DC Machines

D.C.
Machines
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Types of Machines
DC Machines
Series
Shunt
Compound
Cumulative
Differential
AC Machines
Induction Machines
Squirrel Cage
Wound Rotor
Synchronous Machines
Salient Pole
Cylindrical Rotor

Principle Of Operation Of d.c. Machine
• All motors and generators make use of two

basic principles:
– When two poles of a magnet are brought close
together then there will be either a repulsion
force or an attraction force
– When current flows in a conductor, a magnetic
field is created around that conductor
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wpCYiSFBQ0U

Magnetic Field in a Coil
• When a current is
passed through a coil
a magnetic field is
generated

Armature
• The armature
windings start and
finish at a point on
the armature called
the commutator.

Brushes
• The final part of the machine is the brushes

• The brushes on a d.c. machine are made up of
carbon. Carbon has a number of qualities that
make it ideal for this purpose:-
– It is very soft;
– It is a conductor;
– It self-lubricates.

Brushes
• The brushes provide one of

two functions:
– For a d.c. generator the
brushes act to tap the supply
off the armature. The brushes
act as conductors and
lubricators.
– For a d.c. motor the brushes
act to deliver current to the
armature, where again the
brushes act as a conductor
and lubricator.

Windings in DC Machine
• Lap winding
• Wave winding
Coil Span= No. of Slots/Pole
Progressive Winding
Retrogressive Winding
(Either can be adopted, there is not much to choose
between the two)
Back Pitch=yb=UYcs+1
U= No. of coil sides.

Lap and Wave type winding
Lap winding is used in dc machines designed for high-current

applications. The windings are connected to provide several
parallel paths for current in the armature. For this reason, lap-
wound armatures used in dc machines require several pairs
of poles and brushes.
Wave type is used in dc machines employed in high-voltage

applications. Note that the two ends of each coil are
connected to commutator segments separated by the
distance between poles. This configuration allows the series
addition of the voltages in all the windings between brushes.
This type of winding only requires one pair of brushes.

Lap and Wave windings

Armature Winding in a DC Machine

Lap Winding of a DC Machine
• Used in high
current and low
voltage circuits
•Number of parallel
paths equals
number of brushes
or poles

EMF and Torque Equation

Torque Equation

Voltage and Torque developed in a
DC Machine
•Induced EMF, Ea = Kam (volts)
•Developed Torque, Tdev = KaIa (Newton-

meter or Nm)
where m is the speed of the armature in

rad/sec.,  is the flux per pole in weber (Wb)
Ia is the Armature current
Ka is the machine constant

Interaction of Prime-mover DC Generator
and Load
Tdev Ia
+
+
m
Load
Prime-mover DC GeneratorEg VL
(Turbine) -
Tpm -
Eg is Generated voltage
VL is Load voltage
Tpm is the Torque generated by Prime Mover
Tdev is the opposing generator torque

Interaction of the DC Motor
and Mechanical Load
Ia Tload
+
+ Mechanical
VT Eb DC Motor m Load
(Pump,
- - - Tdev Compressor)
Eb is Back EMF
VT is Applied voltage
Tdev is the Torque developed by DC Motor
Tload is the opposing load torque

Power Developed in a DC Machine
Neglecting Losses,
•Input mechanical power to dc
generator
= Tdev m= KaIam =Ea Ia

= Output electric power to load
•Input electrical power to dc

motor
= Ea Ia= Ka m Ia = Tdev m

= Output mechanical power to
load
Methods of Field Excitation

Methods of Field Excitation

Armature Reaction

Armature Reaction (contd.)

Armature Reaction (contd.)

Commutation
• A commutator is made up of a series of

segments which are conductors separated by
thin pieces of an insulator such as mica.

• Commutation is the key process which converts the induced
a.c. voltages in the conductors into d.c.

where vc is the velocity of the commutator. This type of linear commutation is very
close to the ideal method of commutation.

Commutation

Compensating Winding

Operating Characteristics of DC
Generator
No-Load Characteristics
(Ia=0, Vt vs If and N constant)
Load Characteristics
(Vt vs If, Ia const. at rated value, N constant )
External Characteristics
(If and N constant, Vt vs Ia, load is varied)
Armature Characteristics
(Ia vs If, with Vt const. at rated value and generator runs at
const. speed. It reveals the armature reaction affect .)

Self-Excitation

OCC Critical Resistance

Critical Speed

DC Shunt Generator may fail to
self-excite if
Residual magnetism is absent
Field connection is such that it destroys residual magnetism
Rf>Rf critical

Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator

Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

Characteristics of Series Excited DC Generator

Characteristics of Compound DC Generator

DC Generator Characteristics

Parallel Operation of DC Generators
• Same Voltage Rating

• Same Percentage Voltage Regulation
• Same Percentage Speed Regulation
But
As generator voltage is easily adjustable so the

above conditions are not a must.

DC Motor Characteristics
Speed- armature current
Torque- armature current
Speed – torque

Characteristics of DC Motor

Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor

Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor

Characteristics of DC Series Motor

Characteristics of DC Series Motor

Characteristics of DC Compound Motor

Starter in DC Motor
• At stand-still,  = 0  Ea = 0
Ra
 Ia
+ Vt
Ia 
Ra
Vt
– eg, Vt = 100, Ra = 0.1  Ia = 1000 A !



Starter in DC Motor
• We can limit Ia at start-up by:
1) Controlling Vt using variable supply – e.g. using

power electronics converter
2) Adding external resistor  known as starter
 Ia Ra
+ Vt
+ Ia  When Ea = 0
Ea R a  R st
Vt
–
– Rst
• As speed builds up (so too Ea), Rst is gradually reduced

Starter in DC Motor
• As speed builds up (so too Ea), Rst is gradually reduced
Ia
Starter circuit
Imax 1 2 3 4
Imin
1 2 3 4
t (s)
speed
t (s)

Starter in DC Motor
Practical Starter circuit

Speed Control of DC Motor
Braking of DC Motor

Three possible methods of speed control:
Field flux
Vt Ra
  Te
Armature voltage Vt
k (k) 2

Armature resistance Ra

Vt Ra
  2
Te
k (k)
Varying Vt

Vt
kT  TL
Vt ↓
Te
Requires variable DC supply

Vt Ra
  2
Te
k (k)
Varying Ra

Vt  TL
kT
Ra ↑
Te
Simple control
Losses in external resistor
Vt Ra
  2
Te
 k (k)
Varying 
Vt  TL
kT
↓
Te
Not possible for PM motor

Maximum torque capability reduces
Method of speed control in DC motor drives
Armature voltage control : retain maximum torque capability

Field flux control (i.e. flux reduced) : reduce maximum torque capability
For wide range of speed control
0 to base  armature voltage, above base  field flux reduction
Armature voltage control

Field flux control
Te
Maximum
Torque capability
base 
P Te Constant torque Constant power
Pmax
base 
P = EaIa,max = kaIa,max Pmax = EaIa,max = kabaseIa,max

   1/
If It
Rcf Ia +
Ra
Vt
Rcw

BUT there are problems !

If It
Rcf Ia +
Ra
Vt
Rcw

Controlling Vt will also affect If
Controlling If via Rcf caused losses  I2R

Separately Excited DC motor
DC supply DC supply
for armature for field

Braking
Braking is employed when rapid stopping is required. In many cases
mechanical braking is adopted. The electric braking may be done
for various reasons:
1. To augment the brake power of the mechanical brakes.
2. To save the life of the mechanical brakes.
3. To regenerate the electrical power and improve the energy

efficiency.
4. In the case of emergencies to step the machine instantly.
5. To improve the through put in many production process by

reducing the stopping time.

Basically the electric braking involved is fairly simple. The electric motor
can be made to work as a generator by suitable terminal conditions and
absorb mechanical energy.
This converted mechanical power is dissipated/used on the electrical
network suitably.
Braking can be broadly classified into:
1. Dynamic
2. Regenerative
3. Reverse voltage braking or plugging

Dynamic Braking
• Dynamic Braking is the deceleration of the

motor by converting the energy stored in the
moving masses into electrical energy and
dissipating it as heat via resistors. Also called
resistive braking.

Dynamic Braking (continued)
• Disconnect the armature from the electrical

supply lines and connect across a suitable resistor
while maintaining the field at full strength.
• The motor behaves as a generator, feeding
current to the resistor, dissipating heat.
• Choose the resistance for current between 150
and 300% of rated current.
• The armature current is in a direction to oppose
the armature motion, producing a negative, or,
counter-torque, slowing down the load.

• Shunt machine
In dynamic braking, the motor is disconnected from the supply and
connected to a dynamic braking resistance. The supply to the field
should not be removed. Due to the rotation of the armature during
motoring mode and due to the inertia, the armature continues to rotate.
An emf is induced due to the presence of the field and the rotation.
This voltage drives a current through the braking resistance. The
direction of this current is opposite to the one which was flowing before
change in the connection.
Therefore, torque developed also gets reversed. The machine acts like
a brake.

• Series machine
In the case of a series machine the excitation current becomes zero as soon as
the armature is disconnected from the mains and hence the induced emf also
vanishes. In order to achieve dynamic braking, the series field must be isolated
and connected to a low voltage high current source to provide the field. Rather,
the motor is made to work like a separately excited machine. When several
machines are available at any spot, as in railway locomotives, dynamic braking is
feasible. Series connection of all the series fields with parallel connection of all
the armatures connected across a single dynamic braking resistor is used in that
case.

Regenerative Braking
• the best method for obtaining the

regenerative braking is to operate, the
machine on a variable voltage supply. As the
voltage is continuously pulled below the value
of the induced emf the speed steadily comes
down. The field current is held constant by
means of separate excitation.

Plugging
• The electrical reversal of a motor before it

stops
• Reverse the voltage applied to the armature
• Current in the series and shunt fields is not
reversed
• Insert resistance in series with the armature to
limit the current

Efficiency of DC Machine


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D.C.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• All motors and generators make use of two

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• The final part of the machine is the brushes

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• The brushes provide one of

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Lap winding is used in dc machines designed for high-current

Wave type is used in dc machines employed in high-voltage

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

•Induced EMF, Ea = Kam (volts)

•Developed Torque, Tdev = KaIa (Newton-

where m is the speed of the armature in

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

= Tdev m= KaIam =Ea Ia

•Input electrical power to dc

= Ea Ia= Ka m Ia = Tdev m

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• A commutator is made up of a series of

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Field connection is such that it destroys residual magnetism

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Same Voltage Rating

As generator voltage is easily adjustable so the

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Speed- armature current

Torque- armature current

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus