton)
 If two elements, A and B, form more than one
compound, the masses of B that combine
with a given mass of A are in the ratio of
small whole numbers.
1.33 g of O
CO
1 g of C
2.67 g of O
CO2
2.67
=2 A small whole numbers.
1.33
Law of Multiple Proportions (Dalton)
Dalton predicted this law and observed
it while developing his atomic theory.
When two or more compounds exist
from the same elements, they can
not have the same relative number
of atoms.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
2
Dalton’s Postulates
1) Each element is
composed of
extremely small
particles called
atoms.
2) All atoms of a given

element are identical
to one another in
mass and other
properties, but the
atoms of one element
are different from the
atoms of all other
elements.
3) Atoms of an element
are not changed into
atoms of a different
element by chemical
reactions; atoms are
neither created nor
destroyed in chemical
reactions.
4) Atoms of more than
one element combine
to form compounds;
a given compound
always has the same
relative number and
kind of atoms.
Discovery of Subatomic Particles
• In Dalton’s view, the atom was the
smallest particle possible. Many
discoveries led to the fact that the atom
itself was made up of smaller particles.
Electrons and cathode rays
Radioactivity
Nucleus, protons, and neutrons
The Electron (Cathode Rays)
• Streams of negatively charged particles were found to

emanate from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence.
• J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897).
The Electron
Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of

the electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/gram
(C/g).
Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
(Electrons)
 Once the charge/mass
ratio of the electron was
known, determination of
either the charge or the
mass of an electron
would yield the other.
 Robert Millikan
determined the charge
on the electron in 1909.
the charge/mass ratio of the electron =1.76  108 (C/g).
1.76  108 C → 1 g of the electron

1.60  10-19 C →?? g of the electron
The mass of an electron = 9.01  10-28g

The structure of the atom
• Thomson proposed that negatively charged electrons were
small particles held within a positively charged sphere,
• It’s known as the plum pudding model (an English desert -a
blueberry muffin todays)
Discovery of the Nucleus
Ernest
Rutherford shot
 particles at a
thin sheet of
gold foil and
observed the
pattern of scatter
of the particles.
The Nuclear Atom
Since some particles

were deflected at
large angles,
Thomson’s model
could not be correct.
The Nuclear Atom
• Rutherford postulated a
very small, dense
nucleus with the
electrons around the
outside of the atom.
• Most of the volume is
empty space.
• Atoms are very small;
1 – 5 Å or 100 – 500 pm.
• Other subatomic particles
(protons and neutrons)
were discovered.
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)
 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)
1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g)
Subatomic Particles
• Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have a charge;
neutrons are neutral.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass (relative mass 1). The mass of an electron
is so small we ignore it (relative mass 0).
• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus;
electrons travel around the nucleus.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2015 Pearson Education
Atom consist of:
Electron (e) (-ve charge)
Proton (p) (+ve charge)
Neutron (n) (neutral)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic Mass
• Atoms have extremely small masses.
• The heaviest known atoms have a
mass of approximately 4 × 10–22 g.
• A mass scale on the atomic level is
used, where an atomic mass unit
(amu) is the base unit.
1 amu = 1.66054 × 10–24 g
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Transfer amu to gram
Rule1: 1 g = 6.023 × 1023 amu
Rule2: 1 mole contain 6.023 × 1023 atoms
• For one Carbon atom (amu)→ atomic mass = 12

amu
• For one male of Carbon atoms (amu)→ atomic

mass = 12 × 6.023 × 1023 amu
• For one male of Carbon atoms (g) →

= (12 × 6.023 × 1023) ∕ 6.023 × 1023 = 12 g Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic Weight Measurement
• Atomic and molecular weight can be measured
with great accuracy using a mass
spectrometer.
• Masses of atoms are compared to the carbon
atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons (C-12).
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Symbols of Elements
 Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol.

This is the symbol for carbon.
 All atoms of the same element have the same number of
protons, which is called the atomic number, Z. It is written
as a subscript BEFORE the symbol.
 The mass number is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It is written as a
superscript BEFORE the symbol.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic number, Mass number
A tom
Carbon
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus.

Mass number (A)= number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutron

No. of neutron= mass No. (A)- atomic No. (Z)
Atoms,
Molecules,
In neutral atom ;Atomic number = number of electrons and Ions
Atomic Number
12
Carbon- 12 C
Atoms,
Molecules,
Mass Number and Ions
Example:
Sodium atom (Na) has 11 protons & 12
neutrons
Atomic number of Na = 11
Mass number of Na = 11+12= 23
Number of electrons = 11
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example
Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with

different numbers of neutrons (or mass numbers)in
their nuclei Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Isotopes
Isotopes of the same element have similar chemistries

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example
16 18
O O
8 8
8 8
16 18
8 8
8 8
8 10
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Do You Understand Isotopes?
14
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?
6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
11
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?
6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2.3
Periodic Table
• The periodic
table is a
systematic
organization of the
elements.
• Elements are
arranged in order
of atomic number.
• Unlike the way we write isotopes, the atomic
number is at the TOP of a box in the periodic table.
• The atomic weight of an element appears at the
BOTTOM of the box. (They are not shown on this
Atoms,
version of the Periodic Table.) Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table
• The rows on the

periodic table are
called periods.
• Columns are
called groups.
• Elements in the
same group have
similar chemical
properties.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Periodicity
When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Groups
These five groups are known by their names.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
Noble Gas
Group
Halogen
Period
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
The Periodic Table
• Horizontal rows in periodic table are called periods.

• Vertical Columns are groups or families; elements have similar
chemical and physical properties.
• There are three type of classifications:
1- Representative elements (main group elements): A Groups and
transition elements: B Groups
2- Another classification was from 1st to 18th groups
3- Metals on the left side and non metal on the right side of the periodic
table, to sections separate with metalloids
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Section A: main group elements
Section B: The transition elements
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
An electron configurations of elements on periodic
table were blocked on 4 types of orbitals:
• 1A and 2A elements were blocked on S orbital
• 3A,4A,5A,6A,7A and 8A elements were blocked on P
orbitals
• Transition elements were blocked on d orbital
• Lanthanides and Actinides were blocked on f orbitals
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Metals
Metals are on the left side of the periodic table.
Most of the elements in nature are metals.
Properties of metals:
Shiny luster
Conduct heat and electricity
Malleable and ductile
Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
Low ionization energies/form cations easily
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Metal Chemistry
• Compounds formed between metals and
nonmetals tend to be ionic.
• Metal oxides tend to be basic.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nonmetals
 Metals are on the right side of the periodic table (with the exception
of H)..
 Most of the elements in nature are metals.
 Properties of nonmetals:
 Poor conductors of heat and electricity
• They can be solid (like carbon), liquid (like bromine), or gas (like
neon) at room temperature.
• Solids are dull, brittle, poor conductors
 Large negative electronegativity, high ionization energies/form
anions easily
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nonmetal Chemistry
• Substances containing only nonmetals are

molecular compounds.
• Most nonmetal oxides are acidic. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Metalloids
• Metalloids have some characteristics of metals
and some of nonmetals.
• Several metalloids are electrical semiconductors
(computer chips).
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Metals Differ from Nonmetals
• Metals tend to form cations.
• Nonmetals tend to form anions.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Review ch2
36- Which of the following is an alkali metal?

a- K b- He c- C d- Mg
37- The noble gas which is used to fill buoyant balloons called ----------- .
a- Hellium b- Neon c- Xenon d- Argon
38- The noble gas which is often used in electronic signs called ------------- .
a- Hellium b- Neon c- Xenon d- Argon
39- ----------------- is used as a sterilizing and disinfecting agent.

a- Hellium b- Neon c- Argon d- Chlorine
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Radius characters
Atomic radius is one-half the distance between the
two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms (a) or in a
diatomic molecule (b).
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
8.3
The larger the effective nuclear charge, the
stronger the hold of the nucleus on the outer-shell
electrons, and the smaller the atomic radius.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
8.3
Atomic Radii
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
8.3
Worked Example 8.2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Metallic Character
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chapter 2/Atoms, Molecules, and
Ions
2.13. Periodic trends in the size of
atoms
4. Metallic Character
decreasing Metallic Character

Example 2.9 (p43):
Increasing Metallic Character

choose the more metallic element from
following:
(a) Sn or Te
Sn>Te
(b) P or Sb
Sb > P
Atoms,
Molecules,

60 and Ions
Ionization Energy (I)
• The ionization energy is the minimum
energy required to remove an electron from
the ground state of a gaseous atom or ion.
– The first ionization energy is that energy
required to remove the first electron.
– The second ionization energy is that energy
required to remove the second electron, etc.
• Note: the higher the ionization energy, the
more difficult it is to remove an electron!
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Ionization Energy
• It requires more energy to remove each successive
electron.
• When all valence electrons have been removed, it
takes a great deal more energy to remove the next
electron.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
General Trend in First Ionization Energies
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
8.4
Two notable exceptions include the
following:
• IE (2A) ˃ IE (3A)
Example: IE (Be) ˃ IE (B)
• IE (5A) ˃ IE (6A)
Example: IE (N) ˃ IE (O)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Variation of the First Ionization Energy with Atomic
Number
A larger effective nuclear charge means a more tightly held outer
electron, and hence a higher first ionization energy.
He has the highest first ionization energy of all the elements.
Filled n=1 shell

Filled n=2 shell
Filled n=3 shell

Filled n=4 shell
Filled n=5 shell
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
8.4
Ions
atoms
Example : Which atom should have a Increasing First Ionization Energy

smaller first ionization energy: oxygen
(O) or sulphur (S)?
Decreasing First Ionization Energy

Solution:
O & S are in group 6A
O: [He] 2s2 2p4
S: [Ne] 3s2 3p4
The valence electrons in S are farther from
the nucleus → removing of them is easier
Thus: I1 (S) < I1 (O)
Atoms,
Molecules,

66 and Ions
Electron Affinity
 Electron affinity is the energy change
accompanying the addition of an electron to a
gaseous atom:
Cl + e−  Cl−
 It is typically exothermic, so, for most

elements, it is negative!
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
General Trend in Electron Affinity
 Not much change in a group.
 Across a period, it generally increases.
Three notable exceptions include the
following:
1) Group 2A: s sublevel is full!
EA(2A) ˂ EA(1A)
Example EA(Mg) ˂ EA(Na)
2) Group 5A: p sublevel is half-full!
EA(5A) ˂ EA(4A)
Example EA(S) ˂ EA(P)
1) Group 8A: p sublevel is full!
Very low EA for 8A gases.
Note: the electron affinity for many of
these elements is positive (X– is
unstable). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Variation of Electron Affinity With Atomic Number (H – Ba)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
8.5
Larger
Size Larger
Ionization Larger
energy Larger
Electron Larger
Affinity Larger
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Ions
atoms
3. Electron affinity Increasing Electron affinity
Decreasing Electron affinity

Which choice correctly lists
the elements in order of
‫من األكبر إلى األصغر‬
decreasing electron affinity?
a. O, Cl, B, C
b. O, Cl, C, B
c. Cl, O, C, B
Atoms,
d. Cl, O, B, C Molecules,

71 and Ions
1. Which of the following statements is true?
A) elements in a group have the same properties
B) elements in a group have similar properties
C) elements in a period have similar properties
D) elements in a period have the same properties
2. A non-metal of the following is _____.

A) Ba
B) Fe
C) P
D) Cu
3. Representative elements are also called _____.

A) sub-group elements
B) main group elements
C) non-metals
D) metals
4. Which of the following is not a representative element?

A) Cs
B) Al
C) S
D) Ni Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
25. Electron affinity is the energy liberated when an atom forms a _____.
A) free radiation
B) cation
C) anion
D) molecule
26. Which of the following has the highest ionization energy?

A) Cs
B) Xe
C) F
D) He
27. The property, which decreases along a group from top to bottom, is _____.
A) atomic radius
B) metallic character
C) ionization energy
D) ionic radius
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical forces
H2 H2O NH3 CH4
A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Representing Free Elements in Chemical
Equations
1. Chemists always use the empirical formulas to

represent metals and metalloids in chemical
equations, such as Fe, Na, and B, Si, Ge as
monoatomic molecule.
2. For nonmetals there is no single rule.
- Carbon, for example, exists in its empirical
formula (C) but hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and
halogens exist as diatomic molecules [H2, N2,
O2,and X2 (F2, Cl2, Br2….].
- The stable form of phosphorus is P4 and S8 for
sulfur but for sulfur, chemists often use the empirical
formula (S) in chemical equations, rather than S8
S + O2 S O2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Diatomic Molecules
• These seven elements occur naturally
as molecules containing two atoms:
– Hydrogen
– Nitrogen
– Oxygen
– Fluorine
– Chlorine
– Bromine
– Iodine
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
5. An element existing in the monoatomic state is _____.
A) cesium
B) iodine
C) sulfur
D) oxygen
6. An element in the tetra atomic state is ____.
A) gallium
B) phosphorus
C) silicon
D) cesium
7. The element having three valence electrons is _____.

A) N
B) Ge
C) Al
D) Ca
8. The number of valence electrons in phosphorus is _____.

A) 3
B) 5
C) 2
D) 4
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Ions
• When an atom of a group of atoms loses or gains

electrons, it becomes an ion.
• Cations are formed when at least one electron is lost.
Monatomic cations are formed by metals.
• Anions are formed when at least one electron is gained.
Monatomic anions are formed by nonmetals. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.
11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons
anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons Atoms,
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
Molecules,
and Ions
+1 Cations and Anions Of Representative Elements
+2
+3
-2
-3
-1
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
8.2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Common Cations
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Common Anions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Do You Understand Ions?
27 3+
How many protons and electrons are in 13 Al ?
13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons
78 2-
How many protons and electrons are in 34 Se ?
34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
11 31 3- 196 222
5B 15 P 79 Au 86 Rn
26 18-3=15
54-26=28
26-2=24 86
0 2+ 0
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Mass Relationships in Chemical
Reactions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Micro World Macro World
atoms & molecules grams
Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in

atomic mass units (amu)
By definition:
1 atom 12C “weighs” 12 amu
On this scale
1H = 1.008 amu
Atoms,
16O = 16.00 amu Molecules,
and Ions
Transfer amu to gram
Rule1: 1 g = 6.023 × 1023 amu
Rule2: 1 mole contain 6.023 × 1023 atoms
• For one Carbon atom (amu)→ atomic mass = 12

amu
• For one male of Carbon atoms (amu)→ atomic

mass = 12 × 6.023 × 1023 amu
• For one male of Carbon atoms (g) →

= (12 × 6.023 × 1023) ∕ 6.023 × 1023 = 12 g Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Average atomic mass
Atomic number
Average atomic mass
Natural lithium is:

7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu)
92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu)
Isotope 1 Isotope 2
Atomic mass × abundance percent + Atomic mass × abundance percent
Average atomic mass=
100
Average atomic mass of lithium:

7.42 x 6.015 + 92.58 x 7.016 = 6.941 amu
Atoms,
100 Molecules,
and Ions
3.1
Average atomic mass (6.941)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
What information would you need to calculate the
average atomic mass of an element?
(a) The number of neutrons in the element.
(b) The atomic number of the element.
(c) The mass and abundance of each isotope of
the element.
(d) The position in the periodic table of the
element.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
35
The atomic masses of 17 Cl (75.53 percent) and 1737 Cl (24.47 percent) are
34.968 amu and 36.956 amu, respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass
of chlorine.
Solution:
Isotope I Isotope II
Atomic mass = 34.698 amu Atomic mass = 36.956 amu
Abundance percent = 75.53 % Abundance percent = 24.47 %
Isotope 1 Isotope 2
Atomic mass × abundance percent + Atomic mass × abundance percent
Average atomic mass=
100
Isotope 1 Isotope 2
34.698 × 75.53+ 36.956 × 24.47
Average atomic mass= = 35.45 amu
100
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
‫‪The mole‬‬
‫يستخدم المول لعد الجزيئات والذرات واأليونات ويستخدمه الكيميائيون‬

‫ألنه يوفر طريقة مالئمة لمعرفة عدد الجسيمات في العينة‬
‫‪The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that‬‬
‫‪contains as many elementary entities as there‬‬
‫‪are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C isotope‬‬
‫‪1 mol =Contain NA = 6.0221367 x 1023‬‬
‫)‪Avogadro’s number (NA‬‬
‫عدد أفوجادرو هو حلقة الوصل بين عالم‬
‫الجسيمات غير المرئية (الجزئيات‬
‫والذرات) وعالم المرئيات كالماء واألمالح‬ ‫‪Atoms,‬‬
‫‪Molecules,‬‬
‫‪and Ions‬‬
‫‪© 2015 Pearson Education‬‬
‫‪3.2‬‬
• Molar mass (M) is the mass of 1 mole of (eggs,
shoes, marble, atoms, molecule) in grams
• M = mass/mol = g/mol
• 1 mole 12C atoms = Contain 6.022 x 1023 atoms =
12.00 g (molar mass)
• While 1 12C atom = 12.00 amu (atomic mass)
• 1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g Li
• 1 lithium atom = 6.941 amu
• For any element
• atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (g/mol)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
How amu (atom) convert to gram (mole of atoms)
• 1 C atom Weight = 12 amu

• 1 mole of C contain 6.0221367 x 1023 atoms
, which weight 1 mole = 12 x6.0221367 x 1023 amu
• Considering that 1 g = 6.022 x 1023 amu

• So the weight in g ?g = 12 x 6.0221367 x 1023 amu
• The weight of 1 mole of Carbon in g = 12 g
Atoms,
Molecules,

© 2015 Pearson Education, and Ions
One Mole of:
C S
12.01 32.07
g g
Hg
Cu 200.6 Fe
g
63.55 55.85
g g Atoms,
Molecules,
97 and Ions
3.2
How many amu are there in 8.4 g?
1 g = 6.022 x 1023 amu

8.4 g = 5.1 x 1024 amu
1g 6.022 x 1023 amu
8.4 g ?
What is the mass in grams of 13.2 amu ?
1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 g

13.2 amu = 2.2 x 10-23 g
‫يوضح المثاالن أنه يمكن استخدام عدد أفوجادرو لتحويل الكتلة الذرية‬
Atoms,
Molecules,
98
‫إلى كتلة بالجرام والعكس صحيح‬ and Ions
Mass of element No. of atoms
No. of moles ‫كتلة العنصر‬ ‫عدد الذرات‬
‫عدد الموالت‬
m (g) N (atoms)
n (mol )  
M ( g / mol ) N A (atoms)
Molar mass Avogadro's No.

‫الكتلة الموالرية‬ ‫عدد أفوجادرو‬
N (atoms) = m (g) × NA (atoms) / M (g/mol)
M (g) = M (g/mol) × N (atoms) / NA (atoms) Atoms,

Molecules,
and Ions
Do You Understand Molar Mass?
How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K) ?
N (atoms)=? m =0.551 g
m (g) N (atoms)
n ( mol )  
M ( g / mol ) N A ( atoms)
N  mNA / M From periodic table
N (atoms) = 0.551 (g)×6.022×1023/39.10 (g/mol)
= 8.49 x 1021 atoms K

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
3.2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
n (mole)=? m =6.46 g
m (g) N (atoms)
n (mol )  
From periodic table
n (mol) = m (g) / M (g/mol)
n = 6.46 / 4.003
= 1.61 mol He
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
n=0.356 mole m (g)=?
m (g) N (atoms)
n (mol )  
m (g) = n (mol) × M (g/mol)

m = 0.356 × 65.39
= 23.28 g Zn
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Worked Example 3.4
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
N (atom)=? m =16.3g
m (g) N (atoms)
n (mol )  
N (atoms) = m (g) × NA (atoms) / M (g/mol)

N = 16.3 × 6.022×1023 / 32.07
= 3.06×1023 S atoms
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses
(in amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.
1Na 22.99 amu

NaCl 1Cl + 35.45 amu
NaCl 58.44 amu
For any ionic compound

formula mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
1 formula unit NaCl = 58.44 amu

Atoms,
1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl Molecules,
and Ions
Do You Understand Formula Mass?
What is the formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2 ?
1 formula unit of Ca3(PO4)2

3 Ca 3 x 40.08
2P 2 x 30.97
8O + 8 x 16.00
310.18 amu
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.
1S 32.07 amu
2O + 2 x 16.00 amu
SO2 SO2 64.07 amu
element I element II
Molecular mass = (No. of atoms× atomic mass) +( No. of atoms× atomic mass)
For any molecule

molecular mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
1 molecule SO2 = 64.07 amu
Atoms,
1 mole SO2 = 64.07 g SO2 Molecules,
and Ions
It must be noted that:
Atomic mass Atoms

Molar mass )‫كتلة ذرية (من الجدول الدوري‬ Al, As, Ni, H
(g/mol)
molecular mass molecules
‫كتلة جزيئية‬ HCl, H2, O2, NaCl
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
a- SO2
= 32.07 amu + 2(16.00 amu)

= 64.07 amu
b- C8H10N4O2
= 8(12.01 amu) + 10(1.008 amu) + 4(14.01 amu) + 2(16.00 amu)

= 194.20 amu
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Worked Example 3.6
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
No. of moles ? CH4 m= 6.09 g
m (g) N (atoms)
n (mol )  
n (mol) = m (g) / M (g/mol)

= 6.07 / (12.01 + 4(1.008))
= 0.378 mol CH4
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
14. What is the mass in grams of a single atom of As?
A) 1.244 x 10-22 g
B) 2.217 x 10-26 g
C) 8.039 x 1021 g
D) 4.510 x1025 g
16. How many atoms are present in 3.14 g of copper (Cu)?

A) 2.98 x 1022
B) 1.92 x 1023
C) 1.89 x 1024
D) 6.02 x 1023
19. Calculate the molar mass of Li2CO3.

A) 73.89 g
B) 66.95 g
C) 41.89 g
D) 96.02 g
22. How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in 0.334 g of

C2H6?
A) 2.01 x 1023
B) 6.69 x 1021
C) 4.96 x 1022
D) 8.89 x 1020
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Electronic Structure of Atoms
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Quantum Numbers
• Solving the wave equation gives a set of

wave functions, or orbitals, and their
corresponding energies.
• Each orbital describes a spatial
distribution of electron density.
• An orbital is described by a set of four
quantum numbers.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Summary for Quantum Numbers
1- Principal Quantum Number (n)
Specifies the distance of e- from the nucleus (shell)
Values of (n) = 1, 2, 3, ….., ∞
Increase of (n) energy
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
shell Name K L M N O P Q
For certain value of (n),

there are (n2) No. of orbitals
and (2n2) No. of electrons
No. of orbital No. of electron

n
n2 2n2
1 12 =1 2(1)2 = 2
2 22 =4 2(2)2 = 8
Atoms,
3 32 =9 2(3)2 = 18 Molecules,
and Ions
2- Angular Momentum (secondary) Quantum Number (l)
Specifies the shape of the orbital in space (subshell)

Values of (l) = 0, 1, 2, 3,….(n-1)
Increase of (l) energy
l 0 1 2 3 s p d f
subshell Name s p d f
n l (0……..(n-1)) Subshell
1 0 s
2 0,1 s, p
3 0,1,2 s, p, d
4 0,1,2,3 s, p, d, f
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
3- Magnetic Quantum Number ml
Specifies the orientation of the orbital in space.
for a given value of l
ml = -l, (-l+1), …., 0, ….,(+l-1) +l
For each l there are (2l+1) orbital
(0……..(n-1)) ml (orbital
(  L......)0..... L)
n l subshell
(2l+1)
0 s 1 0
1 p 3 -1,0,+1
4
2 d 5 -2,-1,0,+1,+2
3 f 7 -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3
The number of ml values indicates the number of orbitals in subshell
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
s Orbitals
• The value of l for s orbitals is 0.

• They are spherical in shape.
• The radius of the sphere increases with the
value of n.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
p Orbitals
• The value of l for p orbitals is 1.

• They have two lobes with a node between them.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
d Orbitals
• The value of l for a

d orbital is 2.
• Four of the five d
orbitals have four
lobes; the other
resembles a p
orbital with a
doughnut around
the center.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
f Orbitals
• Very complicated shapes (not shown

in text)
• Seven equivalent orbitals in a sublevel
• l=3
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Shell n (1,2,3……)
Subshell l (s, p, d, f)
Orbital ml (s has one orbital)
(p has three orbitals px , py, pz )
(d has five orbitals)
( f has seven orbitals)
The maximum number of e- for one orbital =

2e-
The maximum number of e- for subshell= ( No.
subshell)×2e-
s = 1×2=2 e-, p =3×2=6 e- , d =5×2=10 e- , f
=7×2=14 e- Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
4- Spin Quantum Number ms
Specifies the orientation of the spin axis of an
electron.
Clockwise ‫مع عقارب الساعة‬
Counterclockwise ‫ضد عقارب الساعة‬
Values of (ms)= +½ or -½
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
3s >2s>1s 2px = 2py = 2pz (the same size and shape) f >d >p >s
(2l+1) (n2)
For certain value of (n),

there are (n2) No. of orbitals and (2n2) No. of
electrons Atoms,
Molecules,
For each l there are (2l+1) orbital
and Ions
7.6
Schrödinger Wave Equation
Y = fn(n, l, ml, ms)
Existence (and energy) of electron in atom is described
by its unique wave function Y.
Pauli exclusion principle - no two electrons in an

atom can have the same four quantum numbers.
• Each seat is uniquely identified

• Each seat can hold only one individual at the same
time
• This means that every electron in an atom must
differ by at least one of the four quantum number
values: n, l, ml, and ms.
Atoms,
Molecules,

129 and Ions
7.6
Energies of Orbitals—Hydrogen
• For a one-electron
hydrogen atom,
orbitals on the same
energy level have
the same energy.
• Chemists call them
degenerate orbitals.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Energy of orbitals in a single electron atom
Energy only depends on principal quantum number n
excited state
n=3
n=2 1
En = -RH ( )
n2
Energies of orbitals increase as follows:

1s <2s =2p <3s =3p =3d <4s =4p =4d
Ground state
=4f
n=1 Atoms,
Molecules,

131 and Ions
Energy of orbitals in a multi-electron atom
Energy depends on n
and l
n=3, l = 2
n=3, l = 1
n=3, l = 0
n=2 l = 1
n=2, l = 0
Atoms,
n=1,l = 0 Molecules,

132 and Ions
7.7
The most stable arrangement of electrons
in subshells is the one with the greatest
number of parallel spins (Hund’s rule).
Ne 10 electrons
F 9 electrons
O 8 electrons
N 7 electrons
C 6 electrons
Ne 1s22s22p6
F 1s22s22p5
O 1s22s22p4
N 1s22s22p3 Atoms,
C 1s22s22p2 Molecules,

133 and Ions
7.7
Order of orbitals (filling) in multi-electron atom
Atoms,
Molecules,

134 and Ions
Electron Configurations
• The way electrons are distributed in an
4p 5 atom is called its electron configuration.
• The most stable organization is the lowest
possible energy, called the ground state.
• Each component consists of
– a number denoting the energy level;
– a letter denoting the type of orbital;
– a superscript denoting the number of
electrons in those orbitals.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Orbital Diagrams
• Each box in the
diagram represents
one orbital.
• Half-arrows represent
the electrons.
• The direction of the
arrow represents the
relative spin of the
electron.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Electron configuration is how the electrons are
distributed among the various atomic orbitals in an
atom.
1-The electron configuration of the electron in a ground-state hydrogen atom:
number of electrons
1s 1 in the orbital or subshell
principal quantum angular momentum

number n quantum number l
2-The electron configuration can also be represented by:
Orbital diagram
This way is useful to determine
The spin of electron
the four quantum No. especially
ml and ms for each electron H Atoms,
in an atom.
1s1 Molecules,

137 and Ions
7.8
Condensed Electron Configurations
• Elements in the same group of the
periodic table have the same number
of electrons in the outer most shell.
These are the valence electrons.
• The filled inner shell electrons are
called core electrons. These include
completely filled d or f sublevels.
• We write a shortened version of an
electron configuration using brackets
around a noble gas symbol and listing
only valence electrons.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table
• We fill orbitals in increasing order of energy.
• Different blocks on the periodic table correspond to
different types of orbitals: s = blue, p = pink (s and p
are representative elements); d = orange (transition
elements); f = tan (lanthanides and actinides, or
inner transition elements)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
What is the electron configuration of Mg?
Mg 12 electrons
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
1s22s22p63s2 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons
2
Abbreviated as [Ne]3s[Ne] 1s22s22p6
What are the possible quantum numbers

for the last (outermost) electron in Cl?
Cl 17 electrons 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
1s22s22p63s23p5 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 5 = 17 electrons
Last electron added to 3p orbital
Atoms,
Molecules,
n = 3 l = 1 ml = -1, 0, or +1 ms = ½ or -½ and Ions
Ions
2.10. Electron Configuration:
Example 2.5: (a)What is the electron configuration of Mg?
Mg atom has 12 electrons (from: Periodic table (atomic
number))
The Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s2
2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons
Short Notation: we
Orbital Diagram: write in the electron
configuration of any
element, the symbol
1s2 2s2 2p6 of the Noble gas
3s2 element in the
previous period in
Short notation: [Ne] 3s2;
brackets followed by
Since: [Ne] 1s22s22p6 the symbol of
highest filled
See example: 2.5 p33 subshells inAtoms, the
Molecules,
142 outermost shells.
and Ions
Ions
2.11. Electron Configuration and valence
electron:
Example 2.7: Write the electron configuration of Ge and identify valance
and core electrons?
Atomic number of Ge= 32

Ge: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2
Atoms,
Molecules,

143 and Ions
Ions
Review ‫مراجعة‬
(1) The element that has the valance electron

configuration 3s2 3p3 is:
a) Carbon
b) Nitrogen
c) Phosphorus
d) Neon
(2) Titanium (Ti) element is found in the periodic

table in
a) s-block
b) P-block
c) d-block
Atoms,
d) f-block Molecules,

144 and Ions
Ions
(3) What the electronic configuration for Co

a) [Ar] 4s2 3d5
b) [Ar] 4s2 3d7
c) [Ar] 4s1 3d6
d) [Ar] 4s2 3d4
(4) Arrange the following in order of increasing first

ionization energy:
F, K, P, Ca, and Ne.
a) K < Ca < P < F < Ne
b) Ne < F < Ca < K < P
c) P < F < Ne < K < Ca

Atoms,
d) K < F < P < Ne < Ca Molecules,

145 and Ions
Ions
(5) Which of these elements is most likely to

be a good
conductor of electricity?
a) N
b) S
c) He
d) Fe
(6) magnesium ion, 12Mg2+ , has

a) 12 protons and 13 electrons.
b) 24 protons and 26 electrons.
c) 12 protons and 10 electrons.
d) 24 protons and 22 electrons. Atoms,
Molecules,

146 and Ions
13. The element with atomic number 17 is placed in the _____ group of the
IUPAC periodic table.
A) 7th
B) 11th
C) 17th
D) 16th
14. The element [Ne]3s23p3 is in the _____ group.

A) 13th
B) 2nd
C) 15th
D) 17th
15. 1s22s22p6 is the electronic configuration of _____.

A) Cl–
B) Al3+
C) Ar
D) K+
16. The ion having d10 configuration in the outermost shell is _____.
A) K+
B) Zn2+
C) Al3+ Atoms,
D) Mg2+ Molecules,
and Ions
17. The metal which does not form a trivalent cation is _____.
A) Fe
B) Cr
C) Ti
D) Cd
18. The metal with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d3 is _____.

A) Cr3+
B) Fe3+
C) Ni2+
D) Co2+
19. The atom with the largest atomic radius of the following is _____.
A) Na
B) Br
C) Cs
D) Ca
20. The correct order of atomic radius of the following is _____.
A) Na > Al > Cl > Mg
B) Na < Al < Cl < Mg
C) Na < Mg < Al < Cl
D) Na > Mg > Al > Cl
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chapter 3
Molecules,
Compounds, and
Chemical
Equations
Instructor’s Resources Materials (Download Only) for Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3/e, Global Edition © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Hydrogen + Oxygen = Water
• Elements can combine to form compounds.

– Dalton’s atomic theory
• Law of definite proportions
• Law of multiple proportions
• The properties of the compound are totally

different from the constituent elements.
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Chemical Bonds
• Compounds are made of atoms held together by
chemical bonds.
• Bonds are attraction forces between atoms.

– The bonding attraction comes from attractions between
protons and electrons.
• Types of chemical bonds

– Ionic
• Bond formed between a metal and a nonmetal element
– Covalent
• Bond formed between two nonmetal elements
– Metallic
• Bond formed between two metal elements
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Ionic Bonds
• Occur between a metal and a nonmetal element

– Transfer of electron(s) from one element to another
• A metal atom can transfer an electron to a nonmetal.
• Ionic bonding results in the attraction between the two

charges (cation plus anion).
• The resulting cation and anion are attracted to each other

by electrostatic forces.
– These forces are governed by Coulomb’s law.
– Strength of bond can be calculated using Coulomb’s law.
• Compounds formed having ionic bonds are referred to as

ionic compounds.
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Formation of an Ionic Compound
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Chemical Formulas
• A chemical formula represents the composition of the
substance.
– It indicates the type and number of elements that make up
the molecule (compound).
• Example
– C2H6O is the chemical formula for ethanol.
• The compound of ethanol is composed of two moles of
carbon atoms, six moles of hydrogen atoms, and one mole of
oxygen atoms.
• The molecular mass for ethanol is determined from its

molecular formula.
– Ethanol’s molecular mass is 46.0 grams/mole.
– One mole of ethanol has a mass of 46.0 grams.
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Types of Chemical Formulas
• Molecular lists the exact number and types of atoms of
which the molecule is composed.
• Example
– The hydrogen peroxide molecular formula is H2O2.
• Empirical lists the relative type and number of atoms in

the compound.
• It is the simplest ratio of atom to atom.
• Example
– For the molecule hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, the empirical
formula is (HO)n=2, where n means two units of (HO).
• For every H atom there is one O atom present.
• Structural represents how the atoms in the molecule are

connected to one another.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Empirical Formulas
• Empirical formulas
– do not give information on the compound’s shape or how
atoms are attached to each other.
• Empirical formulas may or may not indicate how many of
each type of atom is present in the compound.
– Will if the molecular formula is the empirical formula
• Example
– Water is H2O.
– Will not if the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical
formula
• Example
– Oxalic acid is C2H2O4.
• The empirical formula for oxalic acid is CHO2.
• The molecular formula of oxalic acid is C2H2O4, which is two
units of CHO2 or (CHO2)n=2.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Types of Chemical Formulas
• Representing the molecule oxalic acid
• Molecular C2H2O4
• Empirical CHO2 or (CHO2)n=2
• Structural
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Determine the empirical formula for the
following:
1. An ionic compound that has two aluminum

ions for every three oxide ions
2. Hexane, C6H14
3. Arabinose, C5H10O5
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Determine the empirical formula for the
following:
1. An ionic compound that has two aluminum Al2O3

ions for every three oxide ions
2. Hexane, C6H14 (C3H7)n where n = 2
3. Arabinose, C5H10O5 (CH2O)n where n = 2
Nivaldo J. Tro
Molecular and Empirical Problems
Nivaldo J. Tro
Molecular Models
• Ball-and-stick models use balls to represent the atoms
and sticks to represent the attachments between them.
– Gray = Carbon
– White = Hydrogen
• Space-filling models use interconnected spheres to show

the electron clouds of atoms connecting together.
• Models depict the three-dimensional structure for the

compound methane. Methane’s chemical formula is CH4.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Nivaldo J. Tro
Classification of Elements and Compounds
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Representing Free Elements in Chemical
Equations
1. Chemists always use the empirical formulas to

represent metals and metalloids in chemical
equations, such as Fe, Na, and B, Si, Ge as
monoatomic molecule.
2. For nonmetals there is no single rule.
- Carbon, for example, exists in its empirical
formula (C) but hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and
halogens exist as diatomic molecules [H2, N2,
O2,and X2 (F2, Cl2, Br2….].
- The stable form of phosphorus is P4 and S8 for
sulfur but for sulfur, chemists often use the empirical
formula (S) in chemical equations, rather than S8
S + O2 S O2
Nivaldo J. Tro
Classification of Elements and Compounds
• Compounds composed of a metal element and a nonmetal element are ionic
compounds.
– The cation and/or anion may be simple (one atom) or polyatomic.
– Examples
• Simple: chloride ion (Cl–), copper(II) ion (Cu2+), silicon(IV) ion (Si4+), or
nitride ion (N3–)
• Polyatomic: nitrate ion (NO3–) or ammonium ion (NH4+)

– Their formulas are sometimes referred to as ionic formulas because the
bonding in the compound is ionic in nature.
• Compounds composed of only nonmetal elements are referred to as

molecular compounds.
– Atoms are attached to each other in a molecular compound through
covalent bonding.
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What Is Covalent Bonding?
• It occurs between nonmetal elements.
• The bond arises from the mutual attraction of two nuclei for the same electrons.
– Electron sharing results.
• Bond is a balance between

– attractive forces.
• (protons of atom A to electrons of atom B)
– repulsive forces.
• (electrons of atom A to electrons of atom B) and
(protons of atom A to protons of atom B)
Covalently bonded compounds are referred to as molecular compounds.
• Examples: CO2, CO, Cl2, C3H8
Nivaldo J. Tro
Ionic versus Molecular Compounds
The compound propane contains The sodium chloride molecule, NaCl,

individual C3H8 molecules. is composed of an array of
Na+ ions and Cl– ions.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Predicting Formulas for Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds are composed of
– metal + nonmetal elements.
– metal + nonmetal polyatomic ions.
• Chemical formulas of ionic compounds are “neutral” or

have a net charge of zero.
– Question: What is the molecular formula for Mn3+ and O2–

(oxide ion)?
• Mn3+ has an oxidation state of 3+ and the oxide ion has an

oxidation state of 2–.
• Multiply the absolute value of the respective oxidation states to
derive the molecular formula
– Mn2O3.
Mn: +3×2= +6
O: –2×3= –6
Instructor’s Resources Materials (Download Only) for Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3/e, Global Edition
0 © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Nivaldo J. Tro
A List of Common Charges
(Oxidation States)
Element or Group Common Charge (oxidation state)
• Alkali metals 1+ only
• Alkaline earth metals +2 only
• Halogens
Fluorine (F) –1 only
Other halogens –1
• 5A column nonmetals –3
• 6A column nonmetals –2
• Aluminum (Al) +3 only
• Hydrogen (H)
When combined with a nonmetal +1
When combined with a metal –1
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Naming Ionic Compounds
• Alkali and alkaline earth metals
– Metal name first, followed by
nonmetal
– Nonmetal ending is exchanged Ionic compound
with “IDE.” Metal and nonmetal
• Example
– MgCl2 magnesium
chloride
Name of Base name of
– KNO3 potassium nitrate metal’s nonmetal’s
cation anion + ide
• Alkali (+1) and alkaline earth (+2)

metals oxidation states are known.
That is why their charge is not indicated in the formula name!

Nivaldo J. Tro
Nivaldo J. Tro
Nivaldo J. Tro
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Name the following ionic compounds:
1. NaI
2. Mg3N2
3. Al2S3
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answers:
1. NaI sodium iodide
2. Mg3N2 magnesium nitride
3. Al2S3 aluminum sulfide
Nivaldo J. Tro
Naming Ionic Compounds:
Metal + Nonmetal for Transition and Main
Group (“p” block) Metals
• Metal name first, followed by nonmetal
• Metal’s oxidation state is indicated by Roman numerals.
• Nonmetal ending is exchanged with “IDE.”
– Examples
• MnBr4 manganese(IV) bromide
• Fe2O3 iron(III) oxide
• SnF2 tin(II) fluoride
Name of metal’s Charge on metal’s cation in Base name of

cation Roman numerals within nonmetal’s anion + ide
parentheses
Nivaldo J. Tro
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
1. SnF2
2. Fe(NO3)3
3. Cu3(PO4)2
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answers:
1. SnF2 tin(II) fluoride
2. Fe(NO3)3 iron(III) nitrate
3. Cu3(PO4)2 copper(II) phosphate
Nivaldo J. Tro
Hydrated Compounds versus Anhydrous
Compounds
Hydrate
CuSO4 • 5H2O
Anhydrous
CuSO4
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Hydrated Compounds
Prefix Number
• Hydrates are ionic compounds containing a of Waters
specific number of waters for each formula unit.
– Water of hydration often “driven off” by hemi ½
heating
mono 1
• In formula, attached waters follow. di 2

– CoCl2 • 6H2O
tri 3
• In name, attached waters are indicated by tetra 4

prefix + hydrate after the name of the ionic penta 5
compound.
hexa 6
– CoCl2 • 6H2O = cobalt(II) chloride
hexahydrate hepta 7
– CaSO4 • ½H2O = calcium sulfate
octa 8
hemihydrate
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Hydrated Compounds
1. What is the formula of magnesium

sulfate heptahydrate?
2. What is the name of NiCl2 • 6H2O?
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Hydrated Compounds
1. What is the formula of magnesium

sulfate heptahydrate?
MgSO4 • 7H2O
2. What is the name of NiCl2 • 6H2O?
Nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate

Nivaldo J. Tro
What Is Covalent Bonding?
• It occurs between nonmetal elements.
• The bond arises from the mutual attraction of two nuclei for the same electrons.
– Electron sharing results.
• Bond is a balance between

– attractive forces.
• (protons of atom A to electrons of atom B)
– repulsive forces.
• (electrons of atom A to electrons of atom B) and
(protons of atom A to protons of atom B)
Covalently bonded compounds are referred to as molecular compounds.
• Examples: CO2, CO, Cl2, C3H8
Nivaldo J. Tro
Naming Molecular Compounds
1- Name the element with the smallest group number first.
2- If two element lie in the same group, write the element with the greatest row
number first.
3- Change the ending of the second nonmetal to “IDE.”
4- Indicate the number of atoms of the nonmetal by Latin prefixes.
– Mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca
– If there is only one atom of the first element in the formula, the perfix
mono- is normally omitted.
– When a prefix ends with “o” or “a” and the base name begins with “o”, the
first “o” or “a” is often drooped.
– Examples
• P2O5 diphosphorus pentaoxide → diphosphorus pentoxide
• CO carbon monooxide → carbon monoxide
Name of 1st Base name of 2nd

Prefix Prefix
nonmetal element nonmetal + ide
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Name the following molecular compounds:
1. CO2
2. SBr6
3. I2F7
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Name the following molecular compounds:
1. CO2 carbon dioxide
2. SBr6 sulfur hexabromide
3. I2F7 diiodine heptafluoride
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Problem:
Write formulas for the following
compounds:
1. Sulfur trioxide
2. Dinitrogen tetrahydride
3. Diarsenic trisulfide
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Answer:
Write formulas for the following
compounds:
1. Sulfur trioxide SO3
2. Dinitrogen tetrahydride N2H4
3. Diarsenic trisulfide As2S3

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Molecular Compounds Known by Their
Common Names
Water H2O
Ammonia NH3
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Acids
• Definition: Acids release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
– Example
• HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
• Characteristics:
– Sour taste
– Low pH values (<7)
– Dissolve many metals
• Sources: present on food, such as lemons and limes.

• Uses: used in household products, such as bathroom cleaner.
• Types:
– Binary acids
• have only two elements: H+ and nonmetal anion.
– Oxyacids
• H+ cation and polyatomic anion that contain oxygen atoms
(e.g., CO32–)
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How to name an acid
There are two type of naming:
1- If an acid consist of hydrogen and monoatomic nonmetal (Binary acids),

write →
hydro + nonmetal base name +ic + acid
Example: HCl hydrochloric acid
2- If an acid consist of hydrogen and polyatomic ion (Oxyacids), write →

polyatomic ion name with change its end from ate to ic, and ite to ous + acid
Example: HNO3 nitric acid
HClO2 Chlorous acid
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How to Name an Acid
• The ide and ate endings of the anions change to ic.
NO3– + H+  HNO3
Nitrate ion Nitric acid
Cl– + H+  HCl
Chloride ion Hydrochloric acid
• The ite endings of anions change to ous.
NO2– + H+  HNO2
Nitrite ion Nitrous acid
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Problem:
Name the following acids:
1. H2S(aq)
2. HClO4(aq)
3. HNO2(aq)
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Answer:
Name the following acids:
1. H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid
2. HClO4(aq) perchloric acid
3. HNO2(aq) nitrous acid
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Problem:
Write the formula for the following acids:
1. Chlorous acid
2. Phosphoric acid
3. Hydrobromic acid
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Answer:
Write the formula for the following acids:
1. Chlorous acid H+ and ClO2– HClO2
2. Phosphoric acid H+ and PO43– H3PO4
3. Hydrobromic acid H+ and Br – HBr
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Molecular Weight versus Molar Mass
Atomic Weight versus Atomic Mass
• They are all describing the same thing: What is the mass/weight
for one mole of something?
• Molecular weight or molecular mass

• It is the sum of the atomic weights of all atoms in the molecule.
– Unit: grams/mole
– One mole of H2O has a molecular mass of 18.0 g/mol.
• Atomic weight or atomic mass

• It is the atomic mass of one mole of the element.
– Unit: grams/mole
– One mole of Cu atoms has an atomic mass of 63.5 g/mol.
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It must be noted that:
Atomic mass Atoms

Molar mass )‫كتلة ذرية (من الجدول الدوري‬ Al, As, Ni, H
(g/mol)
molecular mass molecules
‫كتلة جزيئية‬ HCl, H2, O2, NaCl
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Problem:
What is the molar mass of ethanol, C2H6O?
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Answer:
What is the molar mass of ethanol, C2H6O?
1 mole contains
2 mol C (12.01 g C/1 mol) = 24.02 g C

6 mol H (1.01 g H/1 mol) = 6.06 g H
1 mol O (16.00 g O/1 mol) = 16.00 g O
Total = molar mass = 46.08 g/mol
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Molecular Formulas, Molecular Mass, and
Stoichiometry
• Chemical formulas tell you the number and type of
atoms in a molecule.
– The molecular mass of a compound is computed from
its chemical formula.
• The chemical formula and its corresponding molar

mass can be used to convert between amounts of
constituent elements and molecules.
– Examples
• Percent composition
• Moles
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‫) و الكتلة الموالرية‬NA( ‫يمكن باستخدام كال من عدد أفوجادرو‬
)M(
‫) لنفس العنصر‬n( ‫) وعدد الموالت‬m( ‫•التحويل بين كتلة العنصر‬
‫) لنفس‬N( ‫) وعدد الذرات‬n( ‫•التحويل بين عدد الموالت للعنصر‬
‫العنصر‬
M = molar mass in g/mol NA = Avogadro’s number
m/M nNA
m ‫كتلة العنصر‬ ‫عدد موالت‬ ‫عدد ذرات‬
n ‫العنصر‬ N ‫العنصر‬
nM N/NA
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3.2
Mass of element No. of atoms
No. of moles ‫كتلة العنصر‬ ‫عدد الذرات‬
‫عدد الموالت‬
m (g) N (atoms)
n (mol )  
Molar mass Avogadro's No.

‫الكتلة الموالرية‬ ‫عدد أفوجادرو‬
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Mass to Mole Conversions
• To go from mass to mole
Mass of element (g) Mole of element
• Mass (g) /atomic mass of element = mole of element
• Example
– 24.00 grams C /12.011 grams
= 2.00 moles of carbon atoms
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Mole to Mass Conversions
• To go from mole to mass
Mole of element Mass of element (g)
• Mole of element × atomic mass (element) = mass (g)
• Example
– 8.00 mole He × 4.00 grams = 32.0 grams He atoms
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Mass to Number of Atoms Conversions
• To go from mass to number of atoms you must go through
the mole.
Mass of Mole of Number of atoms

element (g) element of the element
• (Mass (g) /atomic mass) ×

6.02 × 1023 (Avogadro’s no) = number of atoms
• Example
– (45.99 g Na /22.99 g) ×
(6.02 × 1023) = 1.204 × 1024 Na atoms
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Atoms to Mass Conversions
• To go from atoms to mass you must go through the mole.
Number of atoms Mole of Mass of

of the element element element (g)
• (number of atoms) / (6.02 × 1023 Avogadro’s no) ×

(atomic mass) = mass (g)
• Example
– 8 atoms Am / 6.02 × 1023 × 243 g= 3.23 × 10–21 grams of Am
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Problem:
How many Mg atoms are in a 0.200 gram
sample?
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Answer:
How many Mg atoms are in a 0.200 gram
sample?
1. Convert mass to moles.
Mg has an atomic mass of 24.3050 g/mol.
0.200 g Mg × (1 mol Mg/24.31 g) = 8.23 × 10–3 mol Mg
2. How many atoms in this piece of Mg?
8.23 × 10–3 mol Mg × (6.02 × 1023 atoms Mg/1 mol)

= 4.95 × 1021 atoms Mg
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Molecules to Mass Conversions
• To go from atoms to mass you must go through the mole.
Number of Mole of Mass of

molecules molecules compound (g)
• (# of molecules) × (1 mole/6.02 × 1023 molecules)

= mole of molecules
• Mole of molecules × (1 mol mass/1 mole) = mass (g)
• Example
– 8 molecules CH4 × (1 mole/6.02 × 1023 CH4 molecules) = 1.33 × 10–23
– 1.33 × 10–23 mole of CH4 × (16.0 g/1 mole CH4)
= 2.13 × 10–22 g of CH4

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Problem:
What is the mass of 4.78 × 1024 NO2
molecules?
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Answer:
What is the mass of 4.78 × 1024 NO2
molecules?
1. Convert molecules to moles.
4.78 × 1024 NO2 molecules × (1 mol NO2 molecules)

(6.02 × 1023 molecules)
= 7.94 mol NO2
2. Mole to mass of NO2
7.94 mol NO2 × (46.0 g/1 mol NO2) = 365 g NO2
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Problem:
Determine the mass of table salt (NaCl)
containing 2.4 g of Na.
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Answer:
Determine the mass of table salt (NaCl)
containing 2.4 g of Na.
1. Find the % Na in NaCl.
Na: Atomic mass is 22.99 g/mol.
A mole of salt has molecular mass of 58.44 grams.
22.99 g Na × (1 mol/58.44 g/mol NaCl) × 100 = 39.34%
This means that, in a 100.0 gram sample of NaCl, you have
39.34 grams Na.
2. Set up a ratio to determine mass of NaCl if you have 2.40 grams Na.
(2.4 g Na/x g NaCl) = (39.94 g Na/100 g NaCl)
x = 6.10 grams NaCl
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Percent Composition
• A pure compound always consists of the same elements
combined in the same proportions by weight.
• Therefore, we can express molecular composition as a

– percent by weight or percent composition.
• Example
– Ethanol’s molecular formula is C2H6O.
– Its molecular mass is 46.0 g/mol.
– Percent composition
52.31% C
13.15% H
34.72% O
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Problem:
Find the mass percent of Cl in C2Cl4F2.
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Answer:
Find the mass percent of Cl in C2Cl4F2.
1. Determine the molecular mass of C2Cl4F2.
Molecular mass
2 × (12.01 g/1 mol C) = 24.02 g
4 × (35.45 g/1 mol Cl) = 141.80 g
2 × (19.00 g/1 mol F) = 38.00 g
203.8 g/mol
2. Determine the mass Cl contributes to the compound’s mass.
4 × (35.45 g/1 mol Cl) = 141.80 g
3. Calculate Cl mass percent in the compound.
(141.80 g Cl/203.8 g/mol of C2Cl4F2) × 100 = 69.58%

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Strategy for Determining an Empirical
Formula and Its Molecular Formula by
Percent Composition
Step 1: Determine the empirical formula from percent

composition.
– To determine the empirical formula

• Percent to mass
• Mass to moles
• Divide by the smallest.
– And if not whole (number), multiply until whole
– This strategy gives you the empirical formula of the

compound.
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strategy
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‫ حساب عدد الموالت بناء على النسبة المئوية لكل عنصر‬:‫أوالا‬
mass percent
n=
M of element
40.92
nC = = 3.407 mol C
12.01 g
4.58
nH = = 4.54 mol H
1.008 g
54.50
nO = = 3.406 mol C
16.00 g
The smallest No. of moles

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‫ تتم قسمة نواتج الموالت المحسوبة على أصغر عدد للموالت‬:‫ثانيا ا‬
3.407 4.54 3.406

C= ≈1 H= = 1.33 O= =1
3.406 3.406 3.406
‫ الضرب في عدد صحيح للحصول على أرقام صحيحه لعدد الموالت‬:‫ثالثا ا‬
Trail and error procedure
1.33 × 2 = 2.66
1.33 × 3 = 3.99 ≈ 4
1.33 × 4 = 5.32
‫ للحصول على الصيغة األولية‬3 ‫ ضرب موالت الذرات في‬:‫رابعا ا‬
empirical formula
‫وتصبح كالتالي‬
C3H4O3
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Strategy for Determining an Empirical
Formula and Its Molecular Formula by
Percent Composition (continued)
Step 2: Determine the molecular formula from the empirical formula
and molecular mass of the compound.
– To determine the molecular formula from percent

composition you also need the molecular mass (g/mol) of
the substance.
• Empirical formula from percent composition
• Determine the unit mass of the empirical formula.
• Divide the mass of the empirical formula by the molecular
mass of the compound.
• The whole number (round to the nearest whole number) is
the number of empirical units that make up the molecule.
– This gives you the molecular formula of the substance.

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Determination of Molecular Formulas
If we determine the empirical formula and the molar

mass of the compound is known we can determine the
molecular Formula by using:
Molar mass of molecule (compound)

=n
Molar mass of empirical formula
Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n
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Problem:
A compound of B (81.10%) and H has a
molecular mass of 53.3 g/mol. Determine its
molecular formula.
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Answer:
molecular formula.
Step 1: Determine the compound’s empirical formula.
1. Because it contains only B and H atoms, it must contain 18.90% H.

100% – 81.10% = 18.90%
2. In a 100.0 gram sample there would be 81.10 g of B and 18.90 g

of H according to the above percentages.
3. Calculate the number of moles of each constituent.

81.10 g B × (1 mol B/10.81 g) = 7.502 mol B
18.90 g H × (1 mol H/1.008 g) = 18.75 mol H
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Answer (continued):
molecular formula.
4. Now find the ratio of moles of elements in the compound.
Take the ratio of moles of B and H.
Always divide by the smaller number.

(18.75 mol H/7.502 mol B) = 2.5 atoms H to 1 atom B
(7.502 mol B/7.502 mol B) = 1 atom B to 1 atom B
5. But we need a whole-number ratio.

(2.5 H atoms) × 2 = 5 H atoms
(1 B atom) × 2 = 2 B atoms
Empirical formula = B2H5
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Answer (continued):
molecular formula.
Step 2: Determine the molecular formula from the empirical formula and
the compound’s molecular mass.
1. The empirical formula is B2H5.

– The mass of the empirical formula is 26.66 g/unit.
2. To determine the molecular formula you need to find the ratio of the masses
of the empirical formula to the molecular formula.
(53.0 g/mol/26.66 g per unit B2H5) = 2 units of B2H5
Molecular formula = B4H10
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Combustion Analysis
• A common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a known

mass of compound and weigh the amounts of product made.
– Generally used for organic compounds containing C, H, O
• By knowing the mass of the product and composition of

constituent elements in the product, the original amount of
constituent elements can be determined.
– All the original C forms CO2, the original H forms H2O, and
the original mass of O is found by subtraction.
• Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the original

compound have been determined, the empirical formula can
be found.
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Determining the Empirical and Molecular
Formulas of a Compound from a
Combustion Reaction
Problem:
What is the empirical formula for an unknown
compound CxHy given the following information:
A 0.115 g sample of a hydrocarbon, CxHy, is burned

in oxygen and produces 0.379 g of CO2 and 0.1035 g
of H2O.
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Determining the Empirical and Molecular
Formulas of a Compound from a
Combustion Reaction
Problem Strategy:
What is the empirical formula for an unknown compound CxHy given the following
information:
A 0.115 g sample of a hydrocarbon, CxHy, is burned in oxygen and produces 0.379 g
of CO2 and 0.1035 g of H2O.
1. Write a chemical equation describing the reaction.

2. Assume
a) all of the carbon in CO2 comes from the combustion of the CxHy compound.
b) all of the hydrogen in water (H2O) comes from the combustion of the CxHy
compound.
3. Steps 1 and 2 give you the mass of carbon and hydrogen in the unknown, so
from this information you can compute the CxHy formula.
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Answer:
A 0.115 g sample of a hydrocarbon, CxHy, is burned in

oxygen and produces 0.379 g of CO2 and 0.1035 g of H2O.
1. Equation describing reaction
CxHy + some oxygen  0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O
2a. Calculate the amount of C in CO2 (all carbon in CXHy went to the formation of CO2).
0.379 g CO2 × (1 mol CO2/44.0 g) = 8.61 × 10–3 mol CO2
8.61 × 10–3 mol CO2 × (1 mol C/1 mol CO2) = 8.61 × 10–3 mol C
8.61 × 10–3 mol C × (12.0 g C/1 mol) = 0.103 grams C
2b. Calculate the amount of H in H2O (all hydrogen in CXHy went to the formation of H2O).
0.1035 g H2O × (1 mol H2O/18.0 g) = 5.744 × 10–3 mol H2O
5.744 × 10–3 mol H2O × (2 mol H/1 mol H2O) = 1.149 × 10–2 mol H
1.149 × 10–2 mol H × (1.00 g H/1 mol) = 1.149 × 10–2 grams H
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Answer (continued):
A 0.115 g sample of a hydrocarbon, CxHy, is burned in

oxygen and produces 0.379 g of CO2 and 0.1035 g of H2O.
3. Determine the empirical formula.
0.103 grams C × (1 mol C/12.0 g) = 0.00861 mol C atoms
0.01149 grams H × (1 mol H/1.00 g) = 0.01149 mol H atoms
The smaller value is mol of C.

0.00861 C/0.00861 C = 1 C atom
0.01149 H/0.00861 C = 1.337 H atom
It cannot have a 1/3 (0.33) part of an atom, so multiply by 3.

1.337 H atoms × 3 = 4 H atoms
1 C atom × 3 = 3 C atoms
The empirical formula for CxHy is C3H4.
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Problem:
Determine the molecular formula of a
CxHyOz by combustion.
An unknown compound is composed of only C, H, and

O atoms.
Determine the molecular formula for the compound given the
following information:
A 13.42 gram sample was ignited.
It produced 39.61 g of CO2 and 9.01 g of H2O.
The unknown’s molecular mass is 268.34 g/mol.
CxHy Oz + some oxygen  CO2 + H2O

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Problem Strategy:
Determine the molecular formula of a
CxHyOz by combustion.
1. Write a chemical equation describing the reaction.
2. Assume
a) all of the carbon in CO2 comes from the combustion of the CxHyOz
compound.
b) all of the hydrogen in water (H2O) comes from the combustion of the
CxHyOz compound.
c) To calculate the oxygen content (grams), use the following:
[mass of compound – C (grams) – H (grams)] = mass of O (grams)
3. Steps 1 and 2 give you the mass of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the
unknown so, from this information, you can compute the empirical formula for
CxHyOz.
4. Determine the molecular formula.

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Answer:
1. 13.42 g CxHy Oz + some oxygen  39.61 g CO2 + 9.01 g H2O
2a. Calculate the amount of C in COC2.

39.61 g CO2 × (1 mol CO2/44.0 g) = 0.900 mol CO2
0.900 mol CO2 × (1 mol C/1 mol CO2) = 0.900 mol C
0.900 mol C × (12.0 g C/1 mol) = 10.80 grams C
2b. Calculate the amount of H in H2O.

9.01 g H2O × (1 mol H2O/18.0 g) = 0.501 mol H2O
0.501 mol H2O × (2 mol H/1 mol H2O) = 1.00 mol H
1.00 mol H × (1.00 g H/1 mol) = 1.00 grams H
2c. To calculate the amount of O in the sample, use the following:

10.80 g + 1.00 g = 11.80 g of the 13.42 gram CxHyOz compound is accounted
for; therefore, the amount (grams) of O in the sample is 13.42 – 11.80
= 1.60 g O.
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Answer (continued):
3. Determine the empirical formula.
10.80 grams C × (1 mol C/12.0 g) = 0.900 mol C atoms
1.00 grams H × (1 mol H/1.00 g) = 1.00 mol H atoms
1.60 grams O × (1 mol O/16.0 g) = 0.100 mol O atoms
The smaller value is mol of O.

0.100 O/0.100 O = 1 oxygen atom
1.00 H/0.100 O = 10 hydrogen atoms
0.900 C/0.100 O = 9 carbon atoms
All are whole integers, so the empirical formula for CxHyOz is C9H10O.
4. Determine the molecular formula.

One mole unit of (C9H10O)n has a molecular mass of 134.0 g/mol.
The molecular mass of the compound was given as 268.34 g/mole.
To get the molecular formula, use the following: (268.34/134) = n = 2 units
The molecular formula for the compound is C18H20O2.
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What Are Chemical Equations?
• They are a shorthand way of describing a chemical
reaction.
• They must be massed and their charges balanced.
• They provide information about the reaction’s

– formulas of reactants and products.
– states of reactants and products.
– relative numbers of reactant and product molecules that
are required.
• They can be used to determine weights of reactants used

and products that can be made.
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Balanced Chemical Equations
• Because the same atoms are present in a reaction

at the beginning and at the end, the amount of
matter in a system does not change.
• The law of the conservation of matter

– Because of the principle of the conservation of
matter, an equation must be balanced.
– It must have the same number of atoms of the same
kind on both sides.
• Stoichiometry is based on the law of the

conservation of matter.
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A Balanced Chemical Equation
• Given this chemical reaction
4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g)  2 Fe2O3(s)
• This equation means the following:
4 Fe atoms + 3 O2 molecules  2 molecules of Fe2O3
• Or you can say it says the following:
4 moles of Fe + 3 moles of O2  2 moles of Fe2O3
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A Balanced Chemical Equation
• Depict the kind of reactants and products and
their relative amounts in a reaction.
4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g)  2 Fe2O3(s)
• The numbers in the front are called stoichiometric

coefficients.
• The letters (s), (g), (l), and (aq) are the physical
states of compounds.
– Solid (s), gas (g), liquid (l), and aqueous (aq)
• Aqueous means “in solution with water.”
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Chemical Equilibrium:
Reaction Reversibility
• Some chemical reactions do not go to completion but
reach a state where the forward rate of the reaction is the
same as the reverse rate of the reaction.
– The reaction is said to be at equilibrium.
• When writing a chemical reaction that is at equilibrium, a

double arrow is used to indicate the reaction is at
equilibrium.
Ca2+(aq) + 2 HCO3–(aq)  CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)


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Balancing Equations Exercise
1. __C3H8(g) + __O2(g)  __CO2(g) + __H2O(g)
2. __B4H10(g) + __O2(g)  __B2O3(g) + __H2O(g)
3. __Pb(NO3)2(aq) + __KI(aq)  __PbI2(s) + __KNO3(aq)
4. __Na3PO4(aq) + __Ca(NO3)2(aq)  __Ca3(PO4)2(s) + __NaNO3(aq)
5. __NCl3(g)  __N2(g) + ___Cl2(g)
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Balancing Equations: The Answers
1. C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g)  3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
2. B4H10(g) + 1 1/2 O2(g)  2 B2O3(g) + 5 H2O(g)
This one:
2 B4H10(g) + 11 O2(g)  4 B2O3(g) + 10 H2O(g)
3. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 KI(aq)  PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
4. 2 Na3PO4(aq) + 3 Ca(NO3)2(aq)  Ca3(PO4)2(s)

+ 6 NaNO3(aq)
5. 2 NCl3(g)  N2(g) + 3 Cl2(g)
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Chapter 4
Chemical
Quantities and
Aqueous
Reactions
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Reaction Stoichiometry
• According to the law of conversion of matter

– matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
– A balanced chemical equation illustrates the law of the
conversation of matter.
• In a balanced reaction
– the total mass of reactants = total mass of products.
– A balanced reaction has the same type and quantity of atoms on both sides
of the reaction.
• Stoichiometry is based on the law of conversion of

matter.
– Stoichiometry studies the quantitative aspects of
chemical reactions.
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Reaction Stoichiometry: What it Means
• Given the following chemical reaction
4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g)  2 Fe2O3(s)
• This balanced chemical equation means
4 atoms Fe + 3 molecules O2  2 molecules Fe2O3

or
4 moles Fe + 3 moles O2  2 moles Fe2O3
or
4 moles Fe atoms = Fe atoms and 6 mole
and 6 moles O atoms O atoms
or
23.4 g Fe + 96.0 g O2 = 415.4 g Fe2O3
415.4 g of reactants = 415.4 g of products
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Review of Going from Mass to Mole
• General Scheme for going from mass to mole
– Mass (g)  divide by element’s atomic mass (g/mol)
or
– Mass (g)  divide by compound’s molecular mass (g/mol)
• Example
– How many moles of carbon dioxide are there in 34.0 grams?
34.0 g CO2 × (1 mole/44 g CO2) = 0.773 mol CO2
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Review of Going from Mole to Mass
• General Scheme for going from mole to mass
– Mole of element  multiplied by atomic mass (g/mol)
or
– Mole of compound  multiplied by molecular mass (g/mol)
• Example
– Determine the mass of 2.50 moles of water.
2.50 mol H2O × (18.0 g/1 mol H2O) = 45.0 g H2O
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Using Stoichiometry: Going from Mole A to
Mole B
• A balanced chemical equation gives information about the
relationship between
– reactant and reactant.
– reactant and product.
– product and product.
• Example
– 2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
– From this balanced reaction we can get the following relationships:
• For two moles of C8H18(l) to be burned completely requires 25 moles
of O2(g).
• For every two moles of 2 C8H18(l) burned, 16 moles of CO2(g) is
produced.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Using Stoichiometry to Go from Mole A to
Mole B
• These relationships, comparing a mole of reactant A to a mole
of reactant B or a mole of reactant A to a product, are referred
to as stoichiometric coefficients.
• General Scheme
Stoichiometric relationship
Mole Mole
between mole A and
A B
mole B
Nivaldo J. Tro
Using Stoichiometry to Go from Mole A to
Mole B
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2 (g) + 18 H2O(g)
Moles of Stoichiometric Moles of

C8H18 relationship CO2
Problem:
From the balanced equation, determine how many moles of CO2
(g) is produced when 4.5 mol of C8H18 is burned in excess O2 (g).
4.5 mol C8H18 × (16 mol CO2/2 mol C8H18) = 36 mol CO2
Nivaldo J. Tro
Going from Mass of A to Mass of B: Using
Stoichiometry
• You must go through the mole!
• Use the stoichiometric relationship from the balanced chemical
equation.
• General Scheme
Stoichiometric
Mass Mol relationship Mole Mass
A (g) of A between mole B of B
A and mole B
Nivaldo J. Tro
Going from Mass of A to Mass of B: Using
Stoichiometry
• General Scheme
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
Mass Mass
(g) of Moles Stoichiometric Mole
C8H18 relationship (g) of
C8H18 CO2
CO2
Problem:
If 120.0 g C8H18 was burned in excess O2(g), how many
grams of CO2(g) would be produced?
120.0 g C8H18 × (1mol/114.0g) × (16mol CO2/2mol C8H18) ×

(44.0/1mol CO2) = 370.53 g CO2
Nivaldo J. Tro
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is
• balancing chemical reactions.
• using the mole to mole relationship as given by the

balanced chemical equation to predict
– theoretical yield or
• what should be produced.
– percent Yield or
• what was actually (amount) produced.
• determining what reactant is in limited quantities or

– the limiting reagent.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Strategy behind Solving Stoichiometry
Problems
1. Must have a balanced chemical reaction to determine the
stoichiometric relationship between
a. reactants and reactants or
b. reactants and products or
c. products and products.
2. Go to the mole.
a. If mass is given, then divide by molecular mass
mass (g) / Molar mass (g/mole) = mole
b. If volume and molarity (M) are given, then

Ma × Va = moles A
3. Use the stoichiometric factor to convert from mole A to

mole B to solve the problem.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
The following unbalanced equation is the chemical
reaction associated with photosynthesis.
CO2(g) + H2O(l)  C6H12O6 (s) + O2(g)
With adequate water, suppose a plant consumes

37.8 grams of CO2 during the week.
Determine how many grams of glucose (C6H6O6) would

be produced by the plant during this one-week period.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem Strategy and Answer:
Determine how many grams of glucose (C6H6O6) would be produced by the
plant if 37.8 grams of CO2 is consumed.
1. Need a balanced equation

6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)  C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g)
2. Determine moles of CO2 consumed.

37.8 g CO2 × (1 mol CO2/44.0 g) = 0.859 mol CO2
3. Determine how many moles of C6H6O6 would be produced. Use the

stoichiometric relationship between CO2 and C6H6O6. In this reaction the
relationship is 6 mole CO2 to 1 mole C6H6O6.
0.859 mol CO2 × (1 mol C6H6O6/6 mol CO2)
= 0.143 mol C6H6O6
4. Determine the grams of C6H6O6 produced.

0.143 mol C6H6O6 × (1 mol/180.0 g/1 mol C6H6O6)
= 25.8 g C6H6O6
Nivaldo J. Tro
Theoretical and Percent Yield
• Theoretical Yield
– Predicting what might be produced from a given amount
of reactant(s)
• Limiting reagent (reactant)
– The determining reactant
– Using stoichiometric relationship(s) from a balanced
reaction
• Percent Yield
– Actual amount produced
– % yield = (actual yield/theoretical yield) × 100
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) decomposes to N2O(g) and H2O(g).
_NH4NO3(s)  _N2O(g) + _H2O(g)
1. Predict how many grams of H2O will be produced from the

decomposition of 0.454 kg of NH4NO3.
2. If 131 grams of water is produced, what is the percent yield for
this reaction?
Problem Strategy:
1. Write a balanced chemical reaction.
2. Determine the theoretical yield.
3. Calculate the percent (%) yield.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) decomposes to N2O(g) and H2O(g).
Balance equation: NH4NO3(s)  N2O(g) + 2 H2O(g)
1. Predict how many grams of H2O will be produced from the

decomposition of 0.454 kg of NH4NO3.
0.454 kg NH4NO3 × (1000 g/1 kg) × (1 mol NH4NO3/80.04 g)

= 5.68 mol NH4NO3
5.68 mol NH4NO3 × (2 mol H2O/1mol NH4NO3) = 11.4 mol H2O
11.4 mol H2O × (18.0 g/1 mol H2O) = 204 grams H2O
204 grams of H2O is the predicted or theoretical yield.

Nivaldo J. Tro
Limiting Reactant
• For reactions with multiple reactants, it is likely that one of the

reactants will be completely used before the others.
• When this reactant is used up, the reaction stops and no more
product is made.
• The reactant that limits the amount of product formed is called the
limiting reactant (limiting reagent).
– The limiting reactant gets completely consumed.
• Reactants not completely consumed are called excess reactants.
• The amount of product that can be made from the limiting

reactant is called the theoretical yield.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer (continued):
Previously we determined that the theoretical yield for this reaction
NH4NO3(s)  N2O(g) + 2 H2O(g) was 204 grams of H2O(g).
2. If 131 grams of water is produced, what is the % yield for this

reaction?
(actual amount
produced)
% yield = × 100
(predicted
theoretical yield)
% yield = (131 g/204 g) × 100 = 64.2%
62.4% is the percent yield for the reaction.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
If 28.6 kg of carbon reacts with 88.2 kg of TiO2, 42.8 kg of
Ti is produced.
Reaction:
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s)  Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)
Strategy:
1. Determine the limiting reactant.
2. Calculate the theoretical yield.
3. Calculate the percent yield.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
If 28.6 kg of carbon reacts with 88.2 kg of TiO2, 42.8 kg of Ti is produced.
Reaction:
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s)  Ti(s) + 2 CO(g) It is balance!
1. Determine the limiting reactant.

28.6 kg carbon: 28.6 kg C × (1000 g/1 kg) = 2.86 × 104 g C
88.2 kg TiO2: 88.2 kg TiO2 × (1000 g/1 kg) = 8.82 × 104 g TiO2
2.86 × 104 g C × (1 mol C/12.0 g) × (1 mol Ti/2 mol C)

= 1.19 × 103 mol Ti This is the maximum mole of Ti
that can be produced if all carbon
is used.
8.82 × 104 g TiO2 × (1 mol TiO2/79.9 g) × (1 mol Ti/1 mol TiO2)

= 1.10 × 103 mol Ti This is the maximum mole of
Ti that can be produced if all TiO2
is used.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer (continued):
Reaction:
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s)  Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)
2. Determining the theoretical yield from limiting reactant
1.19 × 103 mol Ti This is the maximum mole of Ti

that can be produced if all carbon
is used.
1.10 × 103 mol Ti This is the maximum mole of

Ti that can be produced if all TiO2
is used.
1.10 × 103 < 1.19 × 103; therefore the limiting reagent is TIO2 and the
theoretical yield in moles of Ti is 1.10 × 103.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer (continued):
Reaction:
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s)  Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)
3. Determining percent yield
The theoretical yield in moles of Ti is 1.10 × 103.

1.10 × 103 mol Ti × (47.9 g/1 mol Ti) = 5.29 × 104 g Ti
42.8 kg is the actual yield of Ti.

42.8 kg × (1000 g/1 kg) = 4.28 × 104 g Ti was produced.
(4.28 × 104 g Ti/5.29 × 104 g Ti) × 100 = 80.9%
80.9% is the percent yield for this reaction.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Given the following chemical reaction
Al(s) + O2(g)  Al2O3(s)
1. determine how many grams of Al2O3 can form when
5.40 grams of Al and 8.10 grams of O2 are reacted.
2. if 4.50 grams of Al2O3 were produced, what is the

percent yield for this reaction?
3. which reactant was in excess and how much (in

grams) of this reactant remained after the reaction
came to completion?
Nivaldo J. Tro
Al(s) + O2(g)  Al2O3(s)
1. determine how many grams of Al2O3 can form when
5.40 grams of Al and 8.10 grams of O2 are reacted.
Step 1: Balance the reaction and calculate theoretical yield for each reactant.
Balance reaction: 4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g)  2 Al2O3(s)
5.40 g Al × (1 mol/27.0 g Al) = 0.200 mol Al
0.200 mol Al × 2 mol Al2O3 = 0.100 mol Al2O3

4 mol Al
stoichiometric factor
0.100 mol Al2O3 × 101.96 g = 10.2 g Al2O3

1 mol Al2O3
This means that if all 5.40 g Al were consumed then only 10.2 grams of Al2O3 could be produced.
Now determine the theoretical yield if all 8.10 grams of O2 were used.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem Strategy and Answer (continued):
Al(s) + O2(g)  Al2O3(s)
2. if 4.50 grams of Al2O3 were produced, what is the percent yield for this reaction?
Step 1: Balance the reaction and calculate theoretical yield for each reactant.
Balance reaction: 4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g)  2 Al2O3(s)
8.10 g O2 × (1 mol O2/32.00 g) = 0.253 mol O2
0.253 mol O2 × 2 mol Al2O3 = 0.169 mol Al2O3

3 mol O2
stoichiometric factor
0.169 mol Al2O3 × 101.96 g = 17.2 g Al2O3

1 mol Al2O3
This means that if all 8.10 grams of O2 were consumed, then 17.2 grams is the most
that could be produced.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Al(s) + O2(g)  Al2O3(s)
2. if 4.50 grams of Al2O3 were produced, what is the percent yield for this reaction?
Step 2: Compare theoretical yields to determine the limiting reactant.
If all 8.10 g O2 were used then 17.2 g of Al2O3 would be produced.

If all 5.40 g Al were used then 10.2 g of Al2O3 would be produced.
10.2 g < 17.2 g
The limiting reactant is Al.

The theoretical yield is 10.2 g Al2O3.
Determine the percent yield of the reaction.
(4.50 g/10.2) × 100 = 44.1%

44.1% is the percent yield for this reaction.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Al(s) + O2(g)  Al2O3(s)
3. which reactant was in excess and how much (in grams)
of this reactant remained after the reaction came to
completion?
Step 3: Reasoning
• Al was the limiting reactant.
– Therefore, O2 was in excess, but by how much?
– First find how much oxygen gas was required.
– Then find how much oxygen gas is in excess.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Al(s) + O2(g)  Al2O3(s)
3. which reactant was in excess and how much (in grams) of this reactant remained
after the reaction came to completion?
Step 4: Determine the amount of excess reagent remaining after the limiting reactant has
been consumed.
4 Al + 3 O2 products
0.253 mol
0.200 mol = LR
0.200 mol Al × (3 mol O2/4 mol Al) = 0.15 mol O2
0.150 mol of O2 is required to react with all 0.200 mol of Al.
O2 available – O2 required = excess O2
0.253 mol O2 – 0.150 mol O2 = 0.103 mol O2 left over
= 0.103 mol O2 in excess or 3.30 grams O2
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Zinc reacts with acids to produce H2 gas. If you have
10.0 g of Zn metal, what volume of 2.50 M HCl is needed
to covert the Zn metal completely to Zn2+ ions?
_ Zn(s) + _HCl(aq)  _ZnCl2(aq) + _H2(g)
Nivaldo J. Tro
Zinc reacts with acids to produce H2 gas. If you have 10.0 g of Zn
metal, what volume of 2.50 M HCl is needed to covert the Zn metal
completely to Zn2+ ions?
Step 1: Write the balanced equation.

Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Step 2: Calculate amount of Zn.

10.0 g Zn × (1 mol Zn/65.39 g) = 0.153 mol Zn
Step 3: Use the stoichiometric relationship.

0.153 mol Zn × (2 mol HCl/1mol Zn) = 0.306 mol HCl
Step 4: Calculate volume of HCl required.

0.306 mol HCl × (1.00 L/2.50 mol) = 0.122 L HCl
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
76.80 grams of apple juice (malic acid, C4H6O5) requires

34.56 mL of 0.664 M NaOH to reach the endpoint in a
titration. What is the (w/w)% of malic acid in this sample?
__C4H6O5(aq) + __NaOH(aq)  __Na2C4H4O5(aq) + __H2O(l)
Nivaldo J. Tro
76.80 grams of apple juice (malic acid) requires 34.56 mL of

0.664 M NaOH to reach the endpoint in a titration. What is the
(w/w)% of malic acid in this sample?
Balanced Reaction:
C4H6O5(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq)  Na2C4H4O5(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
Step 1: Calculate the amount of NaOH used.

M × V = (0.664 M)(0.03456 L) = 0.0229 mol NaOH
Step 2: Calculate the amount of acid titrated.

0.0229 mol NaOH × (1 mol malic acid/2 mol NaOH)
= 0.0115 mol malic acid
Nivaldo J. Tro
Solution Chemistry
• Terminology of Solution Chemistry
– Solvent is the component in which the physical state is

preserved when a solution forms.
– Solute is the other solution component; usually

dissolved in the solvent.
– The Solvent and Solute must have similar polarities!
– A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of a

solute and a solvent.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Concentration
• The amount of solute in a solution is given by its
concentration.
• The more concentrated a solution is, the more solute is

present in the solution.
• Concentration is dependent on the amount of solute in

the solution.
– A dilute solution has the same number of moles as a
concentrated solution, but the moles present are
distributed over a greater area (volume).
Nivaldo J. Tro
Molarity Is a Concentration Unit
• Unit of concentration
– Moles of solute per one liter of solution
– (moles of solute/Liter solution) = (mol/L) = M
• Molarity shows the relationship of the moles of solute to liters of

solution.
• It describes how many molecules of solute are in each liter of

solution.
Molarity = amount of solute in moles

amount of solution in liters
Nivaldo J. Tro
Mole and Molar
• Copper(II) chloride dissolves in water

CuCl2(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + 2 Cl–(aq)
• For every one mole of CuCl2 , one mole of Cu2+ and

two moles Cl– ions are produced.
• 1.0 molar(M) CuCl2 yields 1.0 M Cu2+ ions and
2.0 M Cl–.
• So if [CuCl2] = 0.30 M, then [Cu2+] = 0.30 M and [Cl–]
= 2 × 0.30 M = 0.60 M.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Solution Preparation
• Solution can be prepared two ways.

– By dissolving a solid solute into a liquid solvent
• Molarity × Volume = moles
– Where moles = (grams of solute/mol. mass of solute)
– By mixing a liquid solute with a liquid solvent

• Dilution
– C1V1 = C2V2
– Where
• C1 is the concentration of the original solution
• V1 is the amount C1 (solute)
• C2 is the new concentration
• V2 is the volume of the new concentration (C2)
Nivaldo J. Tro
Preparing 1.00 L of a 1.00 M NaCl Solution
from a Solid Solute
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Determine the molarity of a solution that has 25.5 g KBr
dissolved to a volume of 1.75 L solution.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Determine the molarity of a solution that has 25.5 g KBr
dissolved to a volume of 1.75 L solution.
Strategy: Convert grams KBr to moles of KBr.

Use the definition for molarity.
Divide moles of KBr by solution volume.
Solution: 25.5 g KBr × (1 mol KBr/119.0 g)

= 0.214 mol KBr
0.214 mol KBr = M × V

0.214 mol KBr = M × 1.75L
(0.214 mol KBr/1.75 L) = 0.122 M
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Determine the mass of CaCl2 needed to make 1.75 L

of 1.50 M solution.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Determine the mass of CaCl2 needed to make 1.75 L of 1.50 M solution.
Strategy: Determine the moles of CaCl2.

From moles of CaCl2 determine the grams of CaCl2.
Solution: M × V = moles
1.50 mol/L × 1.75 L = 3.28 moles CaCl2
mole = grams solute/mol. mass of solute

3.28 mol CaCl2 = x/(110.98 g CaCl2/1mol CaCl2)
grams solute = 3.28 mol CaCl2 ×
(110.98 g/1 mol CaCl2)
x = 291 grams CaCl2
291 grams of CaCl2 is dissolved in a total of

1.75 L of water to make a 1.50 M solution.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Dilution: Making a Solution from a Solution
• Often, solutions are stored as concentrated solutions.
• To make solutions of lower concentrations from these stock solutions,

more solvent is added.
– The amount of solute doesn’t change, just the volume of solution.
– Note: the moles of solute in solution 1 (concentrated) will equal
the moles of solute in solution 2 (dilute).
– Only the volume changes.

• The amount of moles remain the same; they are just spread
out over a larger area.
• The concentrations and volumes of the stock and new solutions are
inversely proportional.
C1∙V1 = C2∙V2
Nivaldo J. Tro
Dilutions
• Formula:
Cinitial × Vinitial = Cfinal × Vfinal
or
M1V1 = M2V2
• Important:
– The moles of solute in the diluted (new) solution are equal to the
moles of solute in the original (undiluted) solution.
• Moles of solute do not change when a solution is diluted. The

solution’s concentration does change!
Nivaldo J. Tro
Diluting a Solution
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
A 0.50 M NaOH solution is prepared from 50.0 mL

of 3.0 M. What is volume of this diluted solution?
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
A 0.50 M NaOH solution is prepared from 50.0 mL of 3.0 M. What is
volume of this diluted solution?
Cinitial × Vinitial = Cfinal × Vfinal
3.0 M × 50.0 mL = 0.50 M × Vfinal
Volume of final solution = 3.0 × 102 mL
Conclusion:
Add 250 mL of water to 50.0 mL of 3.0 M NaOH to make
3.0 × 102 mL of 0.50 M NaOH.
Nivaldo J. Tro
In a Dilution the Moles Are Unchanged.
Why Is This?
• From the previous problem, the number of NaOH moles in the original
solution is 0.15 moles of NaOH.
(3.0 mol/L)(0.050 L) = 0.15 moles NaOH
• The number of NaOH moles in the diluted solution also equals

0.15 moles of NaOH.
– The concentration [M] for the diluted solution is 0.50 M, which
contains 0.15 moles of NaOH in 0.30 liters.
(0.50 mol/L)(0.300 L) = 0.15 moles NaOH
• The original solution concentration, 3.0 M, contains 0.15 moles of

NaOH in 0.050 liters.
• The dilute solution also contains 0.15 moles of NaOH, but its
concentration is 0.50 M NaOH in 0.300 L.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
To what volume should you dilute 0.200 L of 15.0 M

NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
To what volume should you dilute 0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
Strategy: Use the dilution formula. C1∙V1 = C2∙V2
Solution: C1 is 15.0 M NaOH, the concentration of the

original (concentrated) solution.
V1 is 0.200 L of the 15.0 M that is to be diluted.
C2 is 3.00 M NaOH, or the concentration of the
diluted solution.
V2 is the unknown quantity—it is the amount (mL) of the
15.0 M NaOH that will be diluted to make 3.00 M NaOH.
15.0 M NaOH × 0.200 L = 3.00 M NaOH × V2
V2 = (15.0 M NaOH × 0.200 L)/3.00 M NaOH
V2 = 1.00 L
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
What is the concentration of a solution prepared

by diluting 45.0 mL of 8.25 M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
What is the concentration of a solution prepared by diluting 45.0 mL
of 8.25 M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
Strategy: Use the dilution formula. C1∙V1 = C2∙V2
Solution: C1 is 8.25 M HNO3, the concentration of the original

(concentrated) solution.
V1 is 45.0 mL of the 8.25 M HNO3 that is to be diluted.
C2 is the unknown quantity—it is the new concentration
for HNO3
V2 is 135.0 mL, the new volume.
8.25 M HNO3 × 45.0 mL = C2 × 135.0 mL

C2 = (8.25 M HNO3 × 45.0 mL)/135.0 mL
C2 = 2.75 M HNO3
Nivaldo J. Tro
Dilution: Another Point of View
Problem:
Make a 1:3 dilution of 100.0 mLs of 0.15 M HCl

solution.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Dilution: Another Point of View
Answer:
Make a 1:3 dilution of 100.0 mLs of 0.15 M HCl solution.
What does this mean?
A 1:3 dilution of 0.15 M HCl means that the new concentration
will be 0.050 M HCl.
or
1/3 × 0.15 M HCl = 0.050 M HCl
Note: Its new volume is three times that of the original volume,
or 300.0 mLs
Nivaldo J. Tro
Aqueous Chemistry
• Aqueous solutions
– Electrolytes
– Solubility
– Reaction types
• Equation writing
– Molecular, complete, and net ionic
• Solution stoichiometry
Nivaldo J. Tro
Terminology: Ionization and Miscible
Dissociation and Ionization Dissolving and Miscible
• When ionic compounds dissolve in • When compounds (solutes)
water, the anions and cations are dissolve in water as molecules,
separated from each other. This is we say that the compound is
called dissociation. miscible.
– Sugar (s) + water 
sugar water (l)
Na2S(aq)  2 Na+(aq) + S2(aq)
K2SO4(aq)  2 K+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
• Ions are not formed.
H2SO4(aq)  2 H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
• When compounds (solutes)

dissolve in water and form ions,
the process is referred to as
ionization.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Electrolytes
• Electrolytes can be described as
– strong.
• Chemical substances that ionize completely into their ions
– Examples
• Soluble salts and strong acids or bases
• HCl(aq)  H+ + Cl– or CuCl2  Cu+2 + 2 Cl–
• Can conduct electrical current
– weak.
• Chemical substances that ionize partially into their ions
– Examples
• Weak acids or weak bases
– CH3COOH(aq)  CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
• Can conduct electrical current
– nonelectrolytes.
• Chemical substances that dissolve in water but not as ions
• They do not conduct electricity.
– Examples
• Polar substances such as sugar or alcohol
– C6H12O6(s)  C6H12O6(aq)
Nivaldo J. Tro
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Nivaldo J. Tro
Salt (Ionic Compound) versus Sugar
Dissolved in Water
Ionic compounds dissociate into Molecular compounds do not

ions when they dissolve. dissociate when they dissolve.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Solutions Are Formed when Solutes
Dissolve in Solvents
• For a solution to form, the solute and solvent must have similar polarities.
– “Likes dissolve in likes.”
– There are attractive forces between the solute particles holding them together.
• When a solution forms

– the solute–solute interactions and solvent–solvent interactions must be overcome
to form new solute–solvent interactions.
• If the attractions between solute and solvent are strong enough, the solute will
dissolve and a solution is formed.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Acid versus Base
Acids Bases
• Molecular compounds that ionize • Molecular compounds that ionize
when dissolved in water when dissolved in water
– When acids ionize, they form the – When bases ionize, they form the
cation H+ and an anion. anion OH– and a cation.
• The degree of ionization varies. • The degree of ionization varies.

– Acids that ionize virtually 100% are – Bases that ionize virtually 100% are
called strong acids. called strong bases.
HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) NaOH(aq)  OH–(aq) + Na+(aq)
– Acids that only ionize a small – Bases that only ionize a small
percentage are called weak acids. percentage are called weak bases.
HF(aq)  H+(aq) + F−(aq) NH3(aq) + H2O  OH–(aq) + NH4+(aq)
Nivaldo J. Tro
Solubility of Ionic Compounds
• Compounds that dissolve in a solvent are said to be soluble, while
those that do not are said to be insoluble.
– Examples
• NaCl is soluble in water.
• AgCl is insoluble in water.
• Solubility of a compound is affected by

– temperature.
– volume.
– pressure for gas solutes.
• Even insoluble compounds dissolve, just not enough to be meaningful.
• Predicting whether a compound will dissolve in water is based on

those experimental results.
– We call this method the empirical method.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Solubility Rules (Compounds that Are
Generally Soluble in Water)
Nivaldo J. Tro
Solubility Rules (Compounds that Are
Generally Soluble in Water)
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Which of the following salts are soluble in water?
1. KOH
2. AgBr
3. CaCl2
4. Pb(NO3)2
5. PbSO4
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Which of the following salts are soluble in water?
1. KOH KOH is soluble because it contains K+.
2. AgBr AgBr is insoluble; most bromides are

soluble, but AgBr is an exception.
3. CaCl2 CaCl2 is soluble; most chlorides are

soluble, and CaCl2 is not an exception.
4. Pb(NO3)2 Pb(NO3)2 is soluble because it

contains NO3−.
5. PbSO4 PbSO4 is insoluble; most sulfates are

soluble, but PbSO4 is an exception.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Reaction Types
• Double Displacement
– Metathesis
• Precipitation reactions
• Gas forming
– Metal + acid
• Acid–Base neutralization
Nivaldo J. Tro
Chemical Reactions: Types
• Two main categories
– Decomposition
• A reactant decomposes to two or more products.
– Synthesis
• Two or more reactants combine to make a product(s).
• Types of Synthesis reactions

– Double displacement
• Precipitation reactions
– Single displacement
• Gas forming reactions
– Reduction/oxidation
• Combustion reactions
• Corrosion
– Neutralization reactions
• Acid and base
Nivaldo J. Tro
Double Displacement Reactions
• There is an “exchange of ions” or a “switching of partners” between
reactants to form products.
1. Determine the formulas of possible products.

– (+) ion from one reactant with (–) ion from the other
– Balance the charges of combined ions to get the formula of each product.
2. Determine the solubility of each product in water.

– Use the solubility rules.
– If the product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will precipitate and an
equation can be written.
– If neither product will precipitate, there is no reaction and an equation
cannot be written.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Precipitation Reactions Are Types of Double
Displacement Reactions
• Reactions between aqueous solutions of ionic compounds
that produce an ionic compound that is insoluble in water
are called precipitation reactions and the insoluble
product is called a precipitate.
• The “driving force” is the formation of an insoluble

compound; a precipitate (solid).
• Solubility rules are used to determine whether or not a

product(s) forms a solid (insoluble).
– BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)

Nivaldo J. Tro
Precipitation Reactions Are Types of Double
Displacement Reactions
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)  PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Write the equation for the following precipitation

reactions:
1. KCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)  ?
2. Na2S(aq) + CaCl2(aq)  ?
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Write the equation for the following precipitation

reactions:
1. KCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)  ?
KCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)  AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
2. Na2S(aq) + CaCl2(aq)  ?
No reaction because Na2S(aq) + CaCl2(aq) yields
soluble products CaS(aq) + NaCl(aq)
Nivaldo J. Tro
Net Ionic Chemical Reactions
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2CrO4(aq)  PbCrO4(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
• The above chemical reaction is written as a “molecular equation.”

– Because Pb(NO3)2 and K2CrO4 are strong electrolytes, we can write
Pb2+(aq) + 2 NO3–(aq) + 2 K+(aq) + CrO42–(aq)

 PbCrO4(s) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3–(aq)
– This is written now as a complete “ionic equation.”
Question: What about K+ and NO3- ions?

Answer: They are “spectator ions.” These ions do not
participate in the reaction.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Complete Ionic Equation
Pb2+(aq) + 2 NO3–(aq) + 2 K+(aq) + CrO42–(aq)
 PbCrO4(s) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3–(aq)
• Spectator ions are left out when writing net ionic

equations.
• Pb2+(aq) + CrO42–(aq)  PbCrO4(s) is the net ionic

equation for this reaction.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Write the molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic

equation for each of the following reactions.
1. K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq)  ?
2. Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq)  ?
3. Ni(NO3)2(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq)  ?
4. Li3PO4(aq) + CaCl2(aq)  ?
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Write the molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equation for each of the
following reactions.
1. K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq)  ?
Molecular:
K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq)  Ag2SO4(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
Complete ionic:
2 K+(aq) + SO4–2(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 NO3–(aq)

 Ag2SO4(s) + 2 K+(aq)+ 2 NO3–(aq)
Net ionic:
SO4–2(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq)  Ag2SO4(s)

Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
2. Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq)  ?
Molecular:
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq)  CO2(g) + 2 NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Complete ionic:
2 Na+(aq)+ CO3–2(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 Cl–(aq)

 CO2(g) + 2 Na+(aq) + H2O(l) + 2 Cl–
Net ionic:
CO3–2(aq) + 2 H+(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
3. Ni(NO3)2(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq)  ?
Molecular:
Ni(NO3)2(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq)  Ni(OH)2(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)
Complete ionic:
2 Ni2+(aq)+ 2 NO3–(aq) + Mg+2(aq) + 2 OH–(aq)

 Ni(OH)2(s) + 2 Mg+2(aq)+ 2 NO3–(aq)
Net ionic:
2 Ni2+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq)  Ni(OH)2(s)

Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
4. Li3PO4(aq) + CaCl2(aq)  ?
Molecular:
2 Li3PO4(aq) + 3 CaCl2(aq)  Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6 LiCl(aq)
Complete ionic:
6 Li+ + 2 PO4–3(aq) + 3 Ca+2 + 6 Cl–(aq)

 Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6 Li+(aq) + 6 Cl–
Net ionic:
2 PO4–3(aq) + 2 Ca+2(aq)  Ca3(PO4)2(s)

Nivaldo J. Tro
Acid and Base Reactions
• The “driving force” for many strong acid–strong base reactions is the formation of water.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
– Net ionic equation

OH–(aq) + H+(aq)  2 H2O(l)
• A common product of many acid–base reactions is water and a salt, MX.

HX + MOH  MX + H2O
Mn+ comes from base and Xn– comes from acid
• Acid–base reactions are referred to as neutralization reactions.

– Neutralizations
• When the number of moles of acid in solution = the number of moles of base in
solution
• Does not mean that the pH of the solution is necessarily a pH of 7
Nivaldo J. Tro
Illustration of Acid–Base Reaction
Nivaldo J. Tro
Gas-Evolution Reactions
• Some reactions form a gas directly from the ion exchange.
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)
• Other reactions form a gas by the decomposition of one of

the ion exchange products into a gas and water.
K2SO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  K2SO4(aq) + H2SO3(aq)
H2SO3  H2O(l) + SO2(g)
Nivaldo J. Tro
Gas-Forming Reactions
• Metal carbonates + acid  CO2(g) + salt + water

Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq)  H2O(l) + CO2(g) + 2 NaCl(aq)
– Net ionic: CO3–2 + 2 H+  H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaCl2(aq)

– Net ionic: CaCO3(s) + 2 H+  CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Ca+2
• Metal (s) + acid  gas + salt

Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq)  H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)
– Net ionic: Mg(s) + 2 H+  H2(g) + Mg+2
Nivaldo J. Tro
Illustration of Gas Evolution Reaction
Nivaldo J. Tro
Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
Oxidation is Reduction is
• the process that occurs when • the process that occurs when
– the oxidation number of an – the oxidation number of an
element increases. element decreases.
– an element loses electrons. – an element gains electrons.
– a compound gains oxygen. – a compound loses oxygen.
– a compound loses hydrogen. – a compound gains hydrogen.
– a half-reaction has electrons as – a half-reaction has electrons as
products. reactants.
• It occurs at the anode in an • It occurs at the cathode in an
electrochemical cell. electrochemical cell.
• An oxidizing agent is an electron • A reducing agent is an electron

acceptor; it causes another donor; it causes another species to
species to be oxidized but it (the be reduced but it (the agent) is
agent) is being reduced. being oxidized.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Redox Reaction:
Transfer of Electron Reactions
2 Al(s) + 3 Cu2+(aq)  2 Al3+(aq) + 3 Cu(s)
• Oxidation: Al(s)  Al3+(aq) + 3 e–

– Electrons are lost by a substance.
– The oxidation number of Al increases as e– are donated by the metal.
– Therefore, Al is oxidized.
– Al is the reducing agent in this balanced half-reaction.
• Reduction: Cu2+(aq) + 2 e–  Cu(s)

– Electrons are gained by a substance.
– The oxidation number of Cu decreases as e– are accepted by the ion.
– Therefore, Cu is reduced.
– Cu is the oxidizing agent in this balanced half-reaction.
• If something is being reduced, something else is being oxidized.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Oxidation and Reduction
• Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously.
• Oxidation occurs when an atom’s oxidation state increases

during a reaction.
• Reduction occurs when an atom’s oxidation state

decreases during a reaction.
CH4 + 2 O2  CO2 + 2 H2O

−4  +1 0 +4  –2 +1  −2
oxidation
reduction
Nivaldo J. Tro
Illustration of Oxidation–Reduction Reaction
Nivaldo J. Tro
Oxidation States:
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
1. Free elements in their atomic state have an oxidation state = 0.
• Examples
– Na = 0 and Cl2 = 0
2. Alkali and alkaline earth metals always have an oxidation state

of +1 and +2 respectively.
3. A fluoride ion has an oxidation state of –1.
4. The hydrogen oxidation state is mostly +1 (H+), but when

combined with a metal it behaves as the hydride anion –1 (H–).
Nivaldo J. Tro
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
5. Oxygen, most of the time, has an oxidation state of –2 (O–2 oxide ion);
however, it can have oxidations states of –1 (O2–2 or O– peroxide ion)
or –½ (O–½ super oxide ion).
6. The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a compound

is zero.
• Examples
– Na = +1 and Cl = −1
– NaCl = (+1) + (−1) = 0
7. The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion
equals the charge on the ion.
• Examples
– N = +5 and O = −2
– NO3– = (+5) + 3(–2) = −1
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Assign oxidation states, determine the elements

oxidized and reduced, and determine the oxidizing
agent and reducing agent in the following reaction:
Sn4+ + Ca  Sn2+ + Ca2+
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Assign oxidation states, determine the elements oxidized and reduced, and
determine the oxidizing agent and reducing agent in the following reaction:
Sn4+ + Ca  Sn2+ + Ca2+
Sn4+ + Ca  Sn2+ + Ca2+

+4 0 +2 +2
Ca  Ca2+ going from 0 to +2: lost two electrons:

Ca is oxidized
Sn4+  Sn2+ going from +4 to +2: gained two electrons

Sn4+ is reduced
Ca is the reducing agent; Sn4+ is the oxidizing agent.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Assign an oxidation state to the following:
1. Br2
2. K+
3. LiF
4. CO2
5. SO42−
Nivaldo J. Tro
Answer:
Assign an oxidation state to the following:
1. Br2 Br = 0;
Br2 is in its elemental state.
2. K+ K = +1
3. LiF Li = +1 and F = −1;

LiF is a compound, and compounds have an
overall charge of zero.
4. CO2 O = −2 and C = +4;

CO2 is a compound and compounds have an
overall charge of zero.
5. SO42− O = −2 and S = +6;

SO4−2 ion has an overall charge of –2.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Combustion Reactions
2 C8H18(g) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
• Reactions in which O2(g) is a reactant are called

combustion reactions.
• Combustion reactions release lots of energy.
• Combustion reactions are a subclass of oxidation–

reduction reactions.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Combustion Products Predictions
• To predict the products of a combustion reaction,

combine each element in the reactant with oxygen.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Problem:
Write the equation for the complete combustion of

CH3OH(l).
Nivaldo J. Tro
Write the equation for the complete combustion of
CH3OH(l).
1. Write the reactants.

Combustion reacts with O2(g).
CH3OH(l) + O2(g) 
2. Combine O with each element to make a product.

C + O make CO2(g); H + O make H2O(g).
CH3OH(l) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(g)
3. Balance the equation.

2 CH3OH(l) + 3 O2(g)  2 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
Nivaldo J. Tro
What Is Chemical Bonding?
1. Explains why atoms form bonds

• To achieve a “full shell look”
• To obtain a lower energy
2. Illustrates bond formation

• Valence electron distribution in molecules and ions
• Molecular structures of compounds
3. Helps us understand bond properties and their

influence on molecular properties
Nivaldo J. Tro
Intramolecular Chemical Bonding Types
• Ionic is the complete transfer of one or more electrons from
one atom to another. It is usually observed between a metal
(cation) and a nonmetal (anion).
• Covalent is the sharing of valence electrons shared

between nonmetals.
• Metallic is the communal sharing of electrons between

metals.
Note: In reality, molecular bonds are actually somewhere in between

covalent and ionic types.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Illustration of Major Intramolecular Bond Types
Nivaldo J. Tro
Why Do Atoms Bond?
• To achieve a “full shell” environment
• The bond formed maximizes the attraction forces and

minimizes the repulsive forces.
• The strength of a bond depends on many factors, such

as the type of bond formed, electronegativity, size of
the atoms, and number of bonds between atoms.
Nivaldo J. Tro
What Is Electronegativity?
• It is a measure of the ability of an atom in a bond to
attract electrons to itself.
• This “attraction or pulling” of electrons causes a
separation of charge within the bond.
– Dipole moment is formed.
• Symbol: d
• The greater the difference, the more polar the bond.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Electronegativity:
Dipole Moment and Ionic Character
• Dipole moment, m, is a measure of bond polarity.
– A dipole occurs when one side or end of the molecule is positively charged (+) and
the other is negatively (–) charged.
– This separation of charge can be caused by

• difference in electronegativity between the atoms in the bond.
• cation/anion formation.
– It is directly proportional to the size of the partial charges and directly proportional
to the distance between them.
m = q (charge) · r (radius)
– Note that this is not Coulomb’s law.
m is measured in debyes (D).
• Generally, the more electrons two atoms share and the larger the atoms are, the larger
the dipole moment.
• The percent ionic character is the ratio of a bond’s measured dipole moment to what it
would be if it were completely ionic.
Nivaldo J. Tro
If the difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms is
• Zero (0), the bond is pure covalent.
– Equal sharing of electrons between atoms
• 0.1 to 0.4, the bond is nonpolar covalent.
• 0.5 to 1.9, the bond is polar covalent.
• ≥ 2.0, the bond is ionic.

– Transfer of electrons between atoms
Percent ionic character

4% 51%
0 0.4 2.0 4.0

Electronegativity difference
Nivaldo J. Tro
Electronegativity Trend
Trend: Increases as you go across a period and decreases as you descend a column.
Values: 0.07 to 4.0
Nivaldo J. Tro
Intramolecular Bonding:
The Bonding between Two Atoms
The atoms are close enough for their atomic orbitals to combine.
|
If the electronegativity values of the atoms in the bond are
close (similar) and the atoms in far apart (very different), then the
the bonds are bonding type is ionic.
metals, then the nonmetals, then the bonding type is

bonding type is covalent.
metallic. |
If the electronegativity values are
far apart, then the very close, then the

bonding is referred to as bonding is referred to as
polar covalent. nonpolar covalent.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Properties of Ionic Compounds
• A metal atom can transfer an electron to a
nonmetal atom.
• The resulting cation and anion are attracted to

each other by electrostatic forces.
– The oppositely charged ions in ionic compounds are
attracted to one another by electrostatic forces.
– These forces are governed by Coulomb’s law.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Ionic Bonding
• Occurs between a metal and a nonmetal
• Transfer of electron(s) from one element to another

– Cation/anion formation
• The strength of the bond can be calculated using Coulomb’s Law.
– E= kQ1Q2
R Q1 Q
R 2
‫"قوة التجاذب أو التنافر بين شحنتين في الفراغ تتناسب تناسبا ً طرديا ً مع القيمة المطلقة لحاصل ضرب‬:‫قانون كولوم‬
."‫ وعكسيا ً مع مربع المسافة بينهما‬،‫شحنتيهما‬
• Ionic bonding results in attraction between the two charges

(cation + anion).
Na+
Cl–
Nivaldo J. Tro
Bond Energies
• Chemical reactions involve breaking bonds in reactant molecules and making new bonds
to create the products.
• The DΔH°rxn can be estimated by comparing the cost of breaking old bonds to the profit
from making new bonds.
• The amount of energy it takes to break one mole of a bond in a compound is called the
bond energy.
• The more electrons between two atoms, the stronger the covalent bond.
– Example
• C≡C (837 kJ) > C=C (611 kJ) > C—C (347 kJ)
• C≡N (891 kJ) > C=N (615 kJ) > C—N (305 kJ)
• The shorter the covalent bond, the stronger the bond.

– Example
• Br—F (237 kJ) > Br—Cl (218 kJ) > Br—Br (193 kJ)
– Note: Bonds get weaker down the column.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Bond Energies: Bond Strength
Measured by the energy required to break a bond
Bond Bond dissociation enthalpy (kJ/mol)

H—H 436
C—C 346
C=C 602
C=C 835
N=N 945
• The greater the number of bonds (bond order), the higher the bond
strength and the shorter the bond.
Nivaldo J. Tro
Bond Length
• Bond length is the distance between the
nuclei of two bonded atoms.
• Bond length depends on

– the size of the atoms in the bond.
• Length is measured in Angstroms.
– 1 Å = 1 × 10–2 pm
– the electronegativity of the atoms in the

bond.
– the number of electrons between

the atoms.
• Multiple bonds
– Single > double > triple
Nivaldo J. Tro
Chapter 5
Chemical
Equilibrium

The Concept of Equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium occurs when a reaction

and its reverse reaction proceed at the same
rate. In the figure above, equilibrium is finally
reached in the third picture. Equilibrium

The Concept of Equilibrium
• As a system approaches equilibrium, both the

forward and reverse reactions are occurring.
• At equilibrium, the forward and reverse reactions
are proceeding at the same rate.
• Once equilibrium is achieved, the amount of each
reactant and product remains constant. Equilibrium

Writing the Equation for an
Equilibrium Reaction
Since, in a system at equilibrium, both
the forward and reverse reactions are
being carried out, we write its equation
with a double arrow:
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2 NO2(g)
Equilibrium

Comparing Rates
• For the forward reaction
N2O4(g) → 2 NO2(g)
• The rate law is
Rate = kf [N2O4]
• For the reverse reaction

2 NO2(g) → N2O4(g)
• The rate law is
Rate = kr [NO2]2
Equilibrium

The Meaning of Equilibrium
• Therefore, at equilibrium
Ratef = Rater
kf[N2O4] = kr[NO2]2
• Rewriting this, it becomes the expression

for the equilibrium constant, Keq.
Equilibrium

Another Equilibrium
• Consider the Haber Process, which is

the industrial preparation of ammonia:
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)
• The equilibrium constant depends on
stoichiometry:
Equilibrium

The Equilibrium Constant
• Consider the generalized reaction
aA + bB⇌ dD + eE
• The equilibrium expression for this reaction
would be
• Also, since pressure is proportional to

concentration for gases in a closed system, the
equilibrium expression can also be written
Equilibrium

The Equilibrium Constant
[C ]c [ D]d
K a b
[ A] [ B]
• K is a constant at a given temperature

• Solids and pure liquid drop out of the expression & water
drops out when the solvent is water
• K has no unit
Magnitude of K
• If K>>1, the reaction
favors products;
products predominate
at equilibrium.
• If K<<1, the reaction
favors reactants;
reactants predominate
at equilibrium.
Equilibrium

Relationships between the equilibrium constant and
the chemical equation
1- if the equation is reversed
A + 2B 3C
[𝐶]3
𝐾𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 =
[𝐴][𝐵]2
3C A + 2B
[𝐴][𝐵]2 1
𝐾𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = 𝐾𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 =
[𝐶]3 𝐾𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
Equilibrium

Example:
[NO2]2
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2 NO2(g) Kc = = 0.212 at 100 C
[N2O4]
[N2O4]
2 NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g) Kc = 2 = 4.72 at 100 C
[NO2]
Equilibrium

2- if you multiply the coefficients in the equation by a factor,
raise the equilibrium constant to the same factor:
A + 2B 3C
[𝐶]3
K=
[𝐴][𝐵]2
nA + 2nB 3nC
[𝐶]3𝑛 [𝐶]3 n
K` = K` =
[𝐴]𝑛 [𝐵]2𝑛 [𝐴] [𝐵]2 K` = 𝐾 𝑛
Equilibrium

Example:
[NO2]2
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2 NO2(g) Kc = = 0.212 at 100 C
[N2O4]
[NO2]4
2 N2O4(g) ⇌ 4 NO2(g) Kc = [N O ]2 = (0.212)2 at 100 C
2 4
Equilibrium

3- if YOU ADD two or more individual chemical equations to
obtain an overall equation, multiply the corresponding
equilibrium constants by each other in obtain the overall
equilibrium constant:
[𝐵]2
A 2B K1 =
[𝐴]
[𝐶]3
2B 3C K2 =
[𝐵]2
[𝐶]3
A 3C K 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
[𝐴]
Equilibrium

= 𝐾1 × 𝐾2
• When two consecutive equilibria occur, the
equations can be added to give a single
equilibrium.
• Example
 2 NOBr ⇌ 2 NO + Br2 K1 = 0.014
 Br2 + Cl2 ⇌ 2 BrCl K2 = 7.2
 2 NOBr + Cl2 ⇌ 2 NO + 2 BrCl

K3 = K1 × K2 = 0.014 × 7.2 = 0.10
Equilibrium

Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous
• Homogeneous equilibria occur when
all reactants and products are in the
same phase.
• Heterogeneous equilibria occur
when something in the equilibrium is in
a different phase.
Equilibrium

Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions
1- Homogeneous Equilibria:
All reacting species are in the same phase
Gaseous reactions:
N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)

2
[ NO2 ] 2 P
Kc  Kp 
NO2
[ N 2O4 ] PN 2O4
Kc ≠ Kp
Example 14.1:
Write expressions for Kc, and Kp if applicable,
for the following reversible reactions at equilibrium:
(a) HF (aq)  H 2O(l )  H 3O  (aq)  F  (aq)

Homogeneous
• Solution: No gases → Only Kc:
[ H 3O  ][ F  ] [ H 3O  ][ F  ]
Kc  Kc 
[ HF ][ H 2O] [ HF ]
Not written (neglected)
(b) 2NO( g )  O2 ( g )  2NO2 ( g )
Homogeneous
Solution: Gases → Kp & Kc can be written,

as follows:
2 2
[ NO2 ] P
Kc  Kp 
NO2
2 2
[ NO] [O2 ] P PO2
NO
(c) CH3COOH (aq)  C2 H 5OH (aq)  CH3COOC 2 H 5 (aq)  H 2O(l )
Homogeneous
Solution: No gases → Only Kc: Neglected
[CH 3COOC 2 H 5 ][ H 2O]

Kc 
[CH 3COOH ][C2 H 5OH ]
[CH 3COOC 2 H 5 ]
Kc 
[CH 3COOH ][C2 H 5OH ]
General practice not to include units for the

equilibrium constant.
1- Heterogeneous Equilibria:
Reacting species are in the different phases
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
[CaO][CO2 ]
KC 
[CaCO3 ]
Kc = [CO2] K p  PCO2
The concentration of solids and pure liquids are not
included in the expression for the equilibrium constant.
Example 4
Write the equilibrium constant expression Kc, and Kp if
applicable, for each of the following heterogeneous
systems:
(a) (NH4)2Se (s) 2NH3 (g) + H2Se (g)

(b) AgCl (s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
K
(c) P4 (s) + 6Cl2 (g)c  [ NH ] 2
3 4PCl[ H 2 Se]
3 (l)
Kp  P 2
NH 3 PH 2Se
Example 5
Write the equilibrium constant expression Kc, and Kp if
applicable, for each of the following heterogeneous
systems:
(b) AgCl (s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
 
K c  [ Ag ][Cl ]
1. Predicting the Direction of a Reaction
 Reaction quotient (Qc): is calculated by substituting
the initial concentrations of the reactants and products
into the equilibrium constant (Kc) expression.
 IF
 Qc > Kc system proceeds from right to left to reach
equilibrium
 Qc = Kc the system is at equilibrium
 Qc < Kc system proceeds from left to right to reach
equilibrium
1. Predicting the Direction of a Reaction
Q has the same form as K, . . . but uses existing concentrations
 Kc = 2.5
 Experiment:
n  Bu tan e  iso  Bu tan e
 Inserting these initial concentration in
the equilibrium constant expression!
Reaction
[iso  Bu tan e]O (0.35)
  1.40 Quotient
[n  Bu tan e]O (0.25) Qc
0.25 mol n-butane →
0.35 mol iso-Butane
 Qc (1.40) < Kc (2.5)
→ To reach equilibrium [iso-Butane] must
increase and [n-Butane] must decrease.
→ Reaction will proceed from left to right
5.5 calculating the Equilibrium Constant from measured
equilibrium concentrations
H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI (g)

Suppose a mixture of H2 and I2 is allowed to come to
equilibrium at 445Co. The measured equilibrium concentrations
are [H2]= 0.11 M, [I2]= 0.11M and [HI]=0.78 M. what is the value
of the equilibrium constant at this temperature?
[ HI]2
Kc =
[H2] [I2]
(0.78)2
= = 50
(0.11)(0.11)
N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)
Initial concentrations Equilibrium Ratio at

concentrations equilibrium
N2O4 NO2 N2O4 NO2 [NO2]2
[N2O4]
0.670 0.00 0.643 0.055 4.65x10-3
0.446 .05 0.448 0.046 4.65x10-3
0.500 .03 0.491 0.047 4.65x10-3
0.600 .04 0.594 0.052 4.65x10-3
LeChâtelier’s Principle
“If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change
in temperature, pressure, or the concentration of
one of the components, the system will shift its
equilibrium position so as to counteract the effect
of the disturbance.”
Equilibrium

How Conditions Change Equilibrium
We will use LeChâtelier’s Principle
qualitatively to predict shifts in equilibrium
based on changes in conditions.
Equilibrium

14.5 Factors That Affect Chemical
Equilibrium
 Le Chatelier’s principle , If an external stress is

applied to a system at equilibrium, the system adjusts
in such a way that the stress is partially offset as
the system reaches a new equilibrium position.
 factors that effect chemical equilibrium ‫مبدأ لوشاتلييه‬
1. Changes in Concentration ‫عندما نؤثر بمؤثر‬
2. Changes in Volume and Pressure ‫خارجي على نظام في‬
‫ فان النظام‬,‫حالة اتزان‬
3. Changes in Temperature
‫سوف يعدل من نفسه‬
4. Adding a Catalyst ‫لكي يعوض التاثير‬
‫الحاصل (يزاح في اتجاه‬
Change any factor may change the position
& value of K, or it may has no effect. ‫من تأثير هذا‬ ‫يقلل‬
Equilibrium
‫المؤثر) وبالتالي يصل‬
1. Change in Concentration
N 2 ( g )  3H 2 ( g )  2 NH 3 ( g )
Equilibrium
Add
shifts left
NH3
to offset
stress
Change Shifts the Equilibrium
Increase concentration of product(s) left
Decrease concentration of product(s) right
Increase concentration of reactant(s) right
Decrease concentration of reactant(s) left
Thus: Concentration effect the position and
not the value of K
Equilibrium

Addition of external substance: Two cases
Adding a substance reacts with reactant left
Adding a substance reacts with product right
Equilibrium

Example 14.11:
At 720 oC, the equilibrium Kc for the reaction:
N 2 ( g )  3H 2 ( g )  2 NH 3 ( g )
Is 2.37 x 10-3. the equilibrium concentrations are [N2] = 0.683 M,[H2] =
8.80 M, and [NH3] = 1.05 M. Suppose some NH3 is added to the
mixture so that the concentration is increased to 3.65 M. (a) Use Le
Châtelier’s Principal to predict the shift direction of the net reaction
to reach new equilibrium.
Solution:
a: Increase in [product] → The equilibrium
will shift to left
N 2 ( g )  3H 2 ( g )  2 NH3 ( g )
Equilibrium shifts Add Equilibrium
left to offset stress NH3
2. Change in Pressure & Volume
A( g )  B ( g )  C ( g )
PV = nRT ∆n= n products – n reactants
n Pressure α 1/volume
P  ( ) RT
V ‫تناسب عكسي‬
Because the pressure of gases is related directly to the
concentration by P= n/V, changing the pressure by
increasing/decreasing the volume of a container will disturb an
equilibrium system.
Increase the pressure (decrease in volume ( favours the reaction
that decrease the number of moles of gases.
Decrease the pressure (increase in volume) favours the reaction
that increase the number of moles of gases. Equilibrium

A( g )  B( g )  C ( g ) A( g )  B( g )  C ( g )
Δn = 1-2 = -1 < 0 Δn = 2-1 = 1 > 0

Increase pressure (decrease volume) Side with less moles of gas
Decrease pressure (Increase volume) Side with more moles of gas
Thus: Pressure effect the position and not the

value of K
Volume has the opposite effect of pressure Pressure α
1/volume
‫تناسب عكسي‬
Equilibrium

Add inert 2A(g) B(g)
gas
1- V constant
2- P increases
3- Partial pressures for A and B are constant
So , there is no effect on effect

Example 14.12:
For each of the following equilibrium systems,
predict the direction of net reaction in each
case as a result of increasing the pressure
(decreasing the volume) on the system at
constant temperature.
Solution:
↑ pressure ::::: shift to the side of fewest
(less) moles of gases
(a) 2PbS (s)  3O2 ( g )  2PbO(s)  2SO2 ( g )

Δn = 2 – 3 = -1 < 0 side of fewest gases moles is the product
So: the equilibrium will shift to the right Equilibrium

(b) PCl5 ( g )  PCl3 ( g )  Cl2 ( g )
Δn = 2 – 1 = 1 > 0 side of fewest gases moles is
the reactant
So: the equilibrium will shift to the left
(c) H 2 ( g )  CO2 ( g )  H 2O( g )  CO( g )

Δn = 2 – 2 = 0
So: the change in pressure and volume has
NO effect on the equilibrium
Equilibrium

3. Change in Temperature
Temperature increase favour the endothermic
reaction,
Temperature decrease favours an exothermic
reaction
Change Exothermic Rx Endothermic Rx

(∆H)=- (∆H)=+
Increase temperature K decreases K increases
Decrease temperature K increases K decreases
Equilibrium

N2O4 ( g )  2NO2 ( g ) H  58.0 kJ/mol
colourle Brown
ss
colder hotter
K decreases K increases
Equilibrium

4. Adding a Catalyst
 Does not change K
 Does not shift the position of an equilibrium system
 System will reach equilibrium sooner
Catalyst is No catalyst
added
Catalyst lowers Ea for both forward and reverse reactions.

Catalyst does not change equilibrium constant or shift
equilibrium. Equilibrium

Le Châtelier’s Principle
Change Equilibrium
Change Shift Equilibrium Constant
Concentration yes no
Pressure yes no
Volume yes no
Temperature yes yes
Catalyst no no
Equilibrium

 Predict the change in the equilibrium if the reaction
mixture is heated at constant V
N2F4 (g) ⇄ 2 NF2 (g) ∆H= 38.5 kJ/mol

.
Endothermic reaction [B]

Kc =
T increase  K increases, [A]
A net change occurs in the

direction is from left to right
Equilibrium
toward product)
 Predict the change in the equilibrium if some N2F4 gas is
removed from the reaction mixture at constant
N2F4 (g) ⇄ 2 NF2 (g) ∆H= 38.5 kJ/mol

.
The reactant decreases
The system shifts from right

to left
Equilibrium

 Predict the change in the equilibrium if the pressure on the
reaction mixture is decreased at constant T
N2F4 (g) ⇄ 2 NF2 (g) ∆H= 38.5 kJ/mol

.
The pressure decreases
The system shifts from left to right
Equilibrium

Part 2
acids-bases
equilibria
Equilibrium

Properties of acids:
. 1- Sour taste
2- It has ability to dissolve many
metals
3- Turn blue litmus paper red
4- the ability to neutralize bases
Equilibrium

Properties of bases:
1- a bitter taste
2- Slippery feel (because they react
with oil on the skin to form soaplike
substances)
3- Turn red litmus paper blue
4- the ability to neutralize acids
Equilibrium

strong acids weak acids
.
inorganic acids organic

acids
H2SO4 HC2H3O2
H+ -COOH
Carboxylic Equilibrium
© 2015 Pearson Education acid

Malic acid an acid found in
apple and grapes Equilibrium

Equilibrium

Acid and base models
1- Arrhenius acid and base
2- Brønsted-Lowry acid and base
3- Lewis acids and base
Equilibrium

1- Arrhenius acid and base
An Arrhenius acid is a hydrogen(proton) donor
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
Hydronium
HCl (aq)+H2O → H3O+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) ion, hydrated
proton, H3O+
An Arrhenius base is a hydroxide donor

NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l) Equilibrium

2- Brønsted-Lowry acid and base
A Brønsted acid is a proton donor
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
A Brønsted acid Brønsted base
A Brønsted base is a proton acceptor
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) → NH4+ (aq) +OH-(aq)

→
Brønsted base A Brønsted acid
Equilibrium

Identify the Brønsted-Lowry acid,
Conjugate base
,base and Conjugate acid
H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) +HSO4-(aq)
acid base Conjugate Conjugate
acid base
Conjugate acid-base pair
. Conjugate acid-base pair

Equilibrium

→
base acid Conjugate Conjugate
acid base
Water can act as acids or bases Equilibrium

(amphoteric)
The strength of an electrolyte is
determined by the extent of the
dissociation of the electrolyte into its
component ions in solution
strong acids weak acids

Completely ionized partially
ionized
in solution in solution
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) HF(aq) → H+ (aq) + F-(aq)

→
1M → 1M + 1M 1M → >1M
Equilibrium

The strength of an electrolyte depend on
the equilibrium
HA (aq) + H2O → H3O+ (aq) + A-(aq)
→
Direction of equilibrium
The acid is strong
The acid is weak
Equilibrium

The degree to which an acid is strong or weak depend on
the attraction between the anion of the acid (the conjugate
base) and the hydrogen ions
HA (aq) + H2O → H3O+ (aq) + A-(aq)

→
1- If the attraction between

H+ and A- is weak acid is strong
2- If the attraction between

H+ and A- is strong acid is weak
Equilibrium
The stronger the acid the weaker the conjugated base and vice versa
Monoprotic acids See tables 5.3 and 5.4
HCl H+ + Cl- Strong electrolyte, strong acid
HNO3 H+ + NO3- Strong electrolyte, strong acid
CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO-
Weak electrolyte, weak acid
Diprotic acids
H2SO4 H+ + HSO4-
Strong electrolyte, strong acid
HSO4- +
H + SO4 2-
Weak electrolyte, weak acid

Triprotic acids
H3PO4 H+ + H2PO4- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
H2PO4- H+ + HPO42- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
HPO42- H+ + PO43- Weak electrolyte, weak acid Equilibrium

The pH scale: a way to quantify acidity and
basicity
The autoionization of water
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-

(aq)
Kw = [H+] [OH−]
Kw : the ion product constant
Equilibrium

In pure water
[H3O+] = [OH−]= 1.0 x 10-7
Kw = [H3O+] [OH−]
= (1.0 x 10-7) (1.0 x 10-7)
= 1.0 x 10-14
Equilibrium

In neutral solution
[H3O+] = [OH−]
[H3O+] = 1x10-7
In acidic solution
[H3O+] > [OH−]

[H3O+] > 1x10-7
In basic solution
[H3O+] < [OH−]

[H3O+] < 1x10-7
Equilibrium

Example 15.2
The concentration of OH- ions in a certain
household ammonia cleaning solution is
0.0025 M. Calculate the concentration of
H+ ions .
Kw = [H+]
[OH−]
1.0  10−14 = [H+](0.0025)
[H+] = 1.0  10−14/

0.0025
[H+] = 4.0  10−12 M

Equilibrium

pH-A Measure of Acidity
pH = −log [H+] = −log (1x10-7) = 7
pOH = −log [OH-=

] −log (1x10-7) = 7
pKw = −log Kw = −log (1x10-14)= 14
pKw = 14 = pH + pOH
Equilibrium

pH-A Measure of
Acidity
pH = −log [H+] [H+] = 10-pH
pOH = −log [OH-] [OH-] =10-pOH
Equilibrium

Increasingly Increasingly
acidic alkaline
pH < 7 pH > 7
neutr
al
pH =7
pH increases as [H+] decreases

Equilibrium

Calculate the pH of a
solution
([H+] = 3.2 x 10–4 M)
pH = −log [H+]
pH = −log 3.2 x 10–4 =

3.49
Equilibrium

Example
The pH of rainwater collected in a certain region
of the northeastern United States on a particular
day was 4.82. calculate the H+ ion concentration
of the rainwater .
[H+]= 10-pH
[H+]= 10-4.82 = 1.5 x

10-5 M
Equilibrium

Example
The [OH-] = 2.9 x 10–4 M. What is the

pH of the
NaOH solution.
pOH = −log [OH-]
pOH = −log (2.9 x 10–4 )= 3.54
pH + pOH = 14
pH + 3.54 = 14
pH = 14 - 3.54 = Equilibrium
© 2015 Pearson Education 10.46

strong bases weak bases
Completely dissociates partially
dissociates
in solution in solution
Sr(OH)2 (aq) → Sr+2 (aq) + 2OH-(aq)B (aq) + H2O (l) → BH+ (aq) +OH-(aq)
→
Unlike diprotic
acids, which ionize Most common of them
in two steps, bases produce OH- by
containing two OH- accepting a proton
ions dissociate in from water
one step.
Equilibrium

Weak bases contain nitrogen atom with a lone
pair. This lone pair act as the proton receptor
Example: ammonia, methylamine and pyridine
CH3NH2 (aq) + H2O (l) → CH3NH3+ (aq)

+OH-(aq)
Equilibrium

Salts in water (depending on this
cations and anions) is divided in to:
1-pH neutral
2- Acidic
3- Basic
Equilibrium

Example:
It
does
not Weak
ionize base
water
NaHCO3(aq) → Na+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
→
HCO3-(aq)+H2O(l) → H2CO3 (aq) +OH- (aq)
→
pH of NaHCO3(aq) > 7
Anions tend to form either basic or neutral solutions

Equilibrium
Cation tend to form either acidic or neutral solutions
acid Anion
(conjugate
base)
HCl Cl-
HF F-
HNO3 NO3-
HC2H3O2 C2H3O2-
Equilibrium

An anion that is the conjugate base of
a weak acid is itself a weak base
HF(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+ (aq) +F- (aq)

→
F- (aq) + H2O(l) → OH- (aq) + HF(aq)

→
An anion that is the conjugate base of

a strong acid is pH-neutral
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+ (aq) +Cl- (aq) Equilibrium

Equilibrium

Classify each anion as a weak base or pH-
neutral
1-NO3-
HNO3- strong acid NO3- neutral
2- NO2-
HNO2- weak acid NO2- weak base
3- C2H3O2-
HC2H3O2- weak acid C2H3O2- weak
base Equilibrium

A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor.
It has an empty orbital (or can arrange
electrons to create an empty orbital) that
can accept an electron pair
A Lewis base is an electron pair donor
:NH3 + H → [H:NH3]+
Lewis base
Lewis acid
Equilibrium

A Lewis model broadens the view of an acid
:NH3 + BF3 → [F3B:NH3]

→
Lewis base adduct
Lewis acid
Equilibrium

Chapter 6
reaction kinetics
and
thermodynamics
6.1 the first law of thermodynamics:
Thermochemistry is the general study of energy and its

interconversions.
The system is the specific part of the universe that is of

interest in the study.
Surroundings is rest of the Universe.

First law of thermodynamics : the total energy of the
universe is constant.
(DEsystem + DEsurroundings = 0)
Energy cannot be created or destroyed

Internal energy
The internal energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic
energy and the potential energy of all the particles that
compose the system.
Internal energy is a state function.
What is A state function?

Change in attitude depends only on the difference between the
initial and final values, not on the path taken
A state function
Examples:
Energy, pressure, volume, temperature,
concentration, phase(gas, liquid and solid)
DE = Efinal - Einitial
DP = Pfinal - Pinitial A+B→C+D
DV = Vfinal - Vinitial
DT = Tfinal - Tinitial
A state function
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
DE = Efinal - Einitial
or
DE = Eproducts - Ereactants
6.2 Quantifying heat and work
Another form of the first law for DEsystem
DE = q + W
DE is the change in internal energy of a system
q is the heat exchange between the system and the surroundings
W is the work done on (or by) the system

although neither heat q nor work w is a state function, their sum(q+w)is
equal to DE where E is a state function.
6.2 Quantifying heat and work
Heat:
It is the change of thermal energy between a system and its surroundings

caused by a temperature difference.
Thermal energy:
It is the energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules
Temperature Heat
It is a measure of the It is the transfer of thermal
thermal energy of a system energy
of matter
Thermal equilibrium
Temperature changes and Heat capacity:
Heat (q)
system
∆T
q α ∆T
q =C ∆T
Heat capacity
Heat capacity (C):
The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of the

system by 1oC
The higher C , the smaller ∆T
Heat capacity unit

J/oC
Specific Heat capacity (Cs) or Specific Heat :
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the

substance by 1oC
Specific heat capacity unit 𝐶

J/g.oC
Cs =
𝑚
molar Heat capacity
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of the

substance by 1oC
𝐶
molar heat capacity unit CM =
J/mol.oC 𝑛
Heat capacity is an extensive property
Specific Heat capacity and molar Heat capacity are intensive

properties
Work :pressure –volume work
A force acting through a distance.
w = -P ∆V
The expansion and compression of a gas at constant pressure
1- When gas expand
Vfinal > Vintial..
ΔV>0
w = -PΔV
wsys < 0
2- When gas compressed
Vfinal< Vintial
ΔV<0
w = -PΔV
=-P(- ΔV)
=P ΔV
wsys > 0
3- The volume is constant
Vfinal= Vintial
ΔV=0
w = -PΔV
=-P(0)
=0
wsys = 0
Example 6.1
Inflating a balloon requires the inflator to do pressure-volume work on the
surrounding. If a balloon is inflated from a volume of 0.100 L to 1.85 L against
an external pressure of 1.00 atm, how much work is done (in joules)
V1= 0.100 L V2= 1.85 L ∆V= 1.85-0.100= 1.75 L
w = -PΔV
w= - 1 atm × 1.75 L=-1.75 atm.L
1 L.atm >>>>> 101.3 J

-1.75 L.atm>>>>> ??? w= -177.275 J
6.3 measuring ∆E for chemical reactions:
Constant-volume calorimetry
The change in internal energy that occurs during a chemical

reaction (∆E) is a measure of all of the energy (heat and work)
exchanged with the surroundings (∆E= q+w)
Heat (q)= m×Cs×∆T

System Surroundings
Work (w)= -P∆V
∆E= w+q
At constant volume
∆V = 0 w = - P∆V w = -P ×0 = 0
∆E = qv – 0 = qv
qv: heat at constant volume
System Heat
Surroundings
(reactants)
Constant-volume Calorimetry (w=0)
In calorimetry, the thermal energy exchanged between the reaction
(system) and the surroundings is measured by observing the
change in temperature of the surroundings
The magnitude of the temperature change in the

surroundings depends on:
1- the magnitude of ∆E for the reaction
2- on the heat capacity of the surroundings
A bomb calorimetric:
A piece of equipment designed to
measure ∆E for combustion
reactions
Force the
Sealed lid
reaction to
occur at
constant A tight-fitting
volume
The sample to be burned (of
known mass) is placed into a
cup equipped with an ignition
wire
The cup is sealed into a
stainless steel container called a
bomb that is filled with oxygen
gas
The bomb is placed in a water-
filled
Isolated container equipped
with a stirred and a
thermometer
The sample is ignited using a wire
coil and the temperature is
monitored with the thermometer.
The temperature change (∆T) is then related to the heat a absorbed
by the entire calorimeter assembly is (qcal) by the following
equation:
qcal = Ccal ×∆T
Ccal : is the heat capacity of the entire calorimeter

assembly ( which is usually determined in a separate
measurement involving the burning of a substance
that gives off a known a mount of heat).
If no heat escapes from the calorimeter, the a mount of heat gained
by the calorimeter must exactly equal that released by the reaction (
the two are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign):
qcal = -qrxn
qrxn=qv =∆Erxn
6.4 enthalpy: the heat evolved in a chemical
reaction at constant pressure
∆E = q+w
At V constant At P constant
∆E = qv ∆E = qp +w
Because w=0 Because w=0
qp called ∆H
Enthalpy (H) of a system is defined as the sum of its internal
energy and the product of its pressure and volume
H =E +PV
The change in enthalpy (∆H) :
∆H =∆E +P∆V
∆E = qp +w -w= P∆V
∆H = qp +w-w
∆H = qp
Enthalpy is a state function

In a chemical reaction
∆H and ∆E are nearly identical in value
∆H for a chemical reacation:

it is the a mount of heat absorbed or involved in the reaction
under conditions of constant pressure
(∆H) > 0 the reaction is an indothermic reaction
(∆H) < 0 the reaction is an exodothermic reaction

Stoichiometry involving ∆H: thermochemical equations
∆H rxn is called enthalpy of reaction or heat of reaction
∆H is an extensive property
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4H2O(g) ∆Hrxn=-2044 kJ
Means
When 1 mol of C3H8 reacts with 5 mol of O2 to form 3 moles of
CO2 and 4 moles of H2O , 2044 kJ of heat is emitted
To find out how much heat is emitted
g C3H8 mol C3H8 kJ

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶3𝐻8 −2044𝑘𝐽
44.09 𝑔 𝐶3𝐻8 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶3𝐻8
Example: How much heat is evolved(DH) when 266 g of white

phosphorus (P4) burn in air?
P4 (s) + 5O2 (g) P4O10 (s) DH = -3013 kJ
P4 DH
1 mol -3013 kJ
2.15 ??
𝑚 266
n= =
𝑀 4×30.97
2.15×(−3013)
= 2.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = -6470 kJ
1
6.5 constant- pressure calorimetry:
Measuring ∆hrux
a coffee-cup calorimeter is an example of a constant- pressure
calorimetry
1-The mass of the solution is known.
2- The heat evolved or absorbed causes a
temperature change in the solution.

The heat absorbed by or lost from the solution can be
calculated:
qsoln = msoln × Cs, soln ×∆ T
1- In an insulated calorimeter:
qrnx = -qsoln
2- At constant pressure:
qrxn = qp = ∆ Hrxn
3- ∆Hrxn per mole:

𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛
∆Hrxn =
𝑛
Example 6.2
Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid according to this balanced
equation:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
In an experiment to determine the enthalpy change for this reaction, 0.158g
of Mg metal is combined with enough HCl to make 100.0 mL of solution
in a coffee-cup calorimeter. The HCl is sufficiently concentrated so that the
Mg completely reacts. The temperature of the solution rises from 25.6 oC
to 32.8 oC as a result of the reaction. Find ∆Hrxn for the reaction as written.
Use 1.00 g/mL as the density of the solution and Cs, soln= 4.18 J/g.oC as the
specific heat capacity of the solution.
mMg =0.158 g , Vsoln=100.0 mL , ∆T=32.8 oC - 25.6 oC = 7.2 oC
∆Hrxn =??? , dsoln=1.00 g/mL , Cs, soln= 4.18 J/g.oC
𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛
∆Hrxn =
𝑛𝑀𝑔
1- calculate qrxn. 2- calculate nMg:

qrnx = -qsoln
𝑚 0.158 𝑔
nMg = =
qrnx = -msoln × Cs, soln × ∆ T 𝑀 24.3 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= -(dsoln× Vsoln )× Cs, soln × ∆ T nMg = 6.5×10-3 mol
= -1.00 ×100 × 4.18×7.2 = -3×103J

𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 −3×103 𝐽
∆Hrxn = = = -4.62 ×105 J/mol
𝑛𝑀𝑔 6.5×10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
6.6 relationships involving ∆hrux
1- If a chemical equation is multiplied by some factor, ∆Hrux is

also multiplied by the same factor
A+2B → C ∆H1
2×
2A+4B → 2C ∆H2 =2×∆H1

2- If a chemical equation is reversed, ∆Hrux changes the sign.
A+2B → C ∆H1
C→ A+2B ∆H2 =- ∆H1

3- If a chemical equation can be expressed as the sum of a series

of steps, ∆Hrux for the overall equation is the sum of the heats of
reactions for each step.
A+2B → C ∆H1
C → 2D ∆H2
A+2B → 2D ∆H3 = ∆H1 +∆H2

Hess’s Law: the change in enthalpy for a stepwise process is the sum
of the enthalpy changes of the steps.
C (graphite) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
We can find ∆Hrnx from the following reactions with known ∆H
C (graphite) + ½O2 (g) → CO (g) ∆H = - 110.5 kJ
CO (g) + ½O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ∆H = - 283.0 kJ
C (graphite) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ∆Hrxn= - 393.5 kJ

Example:
Calculate ∆H for the reaction
Cl2 (g) + 2HBr (g) → 2HCl (g) + Br2 (g)
From the following data
a) 2× ½H2 + ½ Cl2 → HCl ∆H = -92.5 kJ
b) H2 + Br2 → 2HBr ∆H = -73 kJ
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl ∆H = 2×(-92.5 kJ)= -185 kJ

2HBr → H2 + Br2 ∆H = +73 kJ
Cl2 (g) + 2HBr (g) → 2HCl (g) + Br2 (g) ∆H = -112 kJ

6.7 enthalpies of reaction from standard heats of
formation
1- Standard state:
For a gas:
1- pure gas
2- 1 atm
For a liquid or solid:
1- The pure substance in its most stable
2- 1 atm , 25oC
For a substance in solution:

1- 1 M
6.7 enthalpies of reaction from standard heats of
formation
1- Standard enthalpy change (∆Ho):
The change in enthalpy for a process when all reactants and products are
in their standard state
o
2-Standard enthalpy of formation (DHf ):is the heat change that results
when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements at a pressure of
1 atm.
DH0 of any element in its most stable form is zero.
DH0 (O2) = 0 DH0f (C, graphite) = 0
f
DH0 (O3) = 142 kJ/mol DHf0 (C, diamond) = 1.90 kJ/mol
f
6.8 the rate of a chemical reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how fast the reaction

occurs
The rate The reaction

Slow A small fraction of molecules react
to form products
Fast A large fraction of molecules react
to form products
H2(g) +I2(g) → 2HI(g)
∆[𝐻2 ] ∆[𝐼2 ] 1 ∆[𝐻𝐼]

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = − =− =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 2 ∆𝑡
[𝐻2 ]𝑡2 −[𝐻2 ]𝑡1

𝑡2 −𝑡1
aA + bB → cC + dD
1 ∆[𝐴] 1 ∆[𝐵] 1 ∆[𝐶] 1 ∆[𝐷]

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = − =− = =
𝑎 ∆𝑡 𝑏 ∆𝑡 𝑐 ∆𝑡 𝑑 ∆𝑡
example:
Consider the balanced chemical equation :
H2O2 (aq) + 3 I- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) → I3- (aq) +2H2O(l)
In the first 10.0 seconds of the reaction, the concentration of I- drops from 1.00 M to
0.868 M.
a) Calculate the average rate of this reaction in this time interval.
1 ∆[𝐼 − ] 1 (0.868 𝑀−1.00𝑀)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = − =− = 4.4 × 10−3 𝑀/𝑠
3 ∆𝑡 3 10.0 𝑠
b) Predicts the rate of change in the concentration of H+( this is, D[H+]/dt) during this
time interval.
1 ∆[𝐻 + ]
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = −
2 ∆𝑡
∆[𝐻 + ]
=−2 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = −2 × 4.4 × 10−3 𝑀/𝑠= −8.8 × 10−3 𝑀/𝑠
∆𝑡
Chapter 7
Organic and Biological
Chemistry
7.1 Introduction to Hydrocarbons
• Organic Chemistry: is the chemistry of
carbon compounds.
• Carbon has the ability to form long chains
and ring structure.
• Hydrocarbons: compounds made of
carbon and hydrogen only.
 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Do not contain

benzene group.
 Aromatic Hydrocarbons: contain one or more
benzene rings
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
 Aliphatic hydrocarbons divided into:
 Alkanes: Only single covalent bonds are present,

general formula CnH2n+2, n = 1, 2, ….
 Cycloalkanes: alkanes whose carbon atoms are joined

in rings, general formula CnH2n, n = 3, 4, ….
 Alkenes: contain at least one carbon-carbon double

bond, general formula CnH2n, n = 2, 3 ….
 Alkynes: contain at least one carbon-carbon triple

bond, general formula CnH2n-2, n = 2, 3 ….
Table 7.1: The four Hydrocarbons Types
Aliphatic hydrocarbons divided into:
Name Definition General Formula
Alkane Only single covalent bonds are CnH2n+2

present n = 1, 2, ….
Cycloalkanes The carbon atoms are joined in CnH2n
rings n = 3, 4, ….
Alkenes contain at least one C-C double CnH2n
bond n = 2, 3, ….
Alkynes contain at least one C-C triple CnH2n-2

bond n = 2, 3 ….
Alkanes:
 The general formula CnH2n+2 where n = 1,2,3,…
 only single covalent bonds
 Saturated hydrocarbons: contain the maximum
number of hydrogen atoms that can bond with the
number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
CH4 CH3-CH3 CH3-CH2-CH3
Condensed structure formula

Q: C10H22 is the formula of an:
a. alkane.
b. alkene.
c. alkyne.
d. aromatic hydrocarbon.
Q: A molecule with the formula C3H8 is a(n):

a. hexane
b. propane
c. decane
d. butane
e. ethane
• Hydrocarbon’s melting points and boiling points are
determined by dispersion forces
• Boiling point increase with increase molecular size
Nomenclature of Alkanes
 IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry ‫االتحاد الدولي للكيمياء البحتة والتطبيقية‬
each name consist of 3 parts
 prefix
indicates position (1,3,…etc.) , number (di, tri, tetra …etc.)
and type of branches (alkyl or substituent groups)
 Parent
indicates the length of the longest carbon chain or ring
 Suffix
indicates the type of hydrocarbon (ane, ene, yne)
prefix base suffix
How many
What substituents? carbons? What family?
alkyl group is an alkane less one hydrogen
atom.
Nomenclature of Alkanes
1. The parent name of the hydrocarbon is that given to the longest
continuous chain of carbon atoms in the molecule.
.)‫ اختاري أطول سلسلة ممكنة في األلكان (ليس شرطا ً ان تكون مكتوبة بصورة مستقيمة‬-1
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4-methylheptane
2 1
CH3 CH CH3
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

3 4 5 6
2-methylhexane
2. Number in the direction that gives the smaller numbers for the
locations of the branches.
.‫ ابدئي بترقيم ذرات الكربون في السلسلة من الجهة األقرب للتفرع‬-2
CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH2 CH3

1 2 3 4 5
2-methylpentane
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH CH3

1 2 3 4 5
4-methylpentane
3. Use prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, when there is
more than one alkyl branch of the same
kind.
،‫ في حال وجود أكثر من مجموعة متفرعة من نفس النوع‬-3
prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, ‫نستخدم‬
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH CH CH2 CH2 CH3

1 2 3 4 5 6
2,3-dimethylhexane CH3
CH3 CH C CH2 CH2 CH3

1 2 3 4 5 6
،)-( ‫يفصل الرقم عن االسم بـ‬
),( ‫والرقم عن الرقم بفاصلة‬ CH3
3,3-dimethylhexane
14
7CH
3
5 6
CH3 CH CH2
4 CH 3
CH CH2CH3
2
CH3 CH2 CH3
1CH
3
3-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethylheptane
4. If there is an equal branch of both sides of the series, we
nomenclature from the closest to the first derivative of the
letters in English alphabetically.
‫ فإننا نرقم من الجهة األقرب للمشتق األول في الحروف االنجليزية‬،‫ إذا وجد تفرع متساوي من الجهتين للسلسلة‬- 4
Br CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH3

1 2 3 4 5 6
2-bromo-5-methylhexane
16
5. Use previous rules for other types of substituents.
Br NO2
CH3 CH CH CH3
1 2 3 4
2-bromo-3-nitrobutane
NO2 Br
CH2 CH2 CH CH3

1 2 3 4
3-bromo-1-nitrobutane
Example : Give the IUPAC name of the following
compound:
2,2,4-trimethylhexane
Example : Write the structural formula of

3-ethyl-2,2-dimethylpentane
18
Q: The systematic name for
is 1-ethyl-2-methylbutane. False
Answer: 3,3-dimethylpentane
Q: What is the IUPAC name of the following compound?
CH3 C2H5
CH3 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4-ethyl-2-methyloctane
Q: What is the structure of 4-methyl-2-propylhexane?
C3H7 CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH3

1 2 3 4 5 6
20
Drawing Organic Molecules
‫الصيغة الجزيئية‬
• Molecular formulae: A molecular formula simply counts the numbers of each sort of atom
present in the molecule, but tells you nothing about the way they are joined together.
Example:
the molecular formula of butane is C4H10, and the molecular formula of ethanol is C2H6O.
• Structural formulae: A structural formula shows how the various atoms are bonded.
‫الصيغة التركيبية‬
Example:
ethanoic acid (acetic acid) would be shown in a fully displayed form and simplified form as:
CH3COOH or
21
‫‪Structural Isomers‬‬
‫• التشكل البنائي‪:‬‬
‫‪• Structural isomers: are molecules‬‬
‫هي أشكال مختلفة لمركبات‬
‫‪that have the same molecular‬‬
‫‪formula but different structural‬‬ ‫لها نفس الصيغة الجزيئية‬
‫‪formula‬‬ ‫ولكنها تختلف في الصيغة‬
‫البنائية‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬متشكالت بنائيه‪ :‬تكون في االلكانات‬

‫( يحفظ الجدول في الشريحه التاليه)‬
‫‪22‬‬
Structural Isomers of Alkanes
# carbons Name # isomers
1 Methane 1 (no isomer)
2 Ethane 1 (no isomer)
3 Propane 1 (no isomer)
4 Butane 2
5 Pentane 3
6 Hexane 5
7 Heptane 9
8 Octane 18
20 Eicosane 366,319
23
Structural Isomers
CH4 C2H6 C3H8
C4H10 C4H10
24
Example 24.1:
How many structural isomers does pentane, C5H12, have?
H H H H H
H C C C C C H
H H H H H
H CH3 H
n-pentane
H C C C H
H CH3 H H H CH3 H
H C C C C H 2,2-dimethylpropane
H H H H
25
2-methylbutane
Q: How many structural isomers does pentane (C5H12) have?
A. 1 Solution:
B. 2
C5H12 = CnH2n+2
C. 3
D. 4 THUS: Alkane → Pentane → 3 isomers
Q: Which of these species are structural isomers of C6H14?
A. I and II
B. I and III
C. II and III
D. II and IV
E. III and IV
26
Cycloalkanes
 Alkanes whose carbon atoms are joined in
rings are called cycloalkanes.
 The general formula: is CnH2n where n =
3,4,…
Reactions of Alkanes
• Alkanes are generally considered unreactive as they
have no functional groups present.
• They contain only strong C-C or C-H σ-bonds and since
carbon and hydrogen have similar electronegativity,
none of the bonds in alkanes is polarized.
• Combustion: one of their most commercially important
reactions is combustion in air
• the complete combustion of ethane proceeds as follows:
2 C2H6 (g) + 7 O2 (g) 4 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) ∆H= -2855KJ

7.2 Alkenes, Alkynes, and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Contain multiple bonds(double,triple,or
delocalized π bonds)
Alkenes, Alkynes, and Aromatic
Hydrocarbons are Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: they contain less
number of hydrogen atoms than alkanes with
same the number of carbon atoms in the
molecule.(compounds with double or triple carbon-
carbon bonds)
Unsaturated molecule are more reactive than

saturated
Alkenes
Alkenes also known as Olefins

Alkenes: at lease one C=C double bond is present.
 The general formula: is CnH2n where n = 2,3,4,…
 The simplest alkenes is ethene or ethylene
H2C = CH2
CH2 CH CH2 CH3 CH3 CH CH CH3

1-butene 2-butene
Nomenclature of Alkene
1. Name the longest carbon chain containing a binary bond and
start numbering the carbon atoms from the closest side to the
double bond.
CH3 CH C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

CH3
3-methyl-2-heptene
CH3 CH CH CH CH3
Br
4-bromo-2-pentene
Nomenclature of Alkene
2. If the double bond is fare with the same distance from the two
ends of the chain, start numbering from the nearest end to the
substitution.
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 CH CH CH CH2 CH3
CH3
2-methyl-3-hexene
3. If there is more than one double bond, say numbers of its

location and use the following prefix [di, tri, …] before the last
end ene.
CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2
1,4-pentadiene
‫‪Geometric Isomers of Alkenes‬‬
‫المتشكالت الهندسيه‬
‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬

‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪Cl‬‬
‫‪cis-dichloroethylene‬‬ ‫‪trans-dichloroethylene‬‬
‫نفس االتجاه‬ ‫عكس‬
‫سس وترانس (متشكالت هندسيه)‬
‫يعني وجود مجموعات مستبدلة على طرفي الرابطه الثنائيه‬
‫بالتالي ننظر هل هما في نفس االتجاه (سس)‬
‫او‪ :‬في اتجاهين متعاكسين (ترانس)‬
‫‪33‬‬
Q: Which of the following compounds has geometrical
isomer?
H Cl H Cl
C C C C
H H H Cl
NO NO
NO2 Cl NO2 Cl
C C C C
H Cl H H
yes
NO
Cl Cl
C C
H H
yes
The alkenes C4H8 has 4 structural isomers
CH3 H CH3 CH
3 4 1 3
C C C C
2 1
CH3 H H 3 2
H
Methylpropane cis-2-Buten
CH3 H
4
CH3 CH2 H C C
4 3 3 2
C C H 1CH3
2 1
H H
1-Buten trans-2-Buten
Q: For which of the compounds below are cis-
trans isomers possible?
CH3CH=CH2 CH3CH=CHCH2CH3 CH3CH=CHCH3
(1) (2) (3)

• only 2
• both 1 and 2
• both 2 and 3
• all three only 3

Alkynes
Alkynes: at lease one C=C
-
triple bond is present.
 The general formula: is CnH2n-2 where n = 2,3,4,
Alkynes are highly reactive molecules and
important intermediate in many industrial processes
CH CH
Acetylene
CH C CH2 CH3 CH3 C C CH3

1-butyne 2-butyne
Addition Reaction of Alkenes and Alkynes
Addition reaction : a reactant is added to the two atoms that form
the multiple bond
Halogenation to ethylene
H2C = CH2 + Br2 H2C - CH2
Br Br
Cl CH3
CH3C CCH3 + Cl2 C C
CH3 Cl
2-butyne trans-2,3-Dichloro-2-butene
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
 Aromatic compound: contain one or more
benzene ring
H H
H C H C H
H
C C C C
C C C C
H C H
H C H
H H
Benzene
Common Aromatic Hydrocarbons
7.3 Organic Functional Groups
 Functional Groups :Groups that are responsible for most of
the reactions of the parent compounds
Organic Functional Groups
Alcohols
In alcohols the hydrogen of the alkane is replaced by
the hydroxyl (-OH) group and have the general formula
R-OH
Alcohol can be classified into three classes depending
on how the (-OH) group is situated on the chain of
carbon atoms
Primary alcohol Secondary alcohol Tertiary alcohol

(1o) (2o ) (3o )
OH
OH CH3CCH3
CH3CH2 CH2CH2OH CH3CH2CHCH3
CH3
butan-1-ol,1o butan-2-ol,2o 2-methyl-propan-2-ol,3o
Alcohols
 The O-H bond is polar ,so alcohol are more soluble in polar solvent
than hydrocarbons
 The O-H group participate in hydrogen bonding, as result the boiling
points of alcohols are high
 Methanol(methyl alcohol, CH3OH), is the simplest alcohol, has many

industrial uses and produced as follow reaction
CO (g) + 2H2 (g) 200-300 atm
400Co
CH3OH (g)
 Ethanol (ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH) is product of the fermentation of
carbohydrates
yeast
C6H12O6 (aq) C2H5OH (aq)+ CO (g)
Polyhydroxyl alcohol
 Ethylene glycol ,used in automobile antifreeze.
 Glycerol, used in cosmetics as a skin softener
 Phenol is the simplest compound with OH attached to aromatic ring
,and it increased the acidity of the OH group, used to make plastic
and dyes OH OH
 Cholesterol is a normal component CHin our bodies, if present CHCH
in
3CH2OH HO 2NH2 CHCH
extensive amount will cause gallstone or high blood pressure
CH
ethanol HO adrenaline pseudephidr
OH
OH OH
CH3CH2OH HO
HOCH CHCH2OH
2
CHCH2NH CHCHNHCH3
2
glycerol CH3 cholesterol
ethanol HO adrenaline pseudephidrine
OH HO
HOCH2CHCH2OH
glycerol cholesterol
HO
Ethers:
 contain the R-O-R` linkage, where R and R`
are a hydrocarbon (aliphatic or aromatic)
group
 Ethers synthesis: dehydration of alcohol
H2SO4
CH3CH2 OH + HOCH2CH3 CH3CH2OCH2CH3 + H2O
 Condensation reaction is a reaction in which water is
split out from two substances
 Both Diethyl ether and the cyclic ether tetrahydrofuran

are common organic solvent
CH2 CH2
C2H5OC2H5 CH2 CH2
O
Diethyl ether Tetrahydrofuran(THF)
Aldehyde
 Aldehyde has the general formula

R
C=O
H
 at least one hydrogen atom is bonded to the
carbon in the carbonyl group.
O O
H C H H C CH3
formaldehyde acetaldehyde
Methanal ethanal
Ketones
 Ketones has the general formula
R
C=O
R’
 The carbon atom in the carbonyl group is

bonded to hydrocarbon groups.
Propanone
Methyl ethyl ketone Dimethyl ketone
2-butanone acetone
• Aldehydes and Ketones can be prepared by
controlled oxidation of alcohols, complete
oxidation
CH3OH (g) + 3/2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
• Controlled partial oxidation is carried using

oxidizing agents such as air,H2O2,O3,
K2Cr2O7.
Carboxylic acids: contain the carboxyl (
-COOH ) functional group.
Carboxylic acids preparation:(O) represent any oxidant
O
CH3CH2OH + (O) + H 2O
CH3 C H
ethanol acetaldehyde
O O
CH3 C H + (O) CH3 C OH

acetaldehyde Acetic acid
Carbonylation O
Catalyst
CH3OH + CO CH3 C OH
methanol Acetic acid
 Carboxylic acids can undergo condensation with alcohols to from

esters
O
CH3COOH + HOCH2CH3 CH3 C O CH2CH3 + H2O
Acetic acid ethanol ethyl acetate
Esters: have the general formula R’COOR, where R
is a hydrocarbon group, and R’ a hydrocarbon also
 Carboxylic acids can undergo condensation with alcohols to from

esters
O
CH3COOH + HOCH2CH3 CH3 C O CH2CH3 + H2O
Acetic acid ethanol ethyl acetate
• The odour of fruits is due to the ester compounds they contain.

Ester Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis of an ester in the presences of a base is called Saponification
(soap in Latin)
The process of making Soap usually use esters include (fat and oils) with
strong base such as NaOH or KOH, to produce a mixture of salts of long
chain carboxylic acid called (fatty acid)
O
CH2CH3 C O CH3 + Na+ + OH-
Methyl propionate
O
CH2CH3 C O- + Na+ + CH3OH
Sodium propionate Methanol
Amines and Amides:
• Amines are organic bases with the general formula R3N.
• Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia
• They are classified according to how many alkyl groups replace the
hydrogens of ammonia
• This is a different classification scheme than that used in alcohols
CH3NH2 (CH3)3N (CH3)2NH

Methyl amine Trimethyl amine dimethyl amine
=O
NH2
C-NH2
O
CH3 C NH2
Phenylamine
(aniline) Acetamide benzamide
Amides formation: An amine undergo a condensation reaction with a
carboxylic acid to form amid
O O
CH3 C OH + H N(CH3)2 CH3 C N(CH3)2 + H2O
O
R C N R’
H
The amide linkage
7.4 Introduction to Biochemistry
 Many of the large molecules in living system are polymers of much
smaller molecules
 These Biopolymers can be classified into three board categories:
Proteins, Polysacharides (carbohydrates), and Nucleic acids.
 Lipids are another common class of molecules in living systems,
but they are large molecules, not biopolymers

7.5 Proteins
 Polymers: are large molecules made up of repeating
units called Monomers.
 Proteins: are polymers of amino acids. Termed
polypeptides
 Play a key role in nearly all biological processes
 Enzymes, the catalysts of biochemical reactions
 Transport of materials
 Storage of vital substances
 Coordinated motion
 Mechanical support
 Protection against diseases.
 Proteins high molar mass; ranging from about 5000 g.
Amino acids
 The basic structural unit of protein is amino acids
 Amino acids: are the basic structural units of
proteins.
 Contain at least one amino group (-NH2)
 And at least one carboxyl group (-COOH)

H
O
Amino acid H C C
NH2 OH
One of about 20 different groups of amino acids
R O R O
H 2N C C OH Or +H3N C C O-
Chiral centre: is attached to 4
α carbon H H different group
dipolar ion
zwitterion
• Amino acids has two forms which is pH dependent

• The building block of all protein are α–amino acids(alpha) indicates
that the amino group is on the carbon atom immediately adjacent
group and COOH
• 22 amino acids are identified in nuture,20 of them are found in
humans and 10 of them our bodies can synthesized in sufficient
amount for our needs
• The other 10 must be ingested and are called essential amino acid
because they are very necessary for our diet
Polypeptides and proteins
O
R C N R’
H
Amino acids: are joined in a protein by the formation
of a peptide bond(amide group)
H O H O
+H
3N C C O- + +H3N C C O-
R1 R2
Peptide (amide)
bond
H O H O
+H
3N C C N C C O - + H 2O
R1 H R2
 Dipeptide glycylalanine formation: a condensation reaction between
COOH group and NH2 to form peptide bond
 The artificial sweetener aspartame is the methyl ester of the dipeptide

formed from the amino acid aspartic acid and phenylalanine
 Polypeptides: are formed when a large number of amino acid are linked
together by peptide bond
 Proteins are linear polypeptide molecules with molecular weight ranging
from about 6000 to over 50 million amu.
7.6 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are an important class of naturally occurring
substances found in both plant and animal matter.
• The name carbohydrate (hydrate of carbon) comes

from the empirical formulas for most substances in
this class; they can be written as Cx(H2O)y
• glucose, the most abundant carbohydrate, has the

molecular formula C6H12O6, or C6(H2O)6.
• Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones.
glucose is a six-carbon aldehyde sugar, whereas fructose, the
sugar that occurs widely in fruit, is a six-carbon ketone sugar
Glucose, having both alcohol and aldehyde functional groups and having a reasonably long and flexible backbone, can react
with itself to form a six-member-ring structure
Indeed, only a small percentage of the glucose molecules are in the open-chain form in aqueous solution.
Fructose: the functional groups on carbons 1 and 5 can take up alternative relative orientation.
In the α form the OH group on carbon 1 and the CH2OH group on carbon 5 point in opposite
directions.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
• are made up of many monosaccharide units joined together .
• The most important polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, and cellulose,
which are formed from repeating glucose units.
Starch
• is not a pure substance. The term refers to a group of polysaccharides
found in plants.
• Starches serve as a major method of food storage in plant seeds and
tubers. Corn, potatoes, wheat, and rice all contain substantial amounts of
starch.
• These plant products serve as major sources of needed food energy for
humans. Enzymes within the digestive system catalyze the hydrolysis of
starch to glucose.
7.7 lipids
• Lipid are diverse class of nonpolar biological molecules
• used for long energy storage(fat, oil)
• Used as element of biological structure (phospholipids, waxes,
cell membranes
• Fats are lipids derived from glycerol and fatty acid which
undergo condensation reaction to form Easter linkage
• Glycerol is an alcohol with three OH groups
• Fatty acids are carboxylic acids(RCOOH),R is a hydrocarbon
chain (16-19)carbon atom long.
Structure of a fat
7.8 Nucleic Acids
 Two of the building blocks of RNA and DNA

 (DNA) Deoxyribonucleic acids store genetic information, found
in nucleus of the cell
 (RNA) Ribonucleic acids carries information out of the cell
,found in cytoplasm
 RNA and DNA are sugars (ribose or deoxyribose) and cyclic
bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine or uracil).
 The monomer of nucleic acid called nucleotide
 The fie carbon sugar in DNA is deoxyribose and in RNA is
ribose
There are five nitrogen-containing bases in nucleic acid
RNA and DNA are

polynucleotides by
condensation reaction between
a phosphoric acid and sugar to
form a nucleotide.
The end of
Chem 101

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‫مقرر كيمياء عامة ‪101‬‬

‫االسم ‪ :‬د‪ .‬فاتن محمد علي زيني‬

‫ػذم ارتذاء الؼباءة فً قاػت االمتحان‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ػذم استخذام الجىال كآلت حاسبت فً االمتحان‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫مغ أطٍب التمىٍاث بالتىفٍق‪،،،،‬‬

‫‪First exam: 30‬‬ ‫‪ 30‬درجت‬ ‫‪ ‬امتحان دوري أول‪:‬‬

Deia Abd El-Hady

◦ Examples include combustion, oxidation, and

In the course of a chemical reaction, the reacting

• 1.7 Measurement (p.15-20)

Length Mass Weight Volume

Density Temperature Time

unit (meter-m), (gram-g), (liter-L)

Put all of them in the same unit

weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh

1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5 g/cm3 has a

 The Fahrenheit scale is not used in scientific

Kelvin is the SI Base

0C = 5 x (172.9 – 32) = 78.3

(b) Convert -452 0F → 0C ?

(c) Convert -38.9 0C → K ?

No relatationship between

2. Which of the following SI base units is not commonly

3 Which of the following prefixes means 1/1000?

. 6 What temperature is 77 K when converted to degrees

8. Convert -77F to kalvin ?

12 At what temperature does the numerical reading on a

A. 10-9 and 10-6.

19 Which of the following prefixes means 106 ?

22 Which of the following prefixes means 1/100?

24. The diameter of an atom is approximately 1  10-7 mm. What is this

28. Express 2200 nm as picometers

35. At what temperature does the numerical reading on a Fahrenheit

38. Which of these quantities represents the smallest mass?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

The theory that atoms

Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier)

• All samples of a given compound, regardless of

• Example: the decomposition of 18.0 g of water

2) All atoms of a given

• Streams of negatively charged particles were found to

Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of

1.76  108 C → 1 g of the electron

The mass of an electron = 9.01  10-28g

Since some particles

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

• For one Carbon atom (amu)→ atomic mass = 12

• For one male of Carbon atoms (amu)→ atomic

• For one male of Carbon atoms (g) →

 Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol.

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus.

= atomic number (Z) + number of neutron

Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with

Isotopes of the same element have similar chemistries

6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

• The rows on the

When one looks at the chemical properties of

These five groups are known by their names.

• Horizontal rows in periodic table are called periods.

• Substances containing only nonmetals are

36- Which of the following is an alkali metal?