IntEnSE Engineering Review Center

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

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 IntEnSE Engineering Review Center
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

ALGAE: THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROTIST

Algea
• Protista that are photosynthetic autotrophs.
• Overall morphology: Unicellular, Colonial, Filamentous, clublike, spiral, or larger form (diverse morphology).
• Algal cells as a group contain all the eukaryotic organelles.
• Polyphyletic
• Motility by flagella or gliding is common among the algae, and many members may contain tiny light-sensitive areas (eye spots)
that coordinate with the flagella to guide the cell toward the light it requires for photosynthesis.
• Algae have thick cell walls or thick cell membrane called pellicle.
• The cell walls of many seaweeds contain phycocolloids (algal colloids) that can be extracted by hot water.
• 3 Major Phycocolloids: (1) Alginates (2) Agars and (3) Carrageenans.
• Their size ranges from microscopic unicellular phytoplanktons to the large multicellular seaweeds.
Distribution: Algae are widespread inhabitants of fresh and marine waters.
• Other algal habitats include the surface of soil, rocks, and plants, and several species are even hardy enough to live in hot
springs or snowbanks.
• Plankton – large floating community of microscopic organisms.
• Algae play an essential role in the aquatic food web and produce most of the earth’s oxygen.
Algal Groups
• Microscopic algae are classified into divisions or kingdoms based on the types of chlorophyll and other pigments, the type of cell
covering, the nature of their stored foods and genetic factors.
• The common names for these groups are:
• (1) Chlorophyta or green algae
• (2) Rhodophyta or red seeweeds
• (3) Phaeophyta or brown algae
• (4) Chrysophyta or diatoms
• (5) Pyrrophyta or dinoflagellates
• (6) Euglenophyta or Euglenids
GREEN ALGAE
• Large diversity in fresh water
• Green algae are present in marine habitats but not as important as reds and browns
• One line very close to plants
• Same chemistry, morphology as plants
• Shown here are various growth forms evolved from basic Chlamydomonas “building block” cell.

Chlamydomonas
– 1 cell

Pandorina - clump

Ulva - sphere

Ulothrix -
filament Ulva - sheet
Structure of Chlamydomonas, a motile
• Phylum Chlorophyta
• Most restricted to freshwater and terrestrial environments green alga, indicating major
• 7000 species; 10% is marine; many are unicellular organelles.
• Distributed mainly in the bays, estuaries and isolated tidal pools
• land plants may evolved directly from green algae chlorophyll pigment

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 IntEnSE Engineering Review Center
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Multi-cellular Green Algae

Dead man’s finger – extend

from tropical to temperate
waters

Spirogyra
• Filamentous alga, often producing long green strands in pond water.
• common names include water silk, mermaid's tresses, and blanket weed
• Spirogyra reproduces thru Conjugation

Colonial Green Alga

RED ALGAE
• Phylum Rhodophyta
• red pigments; phycobilins mask chlorophyll
• The largest group of seaweeds, about 4000 species; most
exclusively marine
• Found in most shallow water marine environment
• Filamentous red algae and flatter branches
• Mostly marine
• Cell walls with gels

Coralline Red Algae

• Smooth or rough encrusting growth on rocks.

• Warm-water coralline red algae actively involve in formation and development
Porphyra – sheet of
Polysiphonia – simple thallus
coral reefs.
Secondary Products of Red Algae:
• Carrageenan is used for stabilizing chocolate, milk, egg nog, ice cream, sherbets, instant puddings, frostings, creamed soups,
etc.
• is similar to agar, but requires higher concentrations to form gels.
• is made from Gigartina stellata, Chondrus crispus and Eucheuma.
• Agar (or agar-agar) is used in bacteriology and mycology as a stiffening agent in growth media.
• Agar is used as a stabilizer for emulsions, and as a constituent of cosmetic skin preparations, ointments, and lotions.
• Agar is made from Gelidium, Gracilaria, Pterocladia and Ahnfeltia.

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 IntEnSE Engineering Review Center
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
BROWN ALGAE
• Phylum Heterokontophyta, Class Phacophyta (Phaeophyta)
• Brown algae exhibit the most complexly differentiated thalli
• Fucoxanthin dominate over chlorophyll
• primary producers on temperate and polar rocky coasts
• Almost 1500 species are marines
• Include the largest and most complex seaweeds
Kelps
• Found in deeper water below the lowest tide level
• great abundance in temperate and sub-polar latitudes. They form kelp beds or kelp forest.
• Can grow at least 50 cm per day in optimal condition, reaches 100 m
• Among the richest, most productive environment in marine realm
• Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) is a good source of Algin
• Algin (alginate or alginic acid) anionic polysaccharide distributed widely in the cell walls of brown algae.
• used as thickening agent in ice cream, toothpaste, shaving creams, hair sprays, and lotion.
GOLDEN BROWN ALGAE
• Phylum Chrysophyta
• 'Chryso' means 'color of gold'.
• There are three types of golden-algae: yellow-green algae, golden brown algae, diatoms.
• Diatoms are the most abundant and are found in seawater and freshwater habitats.
• The shell of diatoms are made of silica.
• They are major source of food to may aquatic organisms.
• The shells of fossil diatoms form thick deposits on the sea floor known as 'diatomaceous earth'.
DIATOMS

DINOFLAGELLATES - FIRE ALGAE

• Phylum Pyrrophyta (Fire Algae)
• Dinoflaggelate means ‘spinning swimmers’
• Cellulose-containing armor plates that give them a
sculpted appearance
• most species found in salt-water environments
• common cause of red tides - algal blooms

RED TIDE

• The dinoflagellates causing red tides are known as

Gonyaulax, which contain a neurotoxin and are
poisonous to marine fauna.
• Worldwide occurrence
• Caused by dinoflagellates and diatoms
Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)

• Most Harmful Algal Blooms occur in coastal areas where terrestial runoff of nutrients causes the growth and proliferation of
sometimes monospecific blooms of toxic algae.
• Algae that produce toxins: Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, and Cyanobacteria (cyanobacteria).
• Very potent toxins (few cells per liter can produce toxic effects)
• Toxic effects on organisms
• Physical impairment of fish
• Nuisance conditions from odors or discoloration of water or habitats

➢ RED TIDE
➢ BROWN TIDE
o World-wide occurrence
o Algae
o Chrysophyta (“golden-brown algae”)
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 IntEnSE Engineering Review Center
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
o Aureococcus
o Aureoumbra

Algae associated with HABs

• Toxic dinoflagellate blooms
– Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
– Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
– Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
– Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
• Toxic diatom blooms
– Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
• Harmful blooms (non-toxic or toxicity not confirmed)
– Fish kills
• Pfiesteria, Chaetoceros, Heterosigma
– Brown tides
• Aureococcus, Aureoumbra
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
• Gambierdiscus toxicus (a dinoflagellate)
• Associated with weeds and coral reefs
• Optimum conditions: shallow waters, 25-34°C, 25-40 ppt
• Ciguatoxin and maitotoxin
• Vectors: Usually large fish, bottom dwellers and reef fish
• Red snapper, Grouper, Amber Jack, Sturgeon
• Toxins
• Bioaccumulate
• Stable and heat resistant
• Lipid soluble
• Highly potent (clinical effects from <1 mg)
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
• Dinoflagellates
– Dinophysis acuminata, Dinophysis fortii, Prorocentrum lima
• Okadaic acids and dinophysistoxins
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning: human Symptoms
• Generally mild gastrointestinal illness • Long-term effects? (Possibly tumorigenic)
• Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting • FDA level in shellfish – 0.2 ppm okadaic acid plus 35-
• Rapid onset, rapid resolution methyl-okadaic acid
• No neurotoxic effects
Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
• Karenia brevis (previously Gymnodinium breve)
• Florida, Gulf of Mexico
• Brevetoxins
Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning: Human Symptoms
• Similar to ciguatera poisoning • Numbness
• Early symptoms: Gastrointestinal • Loss of motor control
– Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting • Usually not associated with human
• Late symptoms mortality
– Neurological • FDA level in fish – 0.8 ppm brevitoxin-2 equivalent
• Tingling
Brevetoxins: Ecological Impacts
• Massive fish kills
• Harmful to birds (pelican, seagulls, cormorants) and manatees
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
• Dinoflagellates
– Alexandrium spp.
– Gymnodinium spp.
– Pyrodinium spp.
• Northern Atlantic and Pacific coasts
• Temperate and tropical
• Saxitoxins
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning: Human Symptoms
• Rapid onset (~30 min)
• Absence of gastrointestinal symptoms
• Neurological symptoms
– Numbness
– Headache

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 IntEnSE Engineering Review Center
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
– Ataxia (the loss of full control of bodily movements)
– Weakness
– Cranial nerve dysfunction
– Diaphragmatic paralysis
– Death by asphyxiation
• Weakness can persist for weeks
• Therapy: Not available (supportive only)
• FDA limit in fish 0.8 ppm
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
• Pseudo-nitzschia spp. (diatoms)
• Discovered in 1987 (Price Edward Isl., Canada)
• Domoic acid and Glutamic acid
Toxic Phytoplankton & Human poisoning
• Paralytic shellfish poisoning - saxitoxin • Amnesic shellfish poisoning - domoic acid
• Neurotxic shellfish poisoning - brevetoxin • Cyanobacterial neurotoxins - anatoxins
• Ciguatera fish poisoning - ciguatoxin and maitotoxin • Cyanobacterial hepatotoxins - microcystin, nodularin
• Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning - okadaic acid • Dermatitis - lyngbyatoxin, aplysiatoxin

EUGLENIDS (EUGLENOPHYTA)
• Unicellular organisms with flagella.
• Euglena possesses features of algae and protozoa.
• Algae feature: contains chloroplasts
• Protozoan feature: presence of primitive mouth (cytosome) and the absence of cell wall.
• Presence also of flagella.
• Structurally, they do not have a cell wall. Instead, they have a thick outer covering, known as a pellicle, that is composed of
protein and gives them both strength and flexibility.
• Chloroplasts within the euglena trap sunlight that is used for photosynthesis, and can be seen as several rod like structures
throughout the cell. Color the chloroplasts green.
• Euglena also have an eyespot (stigma) at the anterior end that detects light, it can be seen near the reservoir.

•
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 IntEnSE Engineering Review Center
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

• Protothecosis, otherwise known as Algaemia, is a disease found in dogs, cats, cattle, and humans
caused by a type of green alga known as Prototheca that lacks chlorophyll and enters the human or
animal bloodstream.

Prepared by: Engr. Manny Anthony M. Taguba Page 7|7

 ALGAE: THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC
PROTIST

Prepared by: Engr. Manny Anthony M. Taguba

 Classification

Five kingdom system:

Monera Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia

Six kingdom system:

Eu- Archae- Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia

bacteria bacteria

Three domain system:

Eu- Archae- E U K A R Y A
bacteria bacteria
Cyanobacteria and Oxygenic Photosynthesis
About 3 Billion Years Ago. Water is the electron
donor. CO2 + H2O → CH2O + O2
Prasinophyte algae of the genus Ostreococcus are the smallest free-
living eukaryote.
 Algae
• Protista that are photosynthetic autotrophs.
• Overall morphology: Unicellular, Colonial,
Filamentous, clublike, spiral, or larger form (diverse
morphology).
• Algal cells as a group contain all the eukaryotic
organelles.
• Polyphyletic
• Motility by flagella or gliding is common among the
algae, and many members may contain tiny light-
sensitive areas (eye spots) that coordinate with the
flagella to guide the cell toward the light it requires
for photosynthesis.
 Algae
• Algae have thick cell walls or thick cell
membrane called pellicle.
• The cell walls of many seaweeds contain
phycocolloids (algal colloids) that can be
extracted by hot water.
• 3 Major Phycocolloids: (1) Alginates (2) Agars
and (3) Carrageenans.
• Their size ranges from microscopic unicellular
phytoplanktons to the large multicellular
seaweeds.
 Phycology
• Jean Pierre Étienne
Vaucher (1803) was
perhaps the first to
propose a system of
classification of algae,
and he recognized
three groups:
Conferves, Ulves, and
Tremelles.
 Phycology
• While Johann Heinrich
Friedrich Link (1820)
classified algae on the
basis of the color of the
pigment and structure.
 Felix Eugene Fritsch
• Proposed the classification of algae that they
should not be divided into phyta, i.e., divisions
but only into classes. According to him, algae
were classified into following eleven classes
based on structure and reproduction of the
algae (on basis of pigmentation, reserve
food and flagellation, thallus structure, modes
of reproduction and life cycles).
• He is well known as the Father of Phycology.
 Phycology
• William Henry
Harvey (1836) proposed a
system of classification on
the basis of the habitat
and the pigment.
• Father of Modern
Phycology
Alaskan Kelp Forest
 Algae

• Distribution: Algae are widespread inhabitants

of fresh and marine waters.
• Other algal habitats include the surface of soil,
rocks, and plants, and several species are even
hardy enough to live in hot springs or snow banks.
• Plankton – large floating community of
microscopic organisms.
• Algae play an essential role in the aquatic food
web and produce most of the earth’s oxygen.
Algal groups
• Microscopic algae are classified into divisions
or kingdoms based on the types of chlorophyll
and other pigments, the type of cell covering,
the nature of their stored foods and genetic
factors.
• The common names for these groups are:
• (1) Chlorophyta or green algae
• (2) Rhodophyta or red seeweeds
• (3) Phaeophyta or brown algae
• (4) Chrysophyta or diatoms
• (5) Pyrrophyta or dinoflagellates
• (6) Euglenophyta or Euglenids
 Classification
• The committee on the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature has recommended
certain suffixes for use in the classification of
algae.
• These are
– -phyta for division,
– -phyceae for class,
– -phycideae for subclass,
– -ales for order, -inales for suborder,
– -aceae for family, -oidease for subfamily,
– a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for
species.
Green Algae
• Large diversity in fresh water
• Green algae are present in marine
habitats but not as important as reds
and browns
• One line very close to plants
• Same chemistry, morphology as plants
 Green Algae
• Shown here are various growth forms evolved from basic
Chlamydomonas “building block” cell.

Chlamydomonas – 1 cell

Pandorina - clump

Ulva - sphere

Ulothrix - Ulva -
filament sheet
Green Algae

• Structure of
Chlamydomonas,
a motile green
alga, indicating
major organelles.
Green Algae
• Phylum Chlorophyta
• Most restricted to freshwater and
terrestrial environments
• 7000 species; 10% is marine; many are
unicellular
• Distributed mainly in the bays,
estuaries and isolated tidal pools
• land plants may evolved directly from
green algae
• chlorophyll pigment
Multicellular Green Algae
sea lettuce Ulva
Green Algae

-- extend from tropical to

temperate waters

Dead man’s finger

Spirogyra
Filamentous alga, often producing long green
strands in pond water.

common names include water silk,

mermaid's tresses, and blanket weed
Spirogyra
Colonial Green Alga
 Chlorophyta: Green Algae

Codium edule Halimeda opuntia

Caulerpa sertularioides

Dictyosphaeria cavernosa
Caulerpa racemosa
 Red Algae
• Phylum Rhodophyta
• red pigments; phycobilins mask chlorophyll
• The largest group of seaweeds, about 4000
species; most exclusively marine
• Found in most shallow water marine
environment
• Filamentous red algae and flatter branches
 Red Algae

• Mostly marine
• Cell walls with gels

Porphyra – sheet
Polysiphonia – simple thallus
 Coralline red algae
• Smooth or rough
encrusting growth
on rocks.
• Warm-water
coralline red algae
actively involve in
formation and
development of
coral reefs.
 Red algae
Secondary Products of Red Algae:
• Carrageenan is used for stabilizing chocolate, milk, egg nog, ice
cream, sherbets, instant puddings, frostings, creamed soups,
etc.
– is similar to agar, but requires higher concentrations to form gels.
– is made from Gigartina stellata, Chondrus crispus and Eucheuma.
• Agar (or agar-agar) is used in bacteriology and mycology as a
stiffening agent in growth media.
• Agar is used as a stabilizer for emulsions, and as a constituent
of cosmetic skin preparations, ointments, and lotions.
– Agar is made from Gelidium, Gracilaria, Pterocladia and Ahnfeltia.
Carrageenan
Agar
Brown Algae
• Phylum Heterokontophyta, Class
Phacophyta (Phaeophyta)
• Brown algae exhibit the most
complexly differentiated thalli
• Fucoxanthin dominate over chlorophyll
• primary producers on temperate and
polar rocky coasts
• Almost 1500 species are marines
• Include the largest and most complex
seaweeds
 Phaeophyta: Brown Algae

Padina japonica
Hydroclathrus clathratus

Turbinaria ornata

Sargassum polyphyllum
Sargassum echinocarpum
 Brown Algae

Fucus sp.
Nereocystis luekeana
Kelps
• Found in deeper water below the lowest
tide level
• Can grow at least 50 cm per day in optimal
condition, reaches 100 m
• Among the richest, most productive
environment in marine realm

kelp Kelp forest

 Brown Algae

• Algin (alginate or alginic acid) anionic

polysaccharide distributed widely in the cell
walls of brown algae.
• used as thickening agent in ice cream,
toothpaste, shaving creams, hair sprays, and
lotion.
 Phylum Chrysophyta (Golden
algae)
• 'Chryso' means 'color of gold'.
• There are three types of golden-algae: yellow-
green algae, golden brown algae, diatoms.
• Diatoms are the most abundant and are found in
seawater and freshwater habitats.
• The shell of diatoms are made of silica.
• They are major source of food to may aquatic
organisms.
• The shells of fossil diatoms form thick deposits on
the sea floor known as 'diatomaceous earth'.
Diatoms

Diatoms
Diatoms
 Dinoflagellates
• Phylum Pyrrophyta (Fire
Algae).
• Dinoflaggelate means
‘spinning swimmers’
• Cellulose-containing
armor plates that give
them a sculpted
appearance
Dinoflagellates
• most species found in
salt-water environments
• common cause of red
tides - algal blooms
 Dinoflagellates

Dinoflagellates

Prorocentrum Lingulodinium
Red Tide
Red Tide
• The dinoflagellates
causing red tides are
known as
Gonyaulax, which
contain a neurotoxin
and are poisonous
to marine fauna.
 Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)

• Most Harmful Algal Blooms occur in coastal

areas where terrestial runoff of nutrients
causes the growth and proliferation of
sometimes monospecific blooms of toxic
algae.
• Algae that produce toxins: Dinoflagellates,
Diatoms, and Cyanobacteria (cyanobacteria).
• Very potent toxins (few cells per liter can
produce toxic effects)
Harmful Algal Blooms
• Toxic effects on organisms
• Physical impairment of fish
• Nuisance conditions from odors or
discoloration of water or habitats
 Red Tide
• Worldwide
occurrence
• Caused by
dinoflagellates
and diatoms
 Brown Tide

• World-wide occurrence
• Algae
– Chrysophyta (“golden-brown algae”)
• Aureococcus
• Aureoumbra
Algae associated with HABs
• Toxic dinoflagellate blooms
– Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
– Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
– Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
– Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
• Toxic diatom blooms
– Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
• Harmful blooms (non-toxic or toxicity not
confirmed)
– Fish kills
• Pfiesteria, Chaetoceros, Heterosigma
– Brown tides
• Aureococcus, Aureoumbra
 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
• Gambierdiscus toxicus
(a dinoflagellate)
• Associated with weeds
and coral reefs
• Optimum conditions:
shallow waters, 25-
34°C, 25-40 ppt
• Ciguatoxin and
maitotoxin
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning

Ciguatoxin
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
• Vectors: Usually large fish, bottom
dwellers and reef fish
– Red snapper, Grouper, Amber Jack,
Sturgeon
• Toxins
– Bioaccumulate
– Stable and heat resistant
– Lipid soluble
– Highly potent (clinical effects from <1 mg)
 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
• Dinoflagellates
– Dinophysis acuminata,
Dinophysis fortii,
Prorocentrum lima
• Okadaic acids and
dinophysistoxins
 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning: Human
Symptoms
• Generally mild gastrointestinal illness
– Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting
– Rapid onset, rapid resolution
– No neurotoxic effects
– Long-term effects? (Possibly tumorigenic)
• FDA level in shellfish – 0.2 ppm okadaic acid
plus 35-methyl-okadaic acid
 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
• Karenia brevis
(previously
Gymnodinium
breve)
• Florida, Gulf of
Mexico
• Brevetoxins
 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning: Human
Symptoms
• Similar to ciguatera poisoning
• Early symptoms: Gastrointestinal
– Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting
• Late symptoms
– Neurological
• Tingling
• Numbness
• Loss of motor control
• Usually not associated with human mortality
• FDA level in fish – 0.8 ppm brevitoxin-2 equivalent
 Brevetoxins: Ecological Impacts
• Massive fish kills
• Harmful to birds (pelican, seagulls,
cormorants) and manatees
 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
• Dinoflagellates
– Alexandrium spp.
– Gymnodinium spp.
– Pyrodinium spp.
• Northern Atlantic and
Pacific coasts
• Temperate and tropical
• Saxitoxins
 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning: Human
Symptoms
• Rapid onset (~30 min)
• Absence of gastrointestinal symptoms
• Neurological symptoms
– Numbness
– Headache
– Ataxia
– Weakness
– Cranial nerve dysfunction
– Diaphragmatic paralysis
– Death by asphyxiation
• Weakness can persist for weeks
• Therapy: Not available (supportive only)
• FDA limit in fish 0.8 ppm
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
• Pseudo-nitzschia spp.
(diatoms)
• Discovered in 1987
(Price Edward Isl.,
Canada)
• Domoic acid and
Glutamic acid
 Toxic Phytoplankton & Human
poisoning
• Paralytic shellfish poisoning - saxitoxin
• Neurotxic shellfish poisoning - brevetoxin
• Ciguatera fish poisoning - ciguatoxin and maitotoxin
• Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning - okadaic acid
• Amnesic shellfish poisoning - domoic acid
• Cyanobacterial neurotoxins - anatoxins
• Cyanobacterial hepatotoxins - microcystin, nodularin
• Dermatitis - lyngbyatoxin, aplysiatoxin
 Euglenophyta or Euglenids

• Unicellular organisms with flagella.

• Euglena possesses features of algae
and protozoa.
• Algae feature: contains chloroplasts
• Protozoan feature: presence of
primitive mouth (cytosome) and the
absence of cell wall.
• Presence also of flagella.
 Euglenophyta or Euglenids
• Structurally, they do not have a cell wall. Instead,
they have a thick outer covering, known as a pellicle,
that is composed of protein and gives them both
strength and flexibility.
• Chloroplasts within the euglena trap sunlight that is
used for photosynthesis, and can be seen as several
rod like structures throughout the cell. Color the
chloroplasts green.
• Euglena also have an eyespot (stigma) at the anterior
end that detects light, it can be seen near the
reservoir.
Euglena
Algae
 Algae
• Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer
adipiscing elit. Vivamus et magna. Fusce sed
sem sed magna suscipit egestas.
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adipiscing elit. Vivamus et magna. Fusce sed
sem sed magna suscipit egestas.
 Protothecosis
• Protothecosis, otherwise known as
Algaemia, is a disease found in dogs, cats,
cattle, and humans caused by a type of
green alga known as Prototheca that
lacks chlorophyll and enters the human or
animal bloodstream.
 End of Slide
• Thank You!