DC machines

BITS Pilani Dr. Hari Om Bansal

Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

DC Machines
Introduction
• A DC motor is highly versatile and flexible machine.
• It can satisfy the demand of load requiring high starting,
accelerating and retarding torques.
• It is also easily adaptable for variable speed drives.
• The magnetic circuit of dc machine consists of core, air-
gap, field poles and yoke.
• An electric field winding supplies energy to establish a
magnetic field in the magnetic circuit.
• Armature winding is connected to external power source
through commutator-brush system

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Construction

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Principle of operation

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• Working Principle: A current carrying conductor placed in
magnetic field experiences a force given by;
F= iL X B

Left part of coil moves down and right moves up.

This leads to “Rotation”
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EMF & Torque

EMF:

If Φ=flux/pole
N=speed in rpm; n=speed in rps
T=number of coil turns
P=number of poles
Z= number of conductors
A = number of parallel paths
Armature/Induced emf
Ea= ΦNZP/(60A)

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Armature Winding

• One side of a coil lies under North Pole and the other
under South, so induced emfs are always additive.
• Total winding is closed so the total emf induced is zero
all the times.
• No circulating current when the armature is not loaded.
• Two sides of a coil may fly off due to centrifugal force so
they are placed in slots and fastened by steel wires.
• Each slot can be partitioned into two:
(i)Top Layer
(ii)Bottom Layer

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Armature Winding

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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Armature Winding

Commutator Pitch
• Distance between the commutator segments to which
two ends of a coil are connected.
• Denoted by Yc

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Armature Winding

• Junction of two coils is terminated on a commutator

segment.
• No of commutator segments= No of coils
• Brushes are placed such that maximum voltage appears
across them.
• If the coil span is equal to pole pitch:“full pitched coils”
otherwise
• If the coil span is less than the pole pitch the coils are said
to be “chorded”
• Changing the ‘coil pitch’ also changes the induced emf in
the coil slightly.
• Commutator pitch: No of ‘micas’ between two end of a coil
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Armature Winding

Numbering Scheme of winding:

1. Single layer
(i)Number the top coil side of the coils
in sequence.
2. Double layer
(i)Number the top coil side of the coils
as 1 3 so on.
(ii)Bottom coil side is placed in a slot
displaced by one coil
span from the top slot. They are
numbered as 2’ 4’ 6’ etc

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Families Of Armature Winding
Two families of armature winding:
• Lap winding, Parallel Paths (A) =2
• Wave winding, Parallel Paths (A) =2

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Circuit Model

The parallel paths of dc machine armature are symmetrical.

Each path has induced emf Ea & resistance Ra.
Thevenin Equivalent;
Voc=Ea
Rth=Rp/A=Ra

(For most of the time steady state

behavior of machine will be
considered so the inductance is
neglected)

Field Circuit Armature Circuit

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Circuit Model

Generating mode
• I is in the direction of induced emf.
a

• Induced emf is more than terminal voltage.

Vt=Ea-IaRa
• Torque is opposite to direction of rotation.
• Electromagnetic power converted from mechanical to
electrical; EaIa=Pmech in net=Pelect out (gross)
• Net electrical power output;
Po=VtIa
• Armature copper loss+brush loss= EaIa-VtIa
• Pmech in gross= Pmech(in) net + rotational loss

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Circuit Model
Motoring Mode
• Ia is opposite to induced emf.
• Induced emf in this mode is called back emf.
• Vt=Ea+IaRa
• Torque is in the direction of rotation.
• Terminal voltage is more than the induced voltage.
• Electromagnetic power converted from electrical to
mechanical; EaIa = Pelect in net =Pmech out gross
• Armature copper loss+brush loss= VtIa-EaIa
• Pmech net(output) = Pmech(out) gross - rotational loss

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Power and Torque
Torque:
Average conductor force f=BavLlc
Total force F = Zfc,av Power:
F = BIcLZ
EaIa=T
Torque T=BavIcLZr
where r = mean air-gap radius
L = active conductor length

Torque can also be written as;

T= ΦIaZ(P/2πA)
where Z= total armature conductors
P=number of poles
A=no. of parallel paths

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Methods of Excitation

1. Shunt Field:
• The field winding is excited in parallel to the armature.
• Shunt field winding has large no. of turns so high resistance due to
which very low field current flows.
• Generally an external series resistance is used to regulate the field
current as Ea is substantially constant.
2. Series Field:
• The field winding is placed in series with armature.
Field Current= Armature Current
• Field winding has vey few turns of thick wire.
• Generally a low resistance(diverter) is placed in parallel to series
winding to regulate field current.
• Another way of series field control is changing the number of turns
of winding by suitable tapping.
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DC Machine Excitation

1. Separate Excitation
The field is excited from a source independent of armature
circuit.
eg. Permanent magnet excitation.
2. Self Excitation
The field is excited from the same source which feeds the
armature.
It is of three types:
a. Shunt excitation
b. Series excitation
c. Compound excitation
It is of two types: (i) Cumulative (ii) Differential

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Compound Excitation

Cumulative Excitation: The series and shunts fields aid

each other. The shunt field is much stronger than series
Field. The air-gap flux increases with armature current.

Differential Excitation: The series and shunt fields oppose

each other. The air-gap flux decreases with armature
current.
Two types of compound connections:
1. Long Shunt Compound 2. Short Shunt Compound

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Armature Reaction
• The armature current also produces its own mmf. The effect of this on
main field distribution is called Armature Reaction.
• Armature reaction distorts the air-gap flux
• Weakens the main flux

•MNA and GNA coincides (q-axis)

•Main flux is distributed symmetrically
wrt polar axis (d-axis)
•MNA: no emf as IIel to line of flux
•MNA : also known as axis of commutation

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Flux is no longer distributed symmetrically
wrt polar axis, rather distorted

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The armature has a distributed winding,
as against the field coils which are
concentrated and concentric. The mmf of
each coil is shifted in space by the
number of slots. For a full pitched coil,
each coil produces a rectangular mmf
distribution. The sum of the mmf due to
all coils would result in a stepped
triangular wave form. If we neglect
slotting and have uniformly spaced coils
on the surface, then the mmf distribution
due to the armature working alone
would be a triangular distribution in
space since all the conductors carry
equal currents.

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Armature Reaction

• It causes distortion in flux density wave shape

• It shifts the Magnetic Neutral Axis slightly.MNA shift causes
induce emf in coils undergoing commutation thus opposing current reversal.
• It also causes demagnetization
• It increases the Iron losses as the flux density under
different poles is no more same.
• Under heavy load, sparking can occur in commutation
section.
• Remedy of Cross Magnetizing Effect:
Make the ampere turns of main field coils much greater
than ampere turns of armature.

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 Armature Reaction

Ampere-conductor/pole
= Zlc /P = ZIa /AP

Ampere-turns/pole
=ZIa/(2AP)= ATa (peak)

ATa (peak)= ATa (total)/P

ATresultant (θ)
=ATf(θ)+ATa(θ)

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 DC machine: Commutation

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Compensating Winding

Why Compensation is required?

• Armature reaction leads to non uniformity in flux density
distribution in air gap. Due to this, emf in armature coils
may be very high resulting in spark in commutator.
• With sudden load variation emf proportional to dΦ/dt also
gets induced in armature. This statically induced emf
may add up with dynamically induced emf.

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Compensating Winding
• Neutralizes the armature reaction.
• Placed in slots in pole faces such that compensating winding axis
coincides with brush axis.
• Series excited with armature current, as to oppose ATa
• Customary to compensate part of armature mmf directly under the
poles.
• mmf distributions of compensating winding and armature winding
are different so complete neutralization of armature mmf is not
possible.
• Compensating winding must be provided in machines where heavy
loads are expected.
• compensating winding should provide sufficient m.m.f so as to
counter balance the armature m.m.f.

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Commutation

• The direction of current in armature coil reverses as the

armature moves from one pole pair to the next pole pair.
This reversal of current is called Commutation.
• Commutation takes place when the coil passes through
the interpolar region. During this period coil is shorted by
the brushes.
• In Lap wound commutation takes place simultaneously
for P coils.
• In Wave wound machine commutation takes place
simultaneously for two sets of P/ 2coils.

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 Commutator

 A commutator is a
rotary electrical switch in electrical
motors and generators that
reverses the current direction
between the rotor and the external
circuit.
 It consists of a set of contact bars
fixed to the rotating shaft of a
machine, and connected to the
armature windings. As the shaft
rotates, the commutator reverses the
flow of current in a winding.

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Commutator-Brush Assembly

• Stationary brushes are placed in contact with

commutator under spring pressure.
• Brushes are placed in magnetically neutral regions
where armature induced emf is negligible.
• As the coil crosses the brush position the current in it
reverses.

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Ideal Commutation

• In ideal commutation the current reverses completely

from +I to –I and vice versa.
• If the coil current does not reverse fully at the end of
commutation period there will be sparking at the brush
contacts.

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 Commutation

Commutation Delay:
• Leakage inductance of coil
undergoing commutation has
induced voltage which opposes
current change.
• The effect of armature reaction
shifts MNA. So a small voltage
is induced in the commutating
coil to oppose commutation.

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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
To Improve Commutation
Resistance Commutation:
• High contact resistance between commutation segments and
brushes. Use carbon brushes
• Time constant of armature circuit L/R reduces, thus faster
change

Voltage Commutation (compoles):

• Dynamic voltage injected into the commutating coil to
neutralize reactance voltage.
• Narrow commutating poles in inter polar region apply local
correction to the air gap flux density.
• To neutralize reactance voltage , all commutating poles must
be excited by armature current by connected them in series
with the armature.

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Polarity of an
interpole in
the direction
of rotation is :
Gen: Main
pole ahead
Mot: Main
pole left
behind

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 DC generator Operating
Characteristics

BITS Pilani Dr. Hari Om Bansal

Pilani Campus
Operating Characteristics Of
DC Generator
In operation of a dc generator the four basic variables of
concern are:
1. Terminal Voltage
2. Armature Current
3. Field Current
4. Speed

To study the relationship among them the generator is run

at rated speed. Out of remaining three, two variables are
varied to study the inter-relationship.

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Operating Characteristics Of
DC Generator
Experimental Set-up for determining characteristics

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Operating Characteristics Of
DC Generator
Four characteristic of importance are:
1. No-Load Characteristic
• With Ia=0 at constant speed(n), it is the presentation of
Vt vs If.
• It revels the nature of magnetization of the machine.
• It is also called open-circuit/magnetization characteristic
2. Load Characteristic
• With Ia=rated value and constant speed(n), it is the
presentation of Vt vs If.
• It is magnetization characteristic on load

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Operating Characteristics Of
DC Generator
3. External Characteristics
With constant If and speed (n), the variation of Vt vs Ia,
the characteristic when generator feeds a load
4. Armature Characteristics
• Vt and Speed are held constant. Variation of Ia vs If is
plotted.
• It reveals the armature reaction affect on the flux/pole.
• It is also called regulation characteristic.

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Operating Characteristics Of
DC Generator
No Load Test-Open Circuit Test
(For fig. refer experimental setup)
Switch S is kept open; then open circuit voltage is given by;
Voc=Ea=Kφ (at constant speed n)
where K is constant of proportionality.
Thus Voc is measure of φ. Therefore plot of Voc vs If is
magnetization characteristics of machine also called
Open Circuit Characteristics(OCC)
In OCC If must be raised gradually only in forward direction
to avoid local hysteresis loss.

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Open Circuit Characteristics

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Operating Characteristics Of
DC Generator
Points to be noted from OCC:
1. The air-gap line represents mainly the magnetic
behaviour of machine’s air-gap. Iron is unsaturated in
this region so it consumes negligible ampere turns.
2. Open loop characteristics at speed other than the test
speed will be proportional translation of characteristics
as shown in plot.
3. In loaded conditions Ea cannot be determined from OCC
for If in saturation because of demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction.
Induced emf Ea can be found from ;
ATnet=ATf+ATse-ATd

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Operating Characteristics Of
DC Generator
Load Characteristic
(For fig refer experimental setup)

Switch S is closed. At every If, Ia is adjusted to rated value

and corresponding Vt is read.
To the load characteristic IaRa drop is added to get Ea
(induced emf) with load.

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 Operating Characteristics of
DC Generator

Load
Characteristics

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Operating Characteristics Of
DC Generator
Points to be noted from plot:
1. At If=OA, Ea=AD+DC, DC=IaRa
Therefore the voltage drop caused by armature reaction is BC.
2. In low If region magnetic circuit is saturated and armature
reaction drop is almost zero so OCC and
Ea vs If plots merge.
3. At If= OA the voltage induced with load is AC. With no load
same voltage is induced at If=OF.
AF=Ifd, the demagnetizing field current equivalent of armature
reaction.
ATd = IfdNf

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Armature Characteristic

S open, If is adjusted to give Voc =vrated

S closed
Ia increased, If also increased to keep terminal voltage
constant

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