Basra University College of science and Technology

Pharmacy department

HISTOLOGY LABORATORY

Title of Report :-
Connective tissue
Students Names :
‫اسراء اياد طارق‬
‫هاله ميثم عبد االمير‬
‫مريم يونس عبد الجبار‬
‫علياء فاضل خلف‬
‫علي مكي عبد الحسن‬
‫مصطفى حميد عطية‬
‫يوسف جودت كاظم‬
 Supervised by:
Dr: Zainab safaa
The lymphatic system, or lymphoid system,
is an organ system in vertebrates that is part of the circulatory system and the immune
system. It is made up of a large network of lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
lymphatic or lymphoid organs, and lymphoid tissues. The lymphatic System consists of
fluid called lymph flowing inside the lymphatic vessels, some structure and tissues that
contain lymphatic tissue and bone marrow. Bone marrow houses Stem cells that develop
into lymphocytes and provide immunity. When interstitial fluid passes in to lymphatic
vessels, it is called Lymph i.e., Clear water. Interstitial fluid and lymph are basically
same except for location. Unlike the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system is not a
closed system. The human circulatory system processes an average of 20 liters of blood
per day through capillary filtration, which removes plasma from the blood. Roughly 17
liters of the filtered plasma is reabsorbed directly into the blood vessels, while the
remaining three liters are left in the interstitial fluid. One of the main functions of the
lymphatic system is to provide an accessory return route to the blood for the surplus three
liters. The other main function is that of immune defense. Lymph is very similar to blood
plasma, in that it contains waste products and cellular debris, together with bacteria and
proteins. The cells of the lymph
are mostly lymphocytes.
Associated lymphoid organs are
composed of lymphoid tissue, and
are the sites either of lymphocyte
production or of lymphocyte
activation. These include the
lymph nodes (where the highest
lymphocyte concentration is
found), the spleen, the thymus,
and the tonsils. Lymphocytes are
initially generated in the bone
marrow. The lymphoid organs
also contain other types of cells
such as stromal cells for support.
Lymphoid tissue is also associated

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with mucosae such as mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue. The lymphoid system includes
lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs. Lymphatic vessels are closely associated with
the blood vascular system, and they drain into the systemic circulation. The Large
aggregation of lymphocytes form lymphoid organs (thymus, spleen, lymph nodes and
tonsils).
There are three types lymphocytes: T cells, B cells and Natural killer. B cells produce
antibody molecules that can latch on and destroy invading viruses or bacteria. T cells are
direct fighters of foreign invaders and also produced cytokines, which are biological
substances that help activate other parts of the immune system. One such part is called
macrophages. These macrophages act to clean up the invaders and the dead tissue after an
immune response. The natural killers (NK) kill tumors cells and virus-infected cells.

The lymphatic system contains several interrelated functions:

1) ) Draining Interstitial fluid: To maintain the pressure and volume of the extracellular
fluid by returning excess water and dissolved substances from the interstitial fluid to
the circulation.
2) Protecting against invasion: Lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues are the site for
production of immunocompetent lymphocytes and macrophages in the specific
immune response. T lymphocytes rupture foreign cells or produce toxins while B
lymphocytes differentiate in to plasma cells that secrete antibodies.
3) It brings plasma protein macromolecules synthesized in the liver cells and hormones
produced in the endocrine glands to the blood. These molecules cannot pass into the
narrow blood capillaries but can diffuse into lymphatic capillaries.
4) Transporting Dietary lipids: Lymphatic vessels carry lipids and lipid soluble vitamins
(ADEK) absorbed by gastro- intestinal tract.
5) It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as cholecalcemia from the digestive
system
6) It transports white blood cells to and from the lymph nodes to the bones
7) Lymph transports antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, to the lymph nodes
where the immune response is stimulated.
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8) Some of the fluid from the digestive tract is absorbed into the lymph. The lymphatic
vessels store this fluid temporarily, and release it gradually so that the kidneys do not
face a sudden pressure of urine excretion.
9) It takes lymphocytes and antibodies from the lymphatic nodes to the blood.

Formation and flow of lymph:

Lymph transport along lymphatic vessels. (A) Unidirectional lymph flow route:
lymphatic capillaries collect peripheral tissue fluid and converge into larger collecting
vessels, then lymph drains into the lymph node from the afferent lymphatic vessels and
flows out from the efferent lymphatic vessel. Afterwards lymph fluid flows through the
thoracic duct and the right lymphatic trunk, eventually enters into venous circulation.
Arrows indicate the direction of lymph flow. (B) Interstitial fluid, macromolecules and
immune cells which extravasate from blood vessels are collected by lymphatic
capillaries. Initial lymphatics are composed of a layer of oak leaf-shaped endothelial cells
and lack of muscle layers. (C) Lymphatic collectors contain intraluminal valve and SMC
layers that enable the unidirectional lymph flow.

Lymphoid organs are classified as:

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Primary lymphoid organs •Thymus •Bone marrow •Lymphatic nodules of the distal
intestinal tract (e.g., ileum and appendix) and Secondary (effector) lymphoid
organs/tissue •Spleen & lymph nodes (organs) •Mucosal associated lymphoid tissue
(MALT), e.g., lymphocytes and lymphatic nodules in the lamina propria
The Thymus gland: The thymus is bilobed organ which is located in between the lungs,
posterior to the sternum. The thymus is where immature lymphocytes differentiate into T-
lymphocytes. The thymus is fully formed and functional at birth. Characteristic features
of thymic structure persist until about puberty. The transformation of primitive or
immature lymphocytes into T-lymphocytes and their proliferation in the lymph nodes is
promoted by a thymic hormone called thymosin. Occasionally the thymus persists and
may become cancerous after puberty and the continued secretion of thymosin and the
production of abnormal T cells may contribute to some autoimmune disorders.

The spleen: The spleen oval and largest lymphatic mass which filters the blood and
reacts immunologically to blood-borne antigens. In addition to large numbers of
lymphocytes the spleen contains specialized vascular spaces, a meshwork of reticular
cells and fibers, and a rich supply of macrophages which monitor the blood. The human
spleen holds relatively little blood compared to other mammals, but it has the capacity for
contraction to release this blood into the circulation during anoxic stress. White pulp in
the spleen contains lymphocytes and is equivalent to other lymph tissue, while red pulp
contains large numbers of red blood cells that it filters and degrades. The spleen functions
in both immune and hematopoietic systems. Immune functions include: proliferation of
lymphocytes, production of antibodies, removal of antigens from the blood.
Hematopoietic functions include: formation of blood cells during fetal life, removal and
destruction of aged, damaged and abnormal red cells and platelets, retrieval of iron from
hemoglobin degradation, storage of red blood cells

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Some Diseases & treatment of lymphatic system:

Enlarged (swollen) lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy): Enlarged lymph nodes are caused

by infection, inflammation or cancer. Common infections that can cause enlarged lymph
nodes include strep throat, mononucleosis, HIV infection and infected skin wounds.
Lymphadenitis refers to lymphadenopathy that is caused from an
infection or inflammatory condition. Treatment is determined by
the specific underlying etiology of lymphadenopathy. Most
clinicians treat children with cervical lymphadenopathy
conservatively. Antibiotics should be given only if a bacterial
infection is suspected. This treatment is often given before biopsy
or aspiration is performed. This practice may result in unnecessary
prescription of antimicrobials. However, the risks of surgery often
outweigh the potential benefits of a brief course of antibiotics.

Lymphedema is swelling caused by accumulation of lymph, which may occur if the

lymphatic system is damaged or abnormalities develop. It usually affects the extremities,
although the face, neck, and abdomen may also be affected. In an extreme condition
called elephantiasis, edema develops to the point where the skin
becomes thick with an appearance similar to that of an elephant's
limbs. The causes are unknown in most cases, but sometimes there
is a previous history of severe infection, usually caused by a
parasitic disease, such as lymphatic filariasis. The treatment
for Early-stage lymphedema can be treated with nonsurgical
interventions, including medication, a healthy diet and manual
compression. For advanced-stage lymphedema, surgical
intervention may be recommended.

To keep your lymphatic system strong and healthy, you should:

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 Avoid exposure to toxic chemicals like those in pesticides or cleaning products.
These chemicals can build up in your system and make it harder for your body to
filter waste.
 Drink plenty of water to stay hydrated so lymph can easily move throughout the
body.
 Maintain a healthy lifestyle that includes regular exercise and a healthy diet.