Counting Techniques

We use the counting techniques combination 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) and permutation

𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) and product rule.

In many complicated examples, determining the outcomes in the

sample space (or an event) becomes more difficult. Instead, counting
of the numbers of outcomes in the sample space and various events
are used to analyze the random experiments. These methods are
referred to as counting techniques.

Multiplication rule: Assume an operation can be described as a

sequence of k steps, and the number of ways of completing step 𝑖 is
𝑛𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, . . . , 𝑘. The total number of ways of completing the operation
is

𝑛₁ ⋅ 𝑛₂ ⋅. . .⋅ 𝑛𝑘

Example. The design for a Website is to consist of four colors, three

fonts, and three positions for an image. From the multiplication rule,

4 × 3 × 3 = 36

different designs are possible.

Permutations: The number of permutations of 𝑛 different elements is

𝑛!. The number of permutations of subsets of 𝑟 elements selected from
a set of 𝑛 different elements is

𝑛!
𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) = ⁿ𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
Example. Code 39 is a common bar code system that consists of
narrow and wide bars (black) separated by either wide or narrow
spaces (white). Each character contains nine elements (five bars and
four spaces). The code for a character starts and ends with a bar
(either narrow or wide) and a (white) space appears between each bar.
The original specification (since revised) used exactly two wide bars
and one wide space in each character. For example, if 𝑏 and 𝐵 denote
narrow and wide (black) bars, respectively, and 𝑤 and 𝑊 denote
narrow and wide (white) spaces, a valid character is 𝑏𝑤𝐵𝑤𝐵𝑊𝑏𝑤𝑏.
One character is held back as a start and stop delimiter. How many
other characters can be coded by this system? Can you explain the
name of the system? The answer is ......

Combinations: The number of combinations, subsets of 𝑟 elements

that can be selected from a set of 𝑛 elements is

𝑛!
𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) = ⁿ𝐶𝑟 =
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
Probability
Probability is the likelihood or chance of an event occurring. The
probability of an event 𝐴 is defined by

𝑛(𝐴)
𝑝(𝐴) =
𝑛(𝑆)

where 𝑛(𝐴) is the number of outcomes in 𝐴.

Example. Assume that a die is rolled. Then the outcomes are the
numbers 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}. The probability of even numbers is

𝑛(𝐴) 3
𝑝(𝐴) = =
𝑛(𝑆) 6

However, the probability of numbers more than 4 is

𝑛(𝐵) 2
𝑝(𝐵) = = .
𝑛(𝑆) 6

The rules are as follows

• 𝑝(𝐴′ ) = 1 − 𝑝(𝐴).
• 0 ≤ 𝑝(𝐴) ≤ 1.
• 𝑝(𝜑) = 0, 𝑝(𝑆) = 1.
• 𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐴) + 𝑝(𝐵)– 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
• 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐴) + 𝑝(𝐵)– 𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵).
• 𝑝(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ) = 𝑝(𝐴) − 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
• 𝑝(𝐵 − 𝐴) = 𝑝(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴′ ) = 𝑝(𝐵)– 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
• 𝑝(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′) = 𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 1 − 𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵).
• 𝑝(𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′) = 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 1 − 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
• 𝑝(𝐴∆𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐴 − 𝐵) + 𝑝(𝐵 − 𝐴) = 𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)– 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
 • We say that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are disjoint or mutually exclusive if
𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.
Example. If 𝑝(𝐴) = 0.5, 𝑝(𝐵) = 0.4 and 𝑝(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 0.1. Find

1) 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).

𝑝(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐴) − 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

0.1 = 0.5 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.4.

2) 𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵′).

𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵′) = 𝑝(𝐴) + 𝑝(𝐵′) − 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′)

𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ) = 𝑝(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 0.1

𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵′) = 0.5 + (1 − 0.4) − 0.1 = 1.

3) 𝑝(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵).

𝑝(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑝(𝐵 − 𝐴) = 𝑝(𝐵) − 𝑝(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴) = 0.4 – 0.4 = 0.

4) 𝑝(𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′)

𝑝(𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′) = 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 1 − 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)= 1 - 0.4 = 0.6

5) 𝑝(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′)

𝑝(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ ) = 𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)’ = 1 – 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 1 – (0.9 − 0.4) = 0.5

Example. In a city 25% of population have a car, 50% have a bike,

25% have a car and a bike. A person is chosen at random what is the
probability that he has

1) a car or a bike.
 Let 𝐴 be a person has a car and let 𝐵 be a person has a bike.
Then

𝑝(𝐴) = 0.25 𝑝(𝐵) = 0.50 𝑝(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.25

𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) – 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0.25 + 0.50 – 0.25

= 0.5
2) a car only.
𝑝(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 0.25 – 0.25 = 0
3) only one of the adjectives.
𝑝(𝐴∆𝐵) = 0.50 – 0.25 = 0.25
4) neither a car nor a bike.
𝑝(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′) = 1 – 𝑝(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 1 – 0.50 = 0.50

Example. For 9 red balls and 7 green balls, two balls are selected at
random. Find the probability that the balls are

a) 1 red ball and 1 green ball

𝑛(𝑆) = 𝐶(16,2) = 16𝐶2
𝐶(9,1) ∗ 𝐶(7,1) 9∗7
𝑝(𝐴) = =
𝐶(16,2) 16 ∗ 15
b) 2 red balls

𝐶(9,2) ∗ 𝐶(7,0) 9∗8

𝑝(𝐵) = =
𝐶(16,2) 16 ∗ 15

c) at least 1 red ball

𝑝(𝐶) = 𝑝(𝐴) + 𝑝(𝐵).