FAQ | frequently asked questions

• UV degradation • 1985
• Fire • CE = Aero
• C fiber production • Reliability
• Pultrusion, FOS • C-Wrapping
• Equivalent modulus
• Lightning strike
• Stress Corr E-glass
• Poles, New Construc
• Application u Traffic
• Gradient anchorage
• Decision matrix
• Basics straps • Verdasio
• Puck’s GFRP Girder • M-Redistribution
Does Ultraviolet (UV) light harm CFRP?

Carbon fibers are

absolutely not
sensitive to UV-
radiation.
Many polymer
matrices are
degraded by UV
light.
UV, rain and wind can cause problems

UV attacks the
polymer matrix,

rain washes the

degraded polymer ...

and wind blows the

carbon fibers away.
UV, wind and rain degradation

Time t = 0 [YRS] nice, glossy

polymer surface
UV, wind and rain degradation
UV, wind and rain degradation

Time t = 3 … 7 [YRS] degraded, faint

polymer surface
UV, wind and rain degradation
UV, wind and rain degradation

Time t = 8 … 12 [YRS] first layer of carbon

fibers is free at
surface protecting
matrix underneath
UV, wind and rain degradation

Degraded polymer
matrix
UV, wind and rain degradation

Surface of UD-
CFRP after 10 years
of outdoor
weathering in
Zurich

(sand blasting in a
dessert !)
UV, wind and rain degradation

Time t = 10 … 14 [YRS] first fibers have been

eroded ; process is
slowly going on!

5 μm
….even so we protect in general exposed
CFRP surfaces, especially stay cables

with polyethylene
hoses highly filled
with carbon black
or
with pipes made of
the same material
….flat surfaces like strips, wet lay-up can be
protected by paint. Since 1991 exposed!

AQUAVERN Primer,
50 µm
LUXORAL, 40 µm

ETOKAT Primer, 60
µm
NUVOVERN, 40 µm
CFRP strip after 18 years of 45° south
exposure

50 mm wide
CFRP strip after 18 years under the
soffit of Ibach Bridge near Lucerne

50 mm wide
UV, wind and rain degradation

Conclusions:
• no real problem, even if not protected
• most post-strengthening application are
not exposed (soffit, inside box etc.)
• stay cables need pipes or hoses also due
to aerodynamic reasons
Replica Technique

Wet a strip of
cellulose acetate
replicating tape
with acetone
and apply it to
the CFRP strip.
Replica Technique

Apply light
Pressure.
Replica Technique

After it dries
completely, strip it
from the substrate,
turn the replica over
and tape it to a glass
slide. Afterwards
sputter the replicas
with gold and
examine it by a
SEM.
Replica Technique

SEM image of negative replica of

surface of CFRP strip after 18 years of
outdoor-weathering exposed to the sun
on a inclined rack
SEM image of negative replica of
surface of CFRP strip after 18 years of
outdoor-weathering under the soffit of
the Ibach Bridge.
Does fire harm CFRP?

San Francisco 2006

Does fire harm CFRP?

Carbon fibers are

not sensitive to
heat in absence of
oxygen.

Most polymer
matrices burn at
elevated
temperatures.
Does fire harm CFRP?

nice, glossy
polymer surface
Does fire harm CFRP?

1200
Temperature [°C]

1000

800
600

400
200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Duration [min]
Does fire harm CFRP?

Time t = 20 … 30 [min] carbon fibers

at surface start
to burn

5 μm

This fibers maintain tensile strength and stiffness

Does fire harm CFRP?

Time t = 30 … 40 [min] carbon fibers

at surface start
to burn

5 μm

This fibers maintain tensile strength and stiffness

Does fire harm CFRP?

Time t = 40 … 70 [min] carbon fibers

burn
layer for layer

This fibers maintain tensile strength and stiffness

EMPA: Fire Research Laboratory
1.3 m F 2.6 m F
 F = 47 kN F = 47 kN

g = 3 kN/m

Mmax = 71 kNm

V = 51 kN
V = 55 kN
Adhesives

Girders #1 to #5:
Epoxy based Sikadur 30 S-02,
curing at 20°C; Tg = 45°C
Examples of tested girders

#1 .98% not post-strengthened

#2 .65% + Steel plate (8 mm x 74 mm)
#3 CFRP laminate (1 mm x 74 mm)
#5 CFRP laminate protected (40 mm)
Failure Criteria: speed of deflection

According to German Standard

DIN 4102, part 2:

∆𝜹𝜹
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎/𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
∆𝒕𝒕
After 45 minutes of fire and static
loading
After 70 minutes of fire and static
loading
Time to failure [min]

#1 .98% RC girder 118

#2 .65% + Steel 75
#3 CFRP 81
#5 CFRP protected (40 mm) >150
Does fire harm CFRP?

• Yes it does, however:

• it burns slowly,
• only very little smoke,
• slow heat transfer compared to steel,
• using CFRP: protect at least developing
length!
Quiz

Who invented the carbon fiber?

A) Tsai
B) Griffith
C) Edison
D) Goodyear
Answer Quiz

Thomas Edison
Patent vom Fort Myers, Florida
27. Januar 1880
Since 1963 fibers for structural
applications
t Royal Aircraft
Establishment
(RAE),
Farnborough,
England

Science Museum, London

 Production of carbon fibers
H H
| |
… –C–C–… Dralon®, Orlon®, etc. for textile fabrics
| |
H CN

1st step
PAN - filament exhaust chemical
cyclization,
catalyst cross linking
and stretching
air
T = 200-300 °C
T = 200-220 °C T = 220-300 °C
t = 10-30 min t = 30-100 min
Production of fibers

2nd step
exhaust
thermal degradation
in inert gas

t = 10-60 min T = 1500 °C

N2

Carbon fiber, partly crystalline

Production of fibers
Graphite fiber, crystalline

exhaust gas
3rd step
graphitization
t = 5-30 min
in Argon
Argon
T = 2500° - 3000°C

semi finished
products
Carbon fibers
C-Fiber
Hair
Ladder structure of carbon fibers
approx. 100 GPa

approx. 800 GPa

Structure of carbon or graphite fiber
Fiber direction
primary bonds

van der Waal bonds

0.67 nm

0.246 nm

0.1415 nm
Bonds in a Graphite Lattice
Graphite structure of pencil

primary bonds

van der Waal bonds

0.67 nm

0.246 nm
with each pencil line
one layer ! 0.1415 nm
Mechanical properties of C-fiber

Toray T700S
Tensile strength (longitudinal) 4900 MPa
Elastic modulus E (longitudinal) 230 GPa
Strain at failure 2.1 %
3
Density 1.8 g/cm
−6
Thermal expansion (longitudinal) 0.1x10 m/m/°C
Price forecast made 1977
Price forecast made by
EMPA in 1977 published
in "aktuelles bauen"
6/1977, page 74:

14’500 RMB / kg

115 RMB / kg
This forecast was the
basis for EMPA to go into
R&D about CFRP in
construction!
 Development of prices 1994 - 2008
2008 = 125%
1998 = 134%

1993 = 100%

100% = 36 USD/kg 2003 = 72%

Quiz

the free breaking

length (specific strength)

Carbon fiber
of a carbon fiber is:
?
A 18 km
B 120 km
C 220 km
D 385 km
Answer Quiz

the free breaking

length (specific strength)

Carbon fiber
385 km
of a carbon fiber is:
A 18 km (HS steel)
B 120 km (E-glass)
C 220 km (Aramid; Kevlar)
D 385 km (Carbon)
Pultrusion (production of wires & strips
with thermo set matrix systems)

Roving Heated Die Puller Unit

Impregnation Bath Curing zone Cutter
100-200 C°
Pultrusion (integration of sensors)
Optical fibre Bragg grating
Strain monitoring

0.20

0.15
Strain [%]

0.10

0.05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [min]
Temperature monitoring
Bridge over the "Kleine Emme“
1998
Cross section

total post-tensioning 2 CFRP cables each of

force = 4.8 MN 91 wires of 5 mm diameter

View
Bridge over the Kleine Emme
Sustained stress 1350 MPa

2 CFRP cables in bottom chord

each 91 wires
Longitudinal strain in a wire inside of
anchorage
FBG results

• No failure occurred in nearly 200 cumulated FBG

operation years at Stork Bridge.
• At Kleine Emme Bridge 8 of 21 FBG failed in 180
cumulated FBG operation years.
• The same fiber and FGB were used at both
locations.
• However differences exist in the details of
implementation and the applied strain on the
FBGs.
FBG results

• At Kleine Emme Bridge the FBGs were

embedded into the wires within an experimental
industrial pultrusion process.
• The strains are as high as ~8000 μm/m.
• At Stork Bridge the attachment of the FBGs was
controlled, without pre-damage, with a highly
established method similar like with
conventional RSGs. The strains were below 3000
μm/m.
Are lightning strikes a problem?
Are lightning strikes a problem?

Problem:
• CFRP is relatively resistive to electricity
• this causes CFRP to heat up as the current
passes through it
• CFRP becomes so hot that the polymer
matrix vaporizes
Are lightning strikes a problem?

Solution:
• Aircraft industry developed aluminum
grids which are used to protect the
composite in its outermost layers.
• In the case of the Stork Bridge it was
decided to insulate the CFRP parallel wire
bundles with very little additional cost.
Lightning strike screen
Prepreg with
woven fabric of
aluminum
Are lightning strikes a problem?

The tower of the

Stork Bridge was hit
by lightning strikes.
Not any damage to
the CFRP stays.
Poles for Power
Lines

until now:
30 meters
12 tones
CFRP concrete power poles
The mould is going to be closed
 new versus classical

5.8 t
12 t

Das Bild kann zurzeit nicht angezeigt werden.

Flexural testing
Flexural testing Proof load
(70% MR , 1.2 x MSer)
25
Ultimate service load
(MR/1.8)
Load at the tip [kN]

20

15

10

Experiment
5
Calculation
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Deflection at the tip [mm]
Made with Pre-tensioned CFRP
10 km CFRP wires

Giovanni P Terrasi / SACCAC

Made with Pre-tensioned CFRP
19 km CFRP wires

Giovanni P Terrasi / SACCAC

How do we grip the CFRP wires?

We developed a cone anchorage system

similar to the BBR High-Am System
Which load transfer media (LTM)?
F

therefore
Load Transfer Media
delamination and pullout
creep resistend
→ high modulus

therefore
shear peak
Which load transfer media (LTM)?
F F
Concept of anchorage socket

Load Transfer Media

LTM
Desired radial pressure

relative displacement
Desired radial pressure

relative displacement
Danger of creep failure (pull-out)

relative displacement
Laminated CFRP
strap
Pin Loaded, laminated CFRP Strap

σ// σ⊥ τ//⊥

Dr. A. Winistörfer
Relative strength vs. radii Werne 1
Werne 2
ro 0.80
Werne 3
0.70 US-Army
0.60 Oser 1
ri 0.50 Oser 2
σf / σUTS

0.40 Winistoerfer
0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80
σc σc ro / r i
Answer: very thin laminate (0.12 mm)
σ// σ⊥ τ//⊥

non-laminated

laminated
Verification
F

white
marks

1kN 4kN 6kN 15kN

F
 Verification
1.6

1.4

1.2

1
Strain [%]

Layer 10
0.8 Layer 6
Layer 4
0.6
Layer 2
0.4 Layer 1

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Load [kN]
3 MN Unit

A. Winistörfer
Efficiency
300

250

200
Capacity [kN]

150

100

50

0
1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of layers [N]
Production by tape laying machine

up to 48 m
Creep experiments

0.10

0.08

Creep Strain [%]

0.06

80 % von UTS
0.04

0.02

0.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time [h]
Creep experiments
Creep experiments

• 92 % of UTS since 7 years

After a first “consolidation” scarcely no

more creep
First applications
Cable dredger
America's Cup Winner 2003 in Auckland Alinghi
with some few
Pin Loaded CFRP-Stays
America's Cup Winner 2007 in Valencia Alinghi
with Pin Loaded CFRP-Stays
Juli 2009

Dr. Adreas Winistörfer

Post-strengthening with externally
bonded steel plates since 1967

• heavy • corrosion • slow

• many joints • expensive scaffolding • big labor force
Adhesively bonded steel plates

built in 1912

strengthened: 1980
photo taken: 2006
Strengthening with CFRP

• light • no scaffolding • very fast

• no corrosion • no joints • small labor force
1985

• CFRP not
known in CE
community

• (if known,
absolutely
not
accepted)
today yesterday today

• CFRP in
most parts
of the world
for
rehabilitation
well known
and highly
Presenta accepted
From JEC 2009 in Paris Air- & Spacecraft
Industry
Construction
Industry
Sport

Industry

Worldwide annual carbon fiber production in

2008: 35'000 t
Source Dr. Christophe Lanoud, R&D GE
EMPA was setting up world's first with…

1991 CFRP 1996 CFRP 1998

Strengthening Cable Stays integrated FOS
Therefore we are quite proud about “The
Massive Boom of CFRP Applications in Civil
Engineering” mentioned at JEC 2009 in Paris.
Reliability Fiber

Cube 12.732 km
long

defect free = defect free

10 mm

distance distance
= 1 mm (Volume) = 12 m

10 µm
10 mm
Verified on E-glass fiber
Reliability: solid graphite vs. CFRP

Solid graphite CFRP

rod rod
Worldwide thousands of columns need
additional confinement!
CFRP wrapping of circular columns

Cross section
of RC column

Increase of confinement
by CFRP wrapping for
circular columns: state
uniform of the art!
confinement
CFRP wrapping of rectangular columns

Cross section Increase of confinement

of RC column by CFRP wrapping for
rectangular columns:
state of the art!

imbalanced Very high stress

confinement concentration with
laminated wet-lay-up
Active column wrapping
cross section of
column
Active column wrapping
woven fabric
pressure hoses
Woven fabric pressure hoses

6 cm
Active column wrapping
woven fabric
pressure hoses

40 cm
Active column wrapping
wrapping of 0.12 mm
thick CFRP-tape
Active column wrapping
injecting polymer mortar
with high pressure
Active column wrapping
injecting polymer mortar
with high pressure
Active column wrapping
injecting polymer mortar
with high pressure

“octagon”
Active column wrapping

12 mm

min. radius =10 mm

Active column wrapping

Mark Green, Olav Huth, Andreas Winistörfer

CFRP Column Wrapping 1995

XXSYS Technologies, Frieder Seible et all.

CFRP Column Wrapping 1995

XXSYS Technologies, Frieder Seible et all.

Active column wrapping
Mark Green, Olav Huth, Andreas Winistörfer
Active column wrapping
Confined column
(6 layers of
thermoplastic
CFRP tape of
Reference column 0.12 mm
thickness each,
Force [kN]

pre-stressed by 2
hoses at each
Enormous gain on column side)
“systems ductility”, even Maximum Load:
when all single 3713 kN
components are brittle Maximum
materials! displacement: -
63.8 mm (at
failure)
Deformation under compression [mm]
Equivalent modulus (example one stay cable)
Steel CFRP

Steel CFRP
Relative equivalent modulus Ee

equivalent
Modulus
Ee 1
=
E (ρ l) 2
1+ E
12 σ 3
Relative equivalent modulus Ee

Ee 1
=
E (ρ l) 2
1+ E
12 σ 3

Modulus
Relative equivalent modulus Ee

Ee 1
=
E (ρ l) 2
1+ E
12 σ 3

Density
Relative equivalent modulus Ee

Ee 1
=
E (ρ l) 2
1+ E
12 σ 3

Working
stress
Relative equivalent modulus Ee

Horizontal
span
Ee 1
=
E (ρ l) 2
1+ E
12 σ 3
 1.0
800MPa
0.9 600MPa
30% loss 400MPa
0.8 for steel
0.7
800MPa
0.6
Ee/E

0.5
600MPa
0.4 200MPa
0.3
0.2 400MPa
0.1
200MPa
0.0 horizontal
0 500 1000 1500 2000 cable span [m]
Additional stiffness for long stays

540m
Russkystay
Hybrid Bridge (Wladiwostok)
cable
arrangement for
long span bridges?

552 m
Stress corrosion (static fatigue) of
E-Glass
5% decay of strength per decade

UTS (ultimate strength): Time (under load) [years]:

75% .19
70% 1.9
65% 19
60% 190
Stress corrosion of E-Glass
5% decay of strength per decade of time
120
relative stress [%]

100
70%
80
3.8 a
60

40 60%
20 190 a
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

log t [min]
Application of CFRP under traffic
conditions
Fast curing "under traffic"
200
Load F [kN]

no vibration/reg
curing

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Deflection [mm]
Fast curing "under traffic"
200
Load F [kN]

no vibration/reg
curing
vibration/reg curing

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Deflection [mm]
Fast curing "under traffic"
200
Load F [kN]

no vibration/reg
curing
vibration/reg curing
vibration/ 2h curing
at 80°C
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Deflection [mm]
Which High Performance Fiber?
• Carbon

• Glass

• Aramide (Kevlar)

• Basalt
Criteria “Fatigue”

• Carbon

• Glass

• Aramid (Kevlar)

• Basalt
Criteria “Strength”

• Carbon

• Glass

• Aramide (Kevlar)

• Basalt
Criteria “E-Modulus”

• Carbon

• Glass

• Aramide (Kevlar)

• Basalt
Criteria “Stress Corrosion”

• Carbon

• Glass

• Aramide (Kevlar)

• Basalt
Criteria “Alkaline Resistance”

• Carbon

• Glass

• Aramide (Kevlar)

• Basalt
Criteria “Cost”

• Carbon

• Glass

• Aramide (Kevlar)

• Basalt
Tailormade “ Decision Matrix” needed!

Carbon: for most application technically

best suited, however relatively
expensive

Glass: popular, large quantities sold,

however for certain application
critical
GFRP box girders under extreme
loading
Concept
Concept of GFRP Box Girder

Flanges: unidirectional
Concept of GFRP Box Girder

Web: ±45°
Concept of GFRP Box Girder
Concept of GFRP Box Girder

outer ±45° layers

inner ±45° layers

web ±45° layers

Unidirectional Flange of GFRP

unidirectional Flange
Shaft of Filament Winding Machine
(cross section)
Foam
core
as
lost
mold
Winding
of the
inner
±45°
layers
for
the web
Add the
first
unidirec-
tional
flange
Add the
second
unidirec-
tional
flange
Winding
of the
outer
±45°
layers
for
the web
 188 mm
Resulting
cross
section
118 mm
Cross section
(Detail)

critical
load
transfer
region
shifted
direction
neutral
axis
top flange
 4
GFK-Kastenträger 1

Mu= 150 kNm

GFRP box girder HEA 200 steel girder

10.1 kg/m1 42.3 kg/m1
1400 mm
First Ply Failure
at F = 60 kN
Longitudinal Cross Section
GFK-Kastenträger
Fatigue

Girder No. 5
100 million cycles with 2.0 Hz (1.6 years)
Fmin= 10 kN per loading point
Fmax= 40 kN per loading point (= 20% Fu )

Not any damage, no change in stiffness

Fatigue

Girder No. 6
100 million cycles with 2.0 Hz (1.6 years)
Fmin= 10 kN per loading point
Fmax= 60 kN per loading point (= 30% Fu )
Fatigue

Girder No. 6
100 million cycles with 2.0 Hz (1.6 years)
Fmin= 10 kN per loading point
Fmax= 60 kN per loading point (= 30% Fu )

Enlarged delamination, 2% reduction in

stiffness EJ
Fatigue

Girder No. 5b
47 million cycles with 1.0 Hz (2 years)
Fmin= 10 kN per loading point
Fmax= 80 kN per loading point (= 40% Fu )

No failure, 9 % reduction in stiffness EJ

Stress corrosion of E-glass > 30% Fu !!!
 GFK-Kastenträger

60 kN
lead 60 kN
lead
Deflection over the Whole Span

36.5
Deflection [mm]

36.0
35.5
35.0
34.5
34.0
20 years
33.5 3.7 mm creep deformation
33.0 = 1.3/1000 of the span
32.5
32.0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000

Time [h]
Experimental vs Calculated Deflections
F=50 kN F=50 kN

0 1000 2000 3000

0
Deflection [mm]

-5
calculated
-10
-15
-20
experimental
-25
-30 34.1
-35
-40 35.9
Conclusion

Very reliable due to a

GFK-Kastenträger
„fiber-dominant
„fiber-dominant design“
design“
Verdasio Bridge: External post-tensioning
1998

post-tensioned RC
 Verdasio Bridge

Prof. Thomas Keller, PE

BBR Ltd, Zurich
Continuous 2-span girder

New diaphragm New diaphragm

4 CFRP cables

the corroded steel

cables were replaced
by 4 CFRP cables
each of 600 kN
Sustained stress 1610 MPa
Minimal Invasive Surgery (Video)
Verdasio Bridge

Not any stress relaxation

R. Brönnimann, and P. Anderegg
No stress relaxation
Loss of post-tensioning [%]

8 Steel: experiment
7 since 1958
6
5
4
3
2
1 CFRP: experiment
0 since 1998
0 2 4 6 No stress relaxation!
log t [h]
Verdasio Bridge

R. Brönnimann, and P. Anderegg

Bending-Moment
Redistribution
Continuous 2-span
girder post-tensioned
with CFRP cables

8m 8m
Bending-Moment
Redistribution
Continuous 2-span
girder post-tensioned
with CFRP cables
F

elastic hinges
Bending-Moment Redistribution