Interview Guidance Material Mechanical Engineering: Thermo Dynamics

INTERVIEW
GUIDANCE MATERIAL
MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS
Chapter
3 Thermodynamics
 In the macroscopic approach, fluids are
Basic Concepts treated as continuous rather than made up of a
number of individual particles.
What is Thermodynamics?  The macroscopic approach is not valid in
 Thermodynamics is a science dealing with situations where very few molecules are
energy and its transformation. involved or where the behaviour of
 It deals with equilibrium and feasibility of a individual molecules is sought.
process
 It also deals with relations between heat and System:
work and the properties of a system.  A system is a definite quantity of matter
bounded by some surface which separates it
Laws of Thermodynamics : from the rest of the world.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics: It deals with  The boundary surface may be real or
thermal equilibrium and basis for temperature imaginary.
measurement. It also gives the concept of
isotherms. Surroundings:
 The combination of matter and space external
First law of thermodynamics: It tells about the to the system constitutes the surroundings.
conversation of energy and introduces the  A system can exchange energy in the form of
concept of internal energy. work and heat with its surroundings
Second law of thermodynamics: It dictates the
Isolated system:
limits of converting the internal energy into work
 A system which is enclosed by a rigid and
and introduces the concept of entropy. It also tells
adiabatic boundary cannot exchange energy
whether a particular process is feasible or not.
either as heat or work with its
surroundings. Such a system is called an
Third law of thermodynamics: It provides a
isolated system.
datum for the measurement of entropy.
 In this system neither the mass nor the energy
 The laws of thermodynamics cannot be
crosses the boundaries of the system.
directly proved. They were deduced from
experimental results through logical
Closed system:-
reasoning.
 The closed system is one, in which the
 The validity of the laws of thermodynamics
boundaries are closed so that no substance
rests upon the fact that till date no
may enter or leave the system.
experimental evidence is available to disprove
 In such a system, the mass of the substance
them.
within the system remains constant.
Different Approaches:  A transfer of energy, may, however, take
There are two different approaches in the study of place at the boundaries.
thermodynamics. They are macroscopic and
microscopic.

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Open system :  In a state of equilibrium the properties of a

 The open system is one, the boundaries of system are uniform and only one value can be
which are not closed but have one or more assigned to each property.
openings through which mass transfer may  In a state of thermal equilibrium the
also take place on addition to energy temperature of a system is uniform.
transfer.  If two interacting systems are in thermal
 If the rate of mass and energy transfer with equilibrium they have the same temperature.
respect to time is constant, the system is The criterion for thermal equilibrium is the
known as steady flow system. equality of temperature.
 If there is no imbalance in stresses within the
Control volume:- system, then it is in a state of mechanical
Control volume is an arbitrarily selected zone equilibrium. The criterion for mechanical
that surrounds the device under consideration. equilibrium is the equality of pressure.
The surface of this control volume is referred to  If the composition of a system does not
as a control surface. undergo any change because of diffusion and
 Mass, as well as heat and work (and chemical reaction and has no tendency for any
momentum) can flow across the control chemical change, then the system is said to
volume be in a state of chemical equilibrium. The
criterion for chemical equilibrium is the
Property: equality of chemical potential.
 A property is any characteristic (which can be
quantitatively evaluated) that can be used to Thermodynamic equilibrium :
describe the state of a system.  A system which is simultaneously in a state of
thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium
The essential features of a property are: and chemical equilibrium is said to be in a
 The value of the property should not depend state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
upon the past history of the system.
 The property is a state function and not a path
Process :
 Whenever a system changes from one
function.
 Its differential must be exact.
equilibrium state to another equilibrium state,
it is said to have undergone a process.
Extensive Properties Intensive Property Quasi-Static Process :
1. These properties 1. These properties  When a system changes its state very slowly
depend upon the independent on the under the influence of infinitesimal driving
mass of the system. mass of the system. forces (pressure difference, temperature
difference etc.) the system is said to undergo
Ex: Volume, energy Ex: Pressure, a quasi-static process.
etc. Temperature etc.
State of a system :
Equilibrium:  The state of a system is the condition of the
 It is a concept associated with the absence of system at any particular moment which can be
any tendency for spontaneous changes when identified by the statement of the properties,
the system is isolated. such as temperature, volume, pressure, etc. of
the system

3 Thermodynamics
Path and process: A system undergoes a process 3. Isothermal Expansion or Compression :

when it changes from one state to another. The Q0
series of states through which the system passes
in going from initial state to its final state
constitute the ‘path’ for that process.
T = Const
Thermodynamic cycle:
 A series of processes can be put together such
that the system returns to its initial state is
called a thermodynamic cycle. Irreversible Processes :
Reversible Process  It is real difficult task to establish a reversible
 When a system changes its state under such process. Irreversible processes, however, are
conditions where the driving force is zero (P relatively easy to recognize because once the
element of irreversibility is established the
= 0; T = 0) the system is said to undergo a
process becomes irreversible.
reversible process. A reversible process can
 A criterion that can be used to establish,
proceed in either direction.
irreversibility of a process based on second
 A reversible process is always quasi-static,
law of thermodynamics, is as follows.
but the converse need not be true.
Criterion for Reversibility Examples of Irreversible Process :

 A process is said to be reversible if both the 1. Relative Motion with Friction:
system and its surroundings can be restored 2. Combustion
to their initial states by reversing the direction 3. Free Expansion:
of the process. The process is irreversible if it
does not fulfil this criterion.
A B
Evacuated
Examples of Reversible Processes: space
1. Extension of a spring :
4. Diffusion:
F
Spring catch A B
2. Frictionless Adiabatic Compression or

Expansion of a Gas : Before diffusion After diffusion
Q1 = 0
Thermometers:-
1. Liquid in glass thermometer.
2. Gas thermometer
3. Resistance thermometer
4. Thermocouple
5. Magnetic thermometer
Cylinder Piston
6. Pyrometer

1. Liquid in glass thermometer :- Specific Heat at Constant Volume:

 Mercury type used for high temperature  It is the rate of change with temperature of
measurement the specific internal energy of the system
 Alcohol type used for low temperature when the specific volume is held constant.
measurement including –ve temperature.
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure:
2. Gas thermometer :-  The specific heat at constant pressure, Cp is
 Constant volume type:- the rate of change with temperature of the
V=cPT specific enthalpy of the system when the
P P pressure is held constant.
 1  2
T1 T2
Variation of Specific Heat with temperature
 Constant Pressure type:-
 The specific heat of a gas varies with
P=cVT temperature. The functional relationships
V V denoting this variation are determined from
 1  2
T1 T2 experimental tests. Fig shows the specific
heat variation with temperature..
3. Resistance thermometer :- Specific Heat (CP, kJ/kg-mol.K)
65
In resistance thermometer the change in CO2
60 H2O
resistance of a metal wire due to its change in
55
temperature is the thermometric property
50
45 O2
40 H2
Work & Heat 35
30
25
 In thermodynamics work done by a system on
its surroundings is defined as an interaction
500 1000 1500 2000 2500
whose sole effect, external to the system,
could be reduced to the raising of a mass
through a distance.  The reason for the variation of specific heats
with temperature is that the energy associated
 Energy transfer as heat occurs by virtue of with each vibrational mode becomes greater,
temperature difference across the boundary especially at high temperatures. Since in
of the system. carbon dioxide and water vapour there are
 Heat is energy in transit. more vibrational modes available in the
 It is not a property of a system. atomic structure than in the simpler diatomic
 Its differential is not exact. molecules like hydrogen and oxygen, the
specific heat variation is more pronounced.
 Work and heat interactions depend upon the
choice of a system.
 Heat and work interactions can be identified
after the completion of the process.

5 Thermodynamics
transferred as heat from the liquid to the

Basic Processes surroundings such that the liquid is restored to
its initial conditions. The quantity of energy
1. Constant Volume (isochoric / isometric) transferred as work and heat were carefully
process : measured.
2
P First Law of Thermodynamics:
 It was always observed that whenever a
W =  PdV = 0
system undergoes a cyclic change the net
1 work done on the system was always equal to
V the amount of energy removed from the
system as heat. This fact is known as the first
2. Constant Pressure (isobaric) or Isopiestic : law of thermodynamics.
 The process is one in which P = constant.  The first law of thermodynamics can be
 The work done W   P dV  P V2  V1  written as  Q   W
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the initial
and final states of the system, respectively.
Where  denotes the integral over the cycle.
 The first law of thermodynamics is applicable
3. Constant Temperature (isothermal) Process: to all the process-reversible as well as
 The process one in which the system is
irreversible.
maintained at constant temperature.  The laws of thermodynamics are based on
experimental facts and they cannot be directly
4. Reversible adiabatic Process: proved.
 The reversible process in which there is no
 There exists a property of a system, called E,
energy transfer as heat across the boundaries such that a change in its value is equal to the
of the system, that is the system is enclosed difference between the heat supplied and the
by an insulated boundary. work done during any change in state.
 For an adiabatic process, whether reversible
 In an isolated system, the energy of the
or irreversible, Q  0 and the first law of system remains constant.
 A perpetual motion machine of first kind is
thermodynamics gives U  W . impossible. Perpetual Motion Machine of first
kind (PMMI).
5. Polytropic Process:  A perpetual motion machine is a device,
 The polytropic process can be represented by
which produces as continuous supply of work.
the relation Such a machine when once set in motion,
PVn= constant would continue to run forever.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Joules Experiment:
 In Joule’s paddle wheel experiment work was
Thermal reservoir:
done on a certain quantity of liquid contained Thermal Reservoir is a large body from which a
in an insulated vessel and then the energy is finite quantity of energy can be extracted or to

which a finite quantity of energy can be added as Carnot Cycle:

heat without changing its temperature.  Carnot devised a cycle, called Carnot cycle
These are of two type’s energy reservoir: which consists of two reversible isothermal
a) Source and two reversible adiabatic processes.
b) Sink  The P-V diagram of a Carnot cycle is shown
Source: A source is a body at high temperature in fig.
from which an engine receives the energy as heat.
Ex. Sun is a natural source, furnace is an artificial P
source. 1 Qs
Sink: A Sink is a low temperature body to which S=C
energy rejects as heat. WC 2
Ex: natural sinks are atmosphere, sea water, river S=C T=C
water, artificial sink is condenser 4 WE
3
Second Law of Thermodynamics: QR
T=C
 There are several statements of the second
law of thermodynamics. Any statement of the
second law denies the possibility of a V
spontaneous process reversing on its own. QS
1 2
(a) Kelvin-Plank Statement : T
 It is impossible to construct a cyclically
operating device which produces no effect
other than the extraction of energy as heat WC WE
from a single thermal reservoir and performs
an equivalent amount of work.
 A Perpetual Motion Machine of the second 4 3
QL
Kind (PMMSK) is a device which absorbs
energy as heat from a single thermal reservoir s
and delivers equivalent amount of work Fig : T-S diagram
continuously
(b) Clausius’ Statement : TH  TL T
 carnot   1 L
 It is impossible to construct a cyclically TH TH
working device which produces no effect
other than the transfer of energy as heat from  A Carnot engine is a hypothetical device and
a low temperature body to a high temperature is not practical to construct, since it consists
body. of reversible processes which proceed at a
 Energy transfer as heat from a high
very slow rate without any temperature and
temperature body to a low temperature body pressure differences.
is a spontaneous process.  Carnot engine serves as a yardstick to
 The Clausius’ statement of the second law of
measure the performance of any other engine.
thermodynamics tells that this spontaneous
process cannot proceed in the reverse
direction.

7 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale:  The second law of thermodynamics provides

 A temperature scale which does not depend the answer to a variety of problems such as:
upon the thermometric property of the o Determining the maximum possible
substance can be established by making use of efficiency of a heat engine. In case of
the fact that the efficiency of a reversible heat refrigerating machines, the maximum
engine does not depend on the nature of the possible coefficient of performance.
working medium but depends only upon the o Determining whether a particular process
temperature of the reservoirs between which is possible or not
it operates. o Establishing a temperature scale which is
 The temperature scale which is established independent of the physical properties of
based on the Carnot principle, which in turn is any substance
based on the second law of thermodynamics, o Defines a property called entropy.
is called the thermodynamic temperature o Second law is a directional law and
scale.. quantitative law..
 For a reversible heat engine, the ratio of
energy absorbed (Q1) from the reservoir at T1 Corollary 1
to the energy rejected (Q2) to the reservoir at All reversible engines operating between the
T2 is given by same two reservoirs, each having its own fixed
Q1 T1 temperature, have the same efficiency.

Q 2 T2
Corollary 2
The efficiency of any reversible engine operating
Carnot engines in series:
between two reservoirs is independent of the
 For equal outputs the Intermediate
nature of the working fluid and depends only on
temperature is the arithmetic mean of the
the temperature of the reservoirs
source and sink.
Corollary 3 :
T  T3 A scale of temperature can be defined which is
T2  1
2 independent of any particular thermometric
 For equal efficiencies the intermediate substance and which provides an absolute zero of
temperature is the geometric mean of the temperature.
source and sink.
T2  T1T3
Entropy
 The overall efficiencies of two Carnot engines Clausius Inequality
in series
  1   2  1 2  When a system undergoes a complete cyclic
Q
Where, process, the integral of  0 around the
 1 is the efficiency of the first engine, T
cycle is less than zero or equal to zero. The
 2 is the efficiency of second engine.
equality and inequality signs hold for
reversible or irreversible cycles respectively.
This theorem is known as Clausius inequality.

 It represents mathematical expression to the

second law of thermodynamics. ds
Q ⊙ 0
dx
 T 0 S(iso)
It is valid for all the processes.
Q
 T  0 (For Reversible cycle) x
x
Q State of
 T  0 (For Irreversible cycle) equilibrium
Q Entropy and Disorder:
 T  0 (For impossible cycle)  Heat is a form of disorganized energy, and
(as it violates 2nd law of thermodynamics). hence, there is increase in entropy with heat.
Note:  Processes can occur only in the direction of
The temperature T in the Clausius inequality increased overall entropy or molecular
pertains to reservoirs and not systems disorder,
that is , the entire universe is getting more and
Entropy more chaotic everyday.
 The amount of heat contained in a substance  Entropy can also be viewed as a measure of
and he degree to which it is ordered are disorder or chaos or molecular randomness.
described by the property of state known as  As a system becomes more disordered, the
entropy. The higher the disorder, the greater is positions of the molecules becomes less
the increase in entropy predictable and entropy increases.
Note:
(a) Entropy is a point function .
(b) Entropy is property of the system
(c) Entropy is an exact differential. Third Law of Thermodynamics
Q
Reversible process S 2  S1    The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at
T
Q absolute zero temperature is zero since there
Irreversible process S 2  S1   is no uncertainty about the state of the
T
molecule at that instant.
 The entropy determined relatively to this
Equilibrium State: .
point is called absolute entropy.
 when the entropy of an isolated system is at
 A pure crystalline substance at absolute zero
its maximum value, no change in state can
temperature is in perfect order, and its entropy
occur.
is zero.
 When it is possible for the entropy of an
 The entropy of any finite system in a state of
isolated system to increase, the system cannot
thermodynamic equilibrium approaches zero
be in a state of equilibrium and it is possible
as the absolute temperature approaches zero.
for a change of system state to occur.
 At the state of equilibrium, any conceivable
change in entropy will be zero.

9 Thermodynamics
because work is a path function. Work is not a

Availability
property of system whereas exergy is a
 The source of energy can be divided into two property of a system and surroundings.
groups, viz. high grade energy and low grade  The work potential of the energy contained in
energy. a system at a specified state is maximum
work that can be obtained from a system.
High grade energy:  Exergy is a property which helps us
“The energy which can be fully converted into identifying the potential of a particular system
useful work is called high grade energy “  Exergy is a property of the system and the
Ex : (a) Mechanical work , (b) Electrical energy environment combination. It is not a property
(c) Water power (d) Wind power of the system alone which means that we can
(e) Tidal power improve the efficiency of the system itself or
other way around is that we can alter the
Low grade energy:
environment to increase the exergy.
“The energy which cannot be fully converted into
useful work is called low grade energy “  Altering the environment is another way of
Ex: (a) Heat or thermal energy increasing exergy, but not easy task to change
(b) Heat derived from combustion of fossil the environment to maximise efficiency.
fuels  Increasing the efficiency of the system is an
(c) Heat derived from nuclear fission or easier method rather than changing the
environment itself.
fusion  Exergy is a property which links the system
 The second law of thermodynamics tells that and surrounding.
all the energy absorbed as heat by an engine  The environment or atmosphere contains a
cannot be converted into work. Part of the tremendous amount of energy but no exergy,
energy must be rejected to a sink. because we often consider the atmosphere to
be source and at the same time it can be also a
Available energy: “The portion of the energy sink, but atmosphere as such, does not have
supplied as heat which can be converted into any exergy because there is no work potential
work by a reversible engine is called available for extracting work from surrounding and it is
energy”. with surroundings that a system will come to
 Available energy also called “exergy” equilibrium at the end of the process.
 Unavailable energy is the portion of energy
Unavailable energy: The portion of the energy that can not be converted to work by even
supplied as heat which cannot be converted into reversible heat engine.
work by a reversible engine is called unavailable  Work output is maximized when the process
energy between two specified state is executed in a
 Unavailable energy also called “anergy” reversible manner.
 Exergy is a property that determines the  The system must be dead state at the end of
useful work potential at a given amount of the process to maximise the work output.
energy at some specified state. It is also  A system that is in equilibrium with its
known as availability or available energy. environment is said to be at the dead state.
 As we have seen, work is a function of initial
state, the process path and the final state

 At the dead state, the useful work potential same holds good for pressure drop due to friction
(exergy) of a system is zero. of a fluid flowing through an insulated pipe. If the
 The available energy and unavailable energy first law is the law of conservation of energy, the
are shown in fig on a T-s diagram considering second law is called the law of degradation of
Carnot engine as an example. energy.
Q
1 2 Decrease of exergy principle:
T
 The exergy of an isolated system during a
Available Energy
process always decreases or, in the limiting
T0 3 case of a reversible process, remains constant.
4  Exergy never increases and exergy is
Unavailable Energy
destroyed during an actual process.
S  Since T0Sgen ≥0, it follows that for an isolated
Q = AE +UE system(2–1) ≤0.
Where  Irreversibilties always cause increase in
 T  entropy.
Available energy (AE)  1  0 Q
 T  Increase in entropy leads to destruction of
energy.
T 
Unavailable energy (UE)   0 Q  Exergy destroyed is proportional to entropy
T generated.
Where,  For actual processes, exergy destroyed is
Q = the quantity of energy received as heat always a positive quantity.
from a source at temperature T, by the  Exergy destroyed represents the lost work
Carnot engine and potential and is also called the irreversibility
T0 = Temperature of sink or lost work
Law of Degradation of Energy: Exergy destruction:

The available energy of a system decreases as its
temperature or pressure decreases and approaches destroyed  T0 S gen  0
that of the surroundings. When heat is transferred
from a system, its temperature decreases and  0 Irreversible process

hence the quality of its energy deteriorates. The destroyed  0 Re versible process
degradation is more for energy loss at a higher  0 Im possible process
temperature than that at a lower temperature. 
Quantity wise the energy loss may be the same,
but quality wise the losses are different. While Exergy balance:
the first law states that energy is always The exergy change of a system during a process
conserved quantity wise, the second law is equal to the difference between the net exergy
emphasizes that energy always degrades quality transfer through the system boundary and the
wise. When a gas is throttled adiabatically from a exergy destroyed within the system boundaries as
high to a low pressure, the enthalpy (or energy a result of irreversibilites.
per unit mass) remains the same, but there is a
degradation of energy or available work. The

11 Thermodynamics
in  out  destroyed  system

 
  
  Properties of Pure Substance
Net exergy transfer Exergy Generation Changein exergy
by heat and mass
This can also be expressed in the rate form as, Theory:

      Pure substance is a substance consisting of a
    
in
 out
 
 destroyed
   system
 single chemical species like H2O, N2 etc. A
Rate of net exergy transfer
by heat and mass
Rate of Exergy Generation Rate of Changein exergy
mixture of constant composition, like air
which is a mixture of N2 and O2, can be
treated as a pure substance at temperatures
Second Law Efficiency: where phase separation does not take place.
 All the energy absorbed as heat by an engine  A pure substance is one that has
cannot be converted into work and only the homogeneous and invariable chemical
available energy is converted into work. Thus composition. It may exist in more than one
work is the highest quality of energy. When phase but chemical composition is same in all
energy is transferred from one system to phases.
another it is necessary to maintain the quality
of energy (or availability). Air - pure substance
Air + Petrol vapor - pure substance
Steam - pure substance
 Second-law efficiency: The performance of a Steam + Water - pure substance
device can be quantitatively expressed in air + liquid air - not pure substance; not
terms of its capability in maintaining the homogeneous in composition
(quality of energy) availability while the air + fuel vapor - not pure substance; not
energy is transferred. Since the availability is homogeneous in composition
related to entropy change of the system which air + fuel vapor + - not pure substance; not
in turn is based on the second law of combustion products homogeneous in chemical
thermodynamics, the index of performance of aggregation and not invariable
a device in maintaining the availability is in chemical aggregation
called the second-law efficiency.
gaseous combustion - pure substance; invariable
 The second law efficiency is expressed in products in chemical aggregation it may
different forms depending upon the type of even include ash
device under consideration.
Exergyre cov ered Phase:
 II 
Exergy sup plied  The different states (states of aggregation like
Exergy destroyed solid, liquid and gas) in which a pure
 II 1  substance can exist are called its phases.
Exergy sup llied
Gibbs Phase Rule
 Second-law efficiency is a measure of the
performance of a device relative to its  The phase rule provides a relationship among
performance under reversible conditions. the degrees of freedom (F) of the system, the
 Hence, second-law efficiency of all reversible number of phases (P) and the number of
devices is 100 percent. components (C).
 The Gibbs phase rule is
F+P=C+2

 The degrees of freedom represent the number  The critical point represents the highest
of intensive parameters that can be varied pressure and temperature at which the liquid
independently. and vapour phases coexist in equilibrium. At
 Simple Compressible substance is a substance the critical point the liquid and vapour phases
which has only PdV work mode. According are indistinguishable. All thermodynamic
to state postulate, a simple compressible properties of liquid and vapour phases are
substance has only two variables which can identical at the critical point.
be varied independently.  The temperature, pressure and volume at the
critical point are called critical temperature
Tc, critical pressure Pc and critical volume vc,
Dryness fraction:
A mixture of saturated liquid and saturated respectively.
vapour is described in terms of the quality x or  p    2p 
   0 ;  2   0
dryness fraction which is defined as  v  Tcr  v  T cr
mass of vapour
x
Total mass of mixture  The critical point properties of water are
mg mg Pcr =221.2 bar,
x 
mf  mg m
Tcr = 374.15C
where mf = mass of saturated liquid;
mg = mass of saturated vapour; vcr =0.00317m3/kg.
m = total mass of the mixture.  Saturation Temperature : It is the
maximum temperature corresponding to a
Temperature – Volume diagram: given pressure at which a substance can exist
Critical point
in liquid form.
T  Saturated pressure : It is the pressure
Pc = 221.2 bar
corresponding to a saturation temperature.
p=c  From the temperature – volume diagram the
100 bar
following are defined.
p=c
f 50 bar Sub Cooled (or) compressed liquid state (‘a’) :

g p=c
(L + V)
e
Liquid existing at a temperature lower than
p = 1 bar d
b saturation temperature at its pressure is called
c
a Saturated sub-cooled liquid and compressed liquid
liquid Saturated vapour line
liquid line because its pressure is higher than the
saturation pressure at its temperature and this
liquid is not about to vapourise.
V  It is a liquid at a temperature below saturation
Fig: T – V Diagram of Water
temperature corresponding to given pressure.
Critical point:
 The point at which the slope changes from
Saturation Liquid(‘b’) : It is a liquid at
positive to negative and at this point the slope saturation temperature corresponding to a given
is zero. pressure. (Refer to T-v diagram)

13 Thermodynamics
Wet vapor state (‘c’) : It is a mixture of liquid  The overall shape of the P-V diagram is
and vapor at the saturation temperature similar to the T- V diagram except that the
corresponding to a given pressure. constant temperature lines are drooping
downward
Dry saturated vapor state (‘d’) : When water is  From the above P-V diagram as pressure
completely converted into steam is called dry and decreases at constant temperature, the specific
saturated steam and the saturation temperature volume of liquid increases marginally but the
corresponding to a given pressure. specific volume of vapour increases
considerably.
Super heated vapor state (‘e’):
 When dry and saturated steam is further
 Isothermal lines are horizontal line in vapour
heated, its temperature increases with dome
corresponding increase in its specific volume  Isothermal lines are rectangular hyperbola in
and this steam is called superheated steam. superheated region.
The superheating is carried out at constant P-T diagram:
pressure. Fusion curve Critical
 Superheated vapor temperature is above 221 bar point
saturation temperature at a given pressure.
 At less than Tsat, when heat is supplied or
withdrawn temperature changes is called
sensible heat.
Pressure
water Vaporization
 At Tsat, when heat is supplied or withdrawn ice curve
(solid)
the temperature doesn’t change till it becomes Water vapor (gas)
0.006 bar
completely liquid or vapour, is called as latent Sublimation Triple point
heat. curve
 At T > Tsat, when the heat is supplied or 0.01 C 374C
withdrawn temperature changes is called as
superheated region.  The P-T diagrams of pure substance is called
as a phase diagrams as it shows solid, liquid
P-V diagram: and vapour region of pure substance
simultaneously.
Critical point  Each single phase of pure substance is
Gas phase Pc = 221.2 bar
PC Tc=374. 15C separated by saturation lines.
Vc = 0.00317 m3/kg  The sublimation line separates solid and
tc
vapour regions.
 The fusion lines separates solid and vapour
P
Vapour phase regions.

L T increasing
 The vaporisation lines separates liquid and
L+V Saturated vapour regions.
Vapour line
Saturated liquid line Triple Point:
VC V Every substance has triple point.
Saturation curve on p-v Diagram It is the point at which it exists in solid, liquid and
vapour phase

 It is the point of intersection of sublimation Fusion Curve

line, vapourisation line and fusion line on P-T Pc
diagram where all three phases coexist in vapour
equilibrium. P solid
liquid
Vaporization curve
 On other property diagram ( P-V and T-V)
Triple point
diagrams, such a conditions are represented
by a line called triple line Sublimation curve
T Tc
 Triple point is a point in P-T diagram. It is a
line in P-v diagram and it is a triangle in U-v T- S diagram:
diagram
 Fusion line have negative (–ve) slope. It is Saturated Critical
liquid line state
due to anomalous behaviour of water i.e, the
P= 1 MPa
Superheated vapour
Compressed liquid
melting point of ice decreases with increasing
pressure.
 Only three substances (water, Antimony and
Bismuth have negative (–ve) slope for fusion Liquid +vapour
line whereas all remaining substances have v= c
453 K
positive ( +ve) slope.
Saturated vapour line
 If any substance heated below its triple point v= c
pressure, solid becomes vapours and process 273.16 K
Schematic of a T-s diagram for water
is called sublimation.
 If any substance is cooled below its triple  The value of specific entropy at triple point is
point pressure, vapour becomes solid and zero.
process is called ablimation.  The saturated liquid and saturated vapour line
 If any substance is heated above its triple divides the diagrams into three regions i.e,
point pressure, solid becomes liquid and compressed liquid region at the left of the
liquid becomes vapour. saturated liquid line, superheated vapour
 Isothermal compression less than triple point region right to the saturated vapour line and
temperature makes substance go from vapour the wet vapour region between the two lines.
to solid state. The two saturated lines are met at critical
point.
 Isothermal expansion less than triple point
temp makes substance go from solid to  In the compressed liquid region, the constant
vapour state. pressure lines almost coincide with saturated
liquid lines.
 Isothermal compression greater than triple  In saturated liquid and vapour mixture region,
point temperature makes substance go from the constant temperature lines and constant
vapour to liquid state pressure lines are horizontal and parallel to
 Isothermal expansion greater than triple point each other.
temperature makes substance go from liquid  In superheated vapour region the constant
to vapour state. volume lines are steeper than constant
pressure lines.

15 Thermodynamics
 Beyond critical temp, it is called as  The constant volume lines are steeper than
superheated gas. In this region molecular constant pressure lines.
separation is very high and ideal gas law is  Mollier Diagram showing the constant
exhibited pressure, constant temperature and constant
 Between dry saturated line and critical quality lines is shown in fig. The constant
temperature line it is called superheated pressure and constant temperature lines
vapour and in this region ideal gas law coincide in the two phase region.
behavior is approximated.
Enthalpy- entropy ( Mollier)diagram : Clausius -Clapeyron Equation

v=c The approximations made in obtaining the
P=c Clausius-Clapeyron equation from Clapeyron
equation for liquid-vapour phase transition are
Critical point
t =c
t =c  The vapour phase in an ideal gas.
h p =c p =c  The volume of the liquid phase is negligible
compared to the volume of the gas phase.
t =c Therefore, v = vg – vf = vg = RT / P
Saturated vapour line
 The Clausius-Clapeyron equation is
d h
v=c
x=c x=c
x=c lnP  fg2
dT RT
s
Constant Property Lines on Mollier Diagram
 If hfg is assumed to be constant over a small
temperature range, then
 The constant temperature lines are straight P  h fg  1   1 
ln 2       
and almost horizontal in the superheated  P1  R  T1   T2 
vapour region at low pressures.
 The lines of constant dryness fraction (x) are h fg
or ln P   constant
parallel to the saturation line. RT
 The constant pressure lines do not change  A plot of( ln P) versus (1/T) yields a straight
their shape in either region because for a  h fg 
constant pressure process. line with a slope  .
Tds  dh  vdp (pressure constant)  R 
 Tds = dh
dh Q
Slope =  T
ds ds
 On a Mollier diagram the slope is equal to the
absolute temperature

The Ericsson cycle :

Air Cycles
T
a b
Assumptions: T1
The working medium is assumed to be a d a
Pressure 

perfect gas and follows the relation P=C
T1 P=C
pV = mRT or p = RT T2
 There is no change in the mass of the working T2 c
c b d
medium
 All the processes that constitute the cycle are Volume  S
reversible
Note:
 Heat is assumed to be supplied from a The Ericsson cycle does not find practical
constant high temperature source and not application in piston engines but is approached by
from chemical reactions during the cycle. a gas turbine employing a large number of stages
 Some heat is assumed to be rejected to a
with heat exchangers, insulators and reheaters.
constant low temperature sink during the
cycle.
Otto cycle:
 It is assumed that there are no heat losses
from the system to the surroundings
 The working medium has constant specific 3
heats throughout the cycle. P3
3
 The physical constants viz., Cp, Cv,  and M of
Pressure
working medium are the same as those of air P4 4
Temperature
2 2
at standard atmospheric conditions. P2
P1 1 4
Stirling cycle: 1
It consists of two isothermal and two constant V1 =V4 V2 =V3 Entropy
volume processes. The heat rejection and addition Volume
take place at constant temperature. The p-V and
T-s diagrams for the Stirling cycle are shown Diesel Cycle:
below. It is clear that the amount of heat addition Diesel cycle consist of two reversible adiabatic,
and rejection during constant volume processes is one reversible isobar, and one reversible isochoric
same. process.
T1=T2 1 2
1
2 QS
Temperature 
P1 3
3
Temperature
Pressure 
P2 2 2
P4 T3=T4 4 4
Pressure
4
P3 3 QR 1
3 4 0 1
Volume  Entropy 
V1 =V4 V2 =V3 Entropy
Volume

17 Thermodynamics
Dual Cycle :
The Dual cycle, also called a mixed cycle or
Pressure 
Temperature 
3
limited pressure cycle is a compromise between 3
V=c
Otto and Diesel cycles. QS
2 4
4 V=c
2
1 5
5 P=c
QS 1 QR
4 Volume  Entropy 
3
Temperature 
4
3
Pressure 
QS Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles :

2 Generally Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles are
2 5 5 compared. For any comparison ‘dual cycle’ is
always in between Otto and Diesel cycle.
QR 1
1 (a) For same compression ratio and heat
Volume  Entropy  addition:
3 3
P=c
3’’
2’ 2’ 3’’3’
P T 2
Lenoir cycle :
3’ 4’
The Lenoir cycle is used for pulse jet engines. 2 4’
4 4’’
4’’ 1
4
V=c
Isentropic process 1
Temperature 
Pressure 
2 v 5 6 6’’ 6’ s
2
123 41 Otto cycle
QS 12 341 Diesel cycle
3
3 122341 – Dual cycle
1 1
QR From the above diagrams
 (Peak pressure)Otto > (Peak pressure)Diesel
Volume  Entropy 
 (Peak temp.)Otto > (Peak temp)Diesel
 (Expansion ratio)Otto > (Expansion
ratio)Diesel
Atkinson cycle:
 (Temp at beginning of heat rejection)Otto <
Atkinson cycle is an ideal cycle for Otto engine
(Temp at beginning of heat
exhausting to a gas turbine.
rejection)Diesel
 (Heat rejected)Otto < (Heat rejected)Diesel
 (Work)Otto > (Work)Diesel
 (th )Otto  (th )Diesel

(b) For same compression ratio and heat (d) For same Maximum pressure and Heat
rejection: input
3
T T 3’ 3
P P P=C
3
V=c 2’ 3’ 3 2’
3’ 3’
2 2 S=C
2 V=C
4 P=c 4
4’ 4
4 2 4’
Isentropic process 1 1
v=c S=C
1 1 V=C
s
v
v 6’ 6 s
1-2-3-4- Otto cycle 5
1-2-3ʹ-4- Diesel cycle 12341 – Otto cycle
From the above diagrams 12341 – Diesel cycle
 (Peak pressure)Otto > (Peak pressure)Diesel
 (Peak temp)Otto > (Peak temp) Diesel
 (Expansion ratio)Otto> (Expansion From the above diagrams
ratio)Diesel  (compression ratio)Otto < (compression
 (Work output) Otto >(Work output) Diesel ratio)Diesel
 (Heat supply)Otto > (Heat supply) Diesel  (Temp at the end of the compression)Otto <
 (th)Otto > (th)Diesel (Temp at the end of the compression)Diesel
 (Expansion ratio)Otto < (Expansion
(c) For same peak pressure, peak temperature ratio)Diesel
and heat rejection:  (Work output)Otto < (Work output)Diesel
P=C 3  (Peak temp)Otto > (Peak temp)Diesel
2’ 3 2’  (th)Otto < (th)Dual < (th)Diesel
P
Isentropic process 2
v=c
4 T
2 4 Psychrometry
1 1 v=c
Isentropic process Psychrometry :
v s
 It is study of air –water vapour mixture.
 Atmospheric air is equal to sum of dry air and
1234 –Otto cycle water vapour.
1234 – Diesel cycle  Dry air is nothing but air without water
From the above diagram vapour.
 (Compression ratio) Otto< (Compression  The air to be processed in air conditioning
ratio)Diesel systems is a mixture of dry air and water
 (Temp at the end of compression)Otto < vapour. While the composition of dry air is
(Temp at th end of Compression)Diesel constant, the amount of water vapour present
 (Work)Otto < (Work) Diesel in the air may vary from zero to a maximum
 (Heat supplied)Otto < ( Heat supplied) Diesel depending upon the temperature and pressure
 (th )Otto <( th) Diesel of the mixture (dry air + water vapour)

19 Thermodynamics
 At a given temperature and pressure the dry P=Psat

air can only hold a certain maximum amount T PV
of moisture. When the moisture content is 1
maximum, then the air is known as saturated Tsat=Tdp 2
air, which is established by a neutral
equilibrium between the moist air and the
s
liquid or solid phases of water.
From the above T-s diagram, the air- vapour
Psychrometric properties: mixture at the state 1 is superheated. It is cooled
 Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is temperature at constant pressure pv to the state 2, where the
recorded of air by ordinary thermometer. saturation temperature reaches and condensation
 Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the of vapour begins. The temperature at state 2 is
saturated partial pressure of water vapour at called as dew point temperature.
the dry bulb temperature. Dew Point depression = DBT  DPT
 The partial pressure of vapour in air is very At RH = 100%, DBT = DPT = WBT
small. Corresponding to partial pressure of
Note:
vapour, the temperature is called as saturation
When the temperature of cold drink is below the
temperature.
T dew-point temperature of the surrounding air, it
Patm “sweats.”
Pvap
Sling Psychrometer:
S It is instrument used to measure DBT and WBT
But Tatm > Tsat Hence, water vapour present simultaneously this is done by rotating
in air is in superheated state. pshycrometer at a speed of 4-5 m/s for accurate
 When unsaturated is air is blown over the wet results.
wick of a thermometer the water in the wick
evaporates and air comes out as saturated air Specific humidity:
in this process cooling effect produces and  Specific humidity or humidity ratio () is
the temperature drops to a new value and this defined as the ratio of mass of water vapour
temperature is called as the wet bulb (mv) to the mass of dry air(ma) in the mixture.
temperature(WBT). m
 v
 Wet bulb depression(W.B.D) ma
(W.B.D) = DBT – WBT kg of vapour
pv
 WBD is maximum when  = 0   0.622 
 WBD = 0 when  = 100% i.e. DBT = WBT
p atm  p v  kg of dry air
Dew Point temperature( DPT): Relative Humidity:
DPT is the temperature at which water vapour  Relative Humidity () is defined as the ratio
present in air starts to condense, when it is cooled of the partial pressure of the water vapour in
at constant pressure. The formation of dew on the the mixture to the saturation pressure (ps) of
grass is the best example. It occurs due to cooling water at the mixture temperature.
of water vapour at constant pressure to its p v m
 v  s  v
saturation temperature. p s v v m sat

Enthalpy of moist air: (ii) Sensible cooling:

The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the The process of cooling of air at constant
enthalpy of the dry air and the enthalpy of the specific humidity is called as sensible cooling
water vapour. process.
h = ha + hv kJ/kg of dry air. RH2
DBT-Decreases
Where RH1 WBT-Decreases
ha = enthalpy of dry air 2 -constant
1 DPT-constant
hv = enthalpy of vapour
RH-Increases
td2 td1 h-Decreases
Psychrometric Chart: Bypass factor (BPF):
Heating coil
RH=100%
Specific Humidity ()
DBT
WBT
DPT Dew Point Moisture air air
Content
Relative
Humidity
Volume
Tcoil
Dry –bulb Temperature
Fig. Constant property lines  When air flowing in chamber, some of
on a psychrometric chart particles come in contact with coil and
temperature increase and some other receive
Various process on psychrometric chart: heat by convection and radiation. As a result
i. Sensible heating overall temperature of air coming out is less
ii. Sensible cooling than coil temperature this is called as bypass.
iii. Humidification  Bypass signifies inefficiency.
iv. Dehumidification  The bypass factor depends upon the following
v. Heating and Humidification factors.
vi. Heating and Dehumidification (a) The number of fins provided in a unit
vii. Cooling and Humidification length
viii. Cooling and Dehumidification (b) The number of rows in a coil in the
direction of flow
(i) Sensible Heating: (c) The velocity of flow of air
The process in which air is heated to higher  If velocity of air in chamber is high then
temperature without change in specific bypass factor high because there is no time
humidity is called as sensible hating process. for heat pick up.
RH1  If velocity is less, there is sufficient time for
DBT-Increases heat pickup and bypass factor will be less.
RH2 WBT-Increases Note:
1 -constant
2 By pass factor of a cooling coil decreases
DPT-constant
RH-Decreases
with decrease in fin spacing and increase in
td1 td2 h-Increases number of rows.

21 Thermodynamics
(a) For heating process : DBT-Constant

1 1 WBT-Decreases
h-Decreases
DPT-Decreases
1 2 3 2 2 RH-Decreases
-Decreases
(v) Heating and humidification:

T1 T2 Tcoil This process is generally used in winter air
Tcoil  T2
BPF  conditioning to warm and humidify the air. It
Tcoil  T1 is the reverse process of cooling and
T2  T1 dehumidification. When air is passed through
Contact Factor (CF) 
Tcoil  T1 a humidifier having spray water temperature
BPF + CF = 1 higher than the dry bulb temperature of the
entering air, the unsaturated air will reach the
(b) For cooling process: condition of saturation and thus the air
becomes hot. The heat of vaporization of
water is absorbed from the spray water itself
and hence it gets cooled. In this way, the air
3 2 1 becomes heated and humidified. In this
process, the dry bulb temperature as well as
specific humidity of air increases. The final
relative humidity may increase, decrease or
Tcoil T2 T1 constant.
BPF  T2  Tcoil
T1  Tcoil Air Air
T1  T2  < 100%  = 100%
Contact Factor (CF) 
T1  Tcoil
BPF + CF = 1
(iii) Humidification: T H2O > (DBT)air

The addition of moisture to the air, without 2 2 DBT-Increases
change in its dry bulb temperature is known WBT-Increases
as humidification. 1 h-Increases
1 -Increases
DBT-Constant td1 td2 DPT-Increases
2 2
WBT-Increases
h-Increases (vi) Heating and Dehumidification:
1 1  -Increases This process is used in industrial air
td
DPT-Increases conditioning and can also be used for some
RH-Increases comfort air conditioning installations
(iv) Dehumidification: requiring either a low relative humidity or low
The removal of moisture from the air, without dew point temperature in the room.
change in its dry bulb temperature, is known In this process, the air is passed over
as dehumidification. chemicals which have an affinity for

moisture. As the air comes in contact with (ix) Chemical Dehumidification:

these chemicals, the moisture gets condensed By using a chemical if water vapour is
out of the air and give up its latent heat. Due removed from air then that process is called
to the condensation, the specific humidity as chemical dehumidification.
decreases and the heat of condensation Removing water vapour from air by using a
supplies sensible heat for heating the air and chemical is also known as adsorption. Silica
increasing its dry bulb temperature. gel, activated alumina and calcium hydroxide
In this case wet bulb temperature and have the property of adsorption of water.
enthalpy may increase, decrease or constant. These chemicals have affinity for water
vapour and absorb water vapour present in air
DBT-Increases
this process is called chemical
1 -Decreases
1 dehumidification.
DPT-Decreases
2
2 RH-Decreases h-Constant
td1 td2  WBT-Constant
1 DBT-Increases
(vii) Cooling & Humidification:  ω-Decreases
2
DBT-Decreases DPT-Decreases
td1 td2
2 -Increases RH-Decreases
2
DPT-Increases
1 (x) Adiabatic Saturation process :
1
RH-Increases
td2 td1  The adiabatic saturation temperature of
atmosphere air is defined as the temperature
(viii) Cooling and Dehumidification: which results from adding water vapour
This process is generally used in summer air adiabatically to the atmosphere air in a steady
conditioning to cool and dehumidify the air. flow manner until it becomes completely
The air is passed over a cooling coil or saturated.
through a cold water spray. In this process,  Consider the steady flow of an unsaturated
the dry bulb temperature and specific air-water vapour mixture through an insulated
humidity of air decreases. The final relative device, shown in fig, called adiabatic
humidity of the air is generally higher than saturator. Assume that equilibrium is attained
that of the entering air. The dehumidification between the water and air-water vapour
of air is only possible when the effective mixture in the device and hence saturated air-
temperature of the cooling coil is less than the water vapour leaves the device.
dew point temperature of the entering coil. Saturated air-water Vapor
The effective surface temperature of the coil Unsaturated air-water
mixture
Vapour mixture
is known as apparatus dew point (ADP) m a 3 , m w 3 , T3 , 3
In this case relative humidity may increase, m a1 , m w1 , T1 , 1
decrease or constant.
1 3
DBT-Decreases
1 WBT-Decreases
1
h-Decreases
-Decreases
2
2 DPT-Decreases
Liquid water (m2, 2)
td2 td1

23 Thermodynamics
Applications of psychrometry:
T  HVAC systems, animal, plant and human
Adiabatic saturation temp
comfort
1  Air-conditioning devices
 Cooling towers
T2  Industrial processes requiring close control of
WBT 2
the vapor content in air
Tdp
3
 Food science and engineering.
 Animal housing
s  Plant systems (Greenhouses, growth
Fig: T-s diagram for adiabatic saturation chambers, plant based bioregenerative life
process support systems etc.)
 Evaporative coolers
Cooling Towers:  Mold problems & health related issues (Dew
 Refrigeration and air-conditioning plants, & Condensation!)
condensers in thermal power plants require  Water harvesting in arid lands
large quantities of cooling water. Cooling
towers are extensively used to provide cold Rankine Cycle
water for these plants.
 Cooling towers employ the principle of
evaporative cooling to cool warm water. Simple steam power plant (SSPS):
 It is theoretically possible to obtain cold water A steam power plant consists of the following
from a cooling tower at the wet-bulb main components:
temperature of the air. 1. Boiler with its mountings and
 Natural draft cooling towers and forced draft accessories
cooling towers are commonly employed in 2. Turbine
industry. 3. Condenser
 In the cooling towers warm water is cooled by 4. Feed-water pump
evaporation and hence the relative humidity 5. Electric generator
of atmospheric air is important. It is necessary 6. Cooling tower
to add make-up water in the cooling towers. 7. Circulating water pump
 Some amount of information regarding the 8. Chimney
performance of a cooling tower can be 9. Draught system
obtained from a knowledge of Psychrometry. 10. Feed-water treatment plant
Application of material and energy balance to
1 2
the cooling tower gives the desired Generator
information. Boiler Turbine 
Sensible Heat Factor (SHF): 5

3
 The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the Pump Condenser
total heat transfer is termed as the sensible 4
heat factor.
Fig:(1)

 The steam generated in the boiler is passed It is denoted by SSC (Specific steam
through the turbine, where it expands to a consumption) is expressed as
lower pressure, thus power is generated. Mass of steam in kg / h
 The steam leaving the turbine is passed SSC 
Power output in kW
through the condenser, where it condenses to 
water and creates a low pressure at the turbine m s (kg / h )

exit. 
 The cooling water is circulated in the m s (kg / s)  Wnet (kJ / kg )
condenser. 3600kJ / kWh
 The condensate is then re-circulated to the SSC 
boiler with the help of the feed pump. Wnet (kJ / kg)
(v) Heat rate:
Performance parameters of vapour power It is the amount of heat required by a power
cycle: plant to produce 1 kWh of power.
(i) Thermal efficiency: Heat input in kJ/s  3600 s/h
The thermal efficiency of any power cycle is Heat rate 
expressed as Net power output in kW
Network done in the cycle Wnet 3600
 th   H.R  (kJ / kWh )
Heat sup plied in the cycle Q in  th
(ii) Back work ratio: Carnot Vapour Power Cycle:

It is another performance parameter for a
power plant and is defined as the ratio of T
pump work input to the work developed by 1
4
the turbine.
Pump work W Wnet
Back work ratio   P
Turbine work WT
2
3
QR
(iii) Work ratio: s
The work ratio for a power plant is defined as T-s diagram for Carnot vapour cycle
ratio of the net work output of the cycle to the  It is a cycle, which has maximum
work developed by the turbine. efficiency, operating between given
Network output Wnet temperature limits and its efficiency is
Work ratio  
Turbine work WT independent of properties of working fluid.
Work ratio  1  Back work ratio  The ideal Vapour power cycle would be the
Carnot cycle comprising of two reversible
(iv) Steam rate: isothermal and two reversible adiabatic
It is also called specific steam consumption. It processes.
relates the power output to amount of steam  When the working substance changes phase
necessary to produce it. It is the amount of as in vapour cycle, the two isothermal
steam required to produce 1 kWh (3600kJ) of processes are easily attainable as internally
power. reversible in the form of boiling of the

25 Thermodynamics
liquid and condensation of the vapour.

However, heat transfer from high
temperature reservoir to boiling liquid, and 1
h
from condensing vapour to low temperature 1
reservoir still remain externally irreversible. 1
P1
P1
4 P2 2
1 2
h 2
3

4 P2 s
h–s diagram for Rankine cycle
3
2 The steam leaving from boiler may be dry
and saturated, wet or superheated. The
s
corresponding T-s diagrams are 1-2-3-4-
1,1-2-3-4-1 or 1-2-3-4-1
h – s diagram for Carnot vapour cycle
T1  T2 Effect of operating variables on the

 th  performance of the Rankine cycle:
T1
In Carnot cycle (i) Increasing initial pressure :
Efficiency is function of temperature limits  A higher boiler pressure PB, using dry-
Pump work is very high so network done is saturated stream and a constant condenser
less pressure Pc gives higher cycle-work (up to
Specific steam consumption is high. about 17 MPa), and higher thermal
Heat rate is less. efficiency (up to about 21 MPa) as shown in
figure.
 But use of dry-saturated steam at high
Simple Rankine Cycle: pressure gives more moisture in the lower
The simple Rankine cycle is also a reversible cycl stages of the turbine. The increase (+) and
decrease (–) in the cycle-work are shown in
the diagram.
1’’ T PS′
T
(+) 2′ PS
P1 1
1
2
4 (–) Pc
P2
3′ 3
3 2 2 2
s
T-s diagram for Rankine cycle s
T–s diagram

As boiler pressure increases: (iii) Decreasing condenser pressure:

 Turbine work (WT ) increases  In the condenser as the steam is condensing,
 Pump work(Wp) increases temperature and pressure in the condenser
 Network done (Wnet) increases are connected to each other, and we cannot
 Steam rate decreases change one without changing the other as is
 Heat supplied increases possible in superheating.
 Dryness fraction (x) decreases  As stated earlier, temperature in the
 Condenser load decreases condenser depends upon the temperature of
 Thermal efficiency (th) increases the cooling water available, and in the limit,
 Heat rate decreases can be equal to it.
 Due to variation of temperature of cooling
(ii) Increasing initial temperature by water during summer and winter, the
superheating condenser temperature (and hence the
 For constant boiler and condenser pressures, pressure) will change and, therefore steam
superheating increases cycle-work and power plant output increases (by about 5 to
efficiency. 10%) in winter.
T  Figure shows the effect of lowering
2 PB condenser temperature (or pressure).
1 T
2 
Pc PB
1
4 3 3 P
PC
S Superheat
In super heating:
 Turbine work (WT ) increases
 Pump work(Wp) constant
 Network done (Wnet) increases
 Steam rate decreases s
 Heat supplied increases
 Dryness fraction (x) increases
 Condenser load increases As condenser pressure increases:
 Thermal efficiency (th) increases  Turbine work (WT ) increases
 Heat rate decreases  Pump work (Wp) increases
Another advantage of using superheated is the  Steam rate decreases
reduction of moisture in the lower stages of  Heat supplied increases
the turbine. Though the heat rejection  Dryness fraction (x) decreases
increases, the cycle work increases more in  Condenser load decreases
proportion (due to the horn) as shown in the  Thermal efficiency (th) increases
diagram.  Heat rate decreases

27 Thermodynamics
Various losses in steam turbines: h

1 3
T
1
P4
P4 P1
1
P1 1 2
4
6 (P)RHP
4s 4
4 P2 4s
3 P3 2 2s 2 5
h-s diagram for reheat cycle s
s
(i) Piping Losses:
In reheat cycle:
(ii) Turbine Losses:
(iii) Pump Losses:  Turbine work (WT ) increases
(iv) Condenser Losses:  Pump work (Wp) constant
Methods for improving the efficiency of  Steam rate decreases
Rankine cycle
 Heat supplied increases
1. Reheat cycle
2. Regenerative cycle  Dryness fraction (x) increases
 Condenser load increases
1. Reheat cycle:  Heat rate decreases
The reheat cycle is designed to take advantage
 Work ratio increases
of higher boiler pressure by eliminating the
problem of excessive moisture content in the  Thermal efficiency may increase, decrease
exhaust steam. In a reheat Rankine cycle, the or constant.
steam is expanded in a number of stages.  If the reheat pressure is too high the quality
After each stage of expansion, the steam is at exhaust will be less.
reheated in the boiler. Then, it expands in the  If the reheat pressure is too low the thermal
next stage of turbine and is finally exhausted efficiency is less.
to the condenser.  Hence we have to make a compromise
T 1 3 between these two
PRHP
P1  0.2 to 0.25
Pint ial
(P)RHP Note: In a reheat cycle the maximum number of
2
reheats permitted is only two.
6 P2
5 4 4s
s
T-s diagram for reheat cycle

Regenerative cycle: Gas Turbines

This is basically done by heat recovery using feed
Gas Turbine
water heaters
Gas Turbine is a rotary internal combustion
1kg
engine. It consist of a compressor, a combustion
1 chamber and a turbine. The gas turbine uses
Boiler continuous gas flow as the working medium by
Turbine which heat energy is partially converted into
mechanical energy.
m1 m2 3
2 4 1–m1–m2
Gas turbines work on Joule cycle (or) Brayton
FWH - II cycle.
FWH - I 8
Condenser Heat
10 Pump Qs
exchanger
9 7 6
Pump 5
Wc 2 3 Wnet = WT – Wc
Compressor Turbine
T
Heat
1kg 1 exchanger 4
1
10 m1 kg
2
8 9 QR
m2 kg
3
6 7 (1-m1–m2) kg
2 3 Q1 3
4 pv = c T
5 P p=c WT
S 2
Wc
Here heat of steam is recovered by the 4
condensate water as a result, condensate water p=c
4 1
1 Q2
gets heated and enters the boiler at higher v S
temperature. As a result the amount of heat
supplied in boiler decreases and thermal
Joule or Brayton cycle consists of four
efficiency increases.
processes as follows:
1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression
2-3: Constant pressure heat supply
3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion
4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection
 T2
1  1 
 th  1  
 1
 rk  
rk  T1 
th= f (rp,) or f (rk,)

29 Thermodynamics
Comparison between Brayton Cycle and Otto

Cycle 3
T
P p=c
3 2
T 2s 4
3
 4s
pV = c V=c
5 5 p=c
2 2 1
p= c
4 4 S
6
V=c Methods of improving thermal efficiency of
6 Gas Turbine plant:
1 1 p= c
V S The net work output of a gas turbine plant can be
(b) improved by either by decreasing the compressor
(a)
work or by increasing the turbine work or both.
 The Brayton cycle (1-2-5-6) handles a Thermal efficiency of the cycle can be improved
larger range of volume and a smaller range by reducing the heat input for the same work
of pressure and temperature than does the output. The improvement is possible by
Otto cycle (1-2-3-4). In the reciprocating
1. Ideal Regenerative Cycle:
engine field, the Brayton cycle is not
suitable. A reciprocating engine cannot The efficiency of the Brayton cycle can be
efficiently handle a large volume flow of increased by utilizing part of the energy of the
low pressure gas, for which the engine size exhaust gas from the turbine in heating up the
(/4 D2 L) becomes large, and the friction air leaving the compressor in a heat exchanger
losses also become more. So the Otto cycle called a regenerator, thereby reducing the
is more suitable in the reciprocating engine amount of heat supplied from an external
field. source and also the amount of heat rejected. As
a result thermal efficiency increases but there
 An internal combustion engine is exposed will be no changes in compressor work and
to the highest temperature (after the turbine work.
combustion of fuel) only for a short while,
and its gets time to become cool in the other Effectiveness of heat exchanger:
processes of the cycle. The ratio of the actual temperature rise of air to
 A gas turbine plant, a steady flow device, is the maximum possible rise is called the
always exposed to the highest temperature effectiveness of the regenerator.
used. So to protect material, the maximum
temperature of gas that can be used in a gas Wc
turbine plant cannot be as high as in an C T Wnet = WT – Wc
internal combustion engine. 3
2 4
 In the steady flow machinery, it is more 5
difficult to carry out heat transfer at 1 QS
constant volume than at constant pressure. Regenerator
QR 6

4  The air-fuel ratio should be sufficient to

ensure that there is enough oxygen available
p=c WT for combustion of fuel in the second
T 3 Q1 5 combustion chamber CC2.
2
6  The increase in cycle work due to reheating
p=c is shown by the shaded area, but this does
Wc
not necessarily mean an increase in thermal
1 Qx
Qx Q2 efficiency.
 The heat supplied by combustion of fuel is
S the sum of areas under (2-3) and (4-5).
(T ) act T3  T2  If all of this heat is supplied in a single
Effectiveness of H.E= = combustion chamber, the temperature at
(T ) max T5  T2
turbine inlet will be much higher than T3;
 The heat supplied and the heats rejected are therefore, with reheating it is possible to
each reduced by the same amount, Qx. keep the temperature at turbine inlet within
 The mean temperature of heat addition safe working limit.
increases and the mean temperature of heat  The exhaust gas temperature T6 with
rejection decreases because of the use of the reheating is more and hence it is necessary
regenerator. to use a heat exchanger to recover heat from
the exhaust gas.
2. Reheating:
A good improvement in specific work output 3. Intercooling:
can be obtained by splitting the expansion and  The compressor work can be reduced by
reheating the gas between the high pressure using multi-stage compression with
and low pressure turbines. Intercooling.
Fig shows the arrangement and effect of  Due to inter cooling, the cycle-work
reheating in a gas turbine cycle. increases as shown by the shaded area, but
the temperature T4 after compression is less
and hence more heat is to be supplied in the
C T1 T2
combustion chamber.
G
 This adverse effect can be overcome by
Fuel Fuel
using the exhaust gas heat in a heat
2 3 5 exchanger to heat the air before it goes to
4
CC1 CC2 6 the combustion chamber.
1  Intercooling will help to increase the net
work output of the cycle. Because of the
T 3
lower compressor outlet temperature the
5 fuel flow rate to obtain a given turbine inlet
2 4 temperature will increase. Therefore, the
6 thermal efficiency of the intercooled cycle
will be less than that for a simple cycle.
 Intercooling is useful when the pressure
1 ratios are high and the efficiency of the
S compressor is low.

31 Thermodynamics
P 5
7 3 3
C1 C2 T G 2 T 7
Fuel 4 6
2 3 4 5 2
4 5
8
CC 6
1
1 6
8 1
IC V S
2 p2 = 1000 kPa When a heat exchanger is employed, the
efficiency is higher with reheat than without.
compressor compressor Wc
I II
c intercooler
Intercooled cycle with heat exchange and
d
p1 = 100 kPa 1 Reheating:
Td = 300 K
T1 = 300 k
qR
Schematic
C1 C2 T1 T2 G
4 4 5
P 5 3
T 2 Fuel Fuel
4’
4 6 7 8
2 4 1 IC 5 9
3 CC1 CC2
2 6
6 3 1
10
v S 6
8
p 4 5 6
T 5
7
The Reheat and Heat exchange cycle: 3 2 4 9
7 8
Improvement in specific power output is achieved 2
in reheat cycle at the expense of the cycle 10
efficiency. This can be overcome by adding a 3
1 10 9
1
heat exchanger to the reheat cycle. The schematic V S
arrangement of reheat cycle with heat exchanger
is given in figure.  The speed and output of the power turbine
can be controlled by controlling the fuel
supply in the combustion chamber, CC2.
C2 T1 T2 G  If the two turbines T1 and T2 are on two
separate shafts, the systems as a whole will
Fuel Fuel
2 have higher efficiency at part loads and can
1 7 3 4 5 respond to change of load and speed quickly
6
C1 C2 and effectively.
 In such arrangement the turbine T1, called
8 compressor, turbine and the compressor are

on one shaft, and it can be run at the most Net refrigeration effect Q 2
suitable speed for the compressor, COPR  
work input W
independent of the speed of the power
Q2
turbine T2. 
(Q1  Q 2 )
Refrigeration (COP) R reversible  T2

T1  T2 
One Ton of Refrigeration (1 TR) Methods of refrigeration:
 It is defined as the amount of heat removed
from 2,000 pounds of water at 32 F to (i) Dry Ice Refrigeration:
convert into ice at 32 F in 24 hours.
 Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice and it
 It is also defined as the amount of heat
has a peculiar characteristic that it changes
removed from 1,000 kg of water at 00C to
from solid state to vapour state without
convert into ice at 00C in 24 hours.
getting converted into liquid state. Due to
the change of state, it absorbs heat
Refrigerator :
equivalent to its latent heat of vaporization.
 Refrigerator is a cyclically operating device
The evaporation or sublimation temperature
which absorbs energy as heat from a low
of dry ice at atmospheric pressure is -78C.
temperature body and rejects energy as heat
 Dry ice is utilized to preserve foodstuff
to a high temperature body when work is
during transportation. Now a days it is
preformed on the device.
universally used to preserve food in air-
 The objective of this device is to refrigerate transportation. Dry ice slabs are usually
a body at low temperature. packed in frozen food cartons on either side
 Usually, it uses atmosphere as the high or on top of the food packages. When dry
temperature reservoir ice evaporates, it absorbs heat from the
Source foodstuff and preserves them in the frozen
T1 state.
Q1=Q2 + W (ii) Evaporative refrigeration.

 Evaporative refrigeration makes use of the
W Ref T2 < T1 principle that when a liquid evaporates, it
absorbs heat equivalent to its latent heat of
vaporization from the surroundings, thereby
Q2
cooling it.
T2  Cooling of water in the earthern pitcher – the
Sink water coming out of the pores of the pitcher
evaporates when it comes in contact with dry
Where, air, thereby cooling the water in the pitcher.
Q2 = Quantity of heat removed from a low  When a drop of spirit is put on the palm of
temperature region. hand, it evaporates producing cooling effect.
Q1 = Quantity of heat supplied to a high  Evaporation of sweat from our skin keeps us
temperature region. cool.

33 Thermodynamics
 Evaporation cooling may be defined as the

Nozzle Ejector
adiabatic transfer of heat from air to water.
 It is utilized in cooling towers where Steam
condenser water is cooled by spraying it
from top and forcing a current of air from
below. Another application is evaporative Vapours
type of condensers. Yet another application Condenser
is in desert coolers or room coolers. Dry air
Makeup
is passed through wet pads. Due to Pump water
evaporation, air gets cooled. The principle is Flash Chamber
also utilized in making artificial snow. Fig: steam jet refrigeration
(iii) Thermo-electric refrigeration:  The schematic diagram of a steam jet
refrigeration system is shown in the figure.
 This type of refrigeration employs Peltier’s
The pressure reduction in the system is
effect. When two dissimilar metals are
achieved by a steam nozzle and ejector
joined on either ends and a direct current is
assembly. Due to the extremely high
circulated through it, one joint gets cooled
velocity of steam in ejector assembly all the
while the other gets heated.
gases and vapors present in the flash
 Antimony (Sb) and Bismuth (Bi) are
chamber are removed thereby creating
commonly used metals as they are electro-
partial vacuum. This results in the reduction
chemically opposite in their polarity. If the
of the boiling point of the water.
cold end is placed in a closed space, it gets
cooled. If the magnitude of current is  Due to the evaporation of water at low
increased and a series of such strips are temperature, the remaining water in the flash
placed together a good cooling effect can be chamber gets cooled which is circulated to
produced. the refrigerated space and the warm water
received from it is sprayed in the flash
(iv) Steam jet refrigeration. chamber.
 A make-up water connection is provided in
 The principle of steam jet refrigeration is the flash chamber to make good any water
that the boiling point of water can be lost in evaporation. The steam is supplied to
reduced by reducing the pressure. At the nozzle from a boiler. The condenser
atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of condenses the steam and water vapors
water is 100C. if the atmospheric pressure received from flash chamber. The
is lowered, the boiling point is considerably condensate from the condenser is taken back
reduced. For example, at pressure of 6.5 to the boiler.
cms of water, the boiling point of water is
10C and if the pressure is further reduced to (v) Liquid gas refrigeration:
5 cm of water, its boiling point reduces to
 Liquid gases which can be utilized for
6C.
producing refrigeration should be non-toxic.
Due to this limitation only liquid nitrogen
and liquid carbon dioxide can be utilized for
the purpose.

i) Throttling expansion of a liquid with

Header
flashing
Valve ii) Reversible adiabatic expansion of a gas
Liquid Gas
iii) Irreversible adiabatic expansion
Cylinder
(throttling) of a real gas
iv) Thermoelectric cooling
Fig: liquid-gas refrigeration v) Adiabatic demagnetization.
 Due to the evaporation of cooling gas,
cooling is accomplished. The desirable properties of an ideal refrigerant
 Liquid gas is filled in a well insulated are divided into three categories.
cylinder and its quantity regulated by means 1. Thermodynamic properties.
of a valve as shown in above figure 2. Safe working properties
3. Physical properties.
 Liquid gas is sprayed in the refrigerated
space. Due to its evaporation, the
(i) Thermodynamic properties:
temperature in the refrigerated space is A good refrigerant should have low boiling
lowered. This method is used for cooling point at atmospheric pressure.
the vehicles transporting food stuff. It may If the boiling point of the refrigerator is high,
also be utilized for cold storages. the compressor has to be operated at high
vacuums.
(vi)Vortex tube system of refrigeration: On the other hand, it is desirable that the
 Vortex tube is a simple straight piece of tube operating pressures should be positive. i.e.,
into which compressed air flows tangentially above atmospheric pressure so that there is no
and is so throttled that the central core of the leakage of air or moisture in the system.
air stream can be separated from the The boiling points of some of the commonly
peripheral flow. used refrigerants are indicated below:
Hot Gas Refrigerant Boiling point at
atmospheric pressure
Cold Gas
NH3 – 30.2C
CO2 – 73.5C
SO2 – 10C
Hot Gas
Freon-11 – 23.3C
Fig: vortex tube refrigeration
Freon-12 – 29.8C
 The central core of the air is separated either Freon-22 – 41.2C
by uni-flow or counter flow method. The
central core of the air stream is cold as Freezing Point: As quite low evaporator
compared to the hot gases at the periphery. temperatures are required in a refrigeration
system
Production of low temperatures: It is desirable that the freezing point of the
The various principles and processes involved in refrigerant should be much lower than the
the production of low temperatures are as evaporator temperature so that the refrigerant
follows: does not freeze in the evaporator.

35 Thermodynamics
Latent heat. Since the cooling in a Critical temperature and pressure. The
refrigeration cycle is produced by the critical temperature of a vapour is the
evaporation of liquid refrigerant, it is temperature above which the vapour cannot
desirable that the refrigerants should have be condensed irrespective of the pressure on
high latent heat. the system.
Thus for a refrigerant having high latent heat, It is desirable that the critical temperature of
the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant the refrigerant should be above the condenser
will be more and weight of refrigerant per ton temperature to facilitate easy condensation
of refrigeration will be less. The critical temperature and pressure of some
Evaporator and condenser pressures. The of the refrigerants are indicated below:
operating pressures in the evaporator and
Critical Critical
condenser should be positive but not very Refrigerant
temperature (C) pressure (bar)
high as it would result in high capital as well
NH3 138 112.0
as operating costs.
As discussed earlier, positive pressure in CO2 30.5 72.8
evaporator and condenser is desirable to avoid SO2 157.0 77.5
leakage of air or moisture in the system. Freon-11 197.5 43.2
The evaporator and condenser pressures for Freon-12 112.1 40.6
some of the refrigerants are indicated below: Freon-22 95.4 48.7
Refrigerant at 15C in Condenser (ii) Safe working properties:
Evaporator kgf/cm2 pressure at Flammability: It is desirable that the
pressure Condenser 29C refrigerants should be non-flammable and
pressure in kgf/cm2 non-explosive individually and when mixed
NH3 2.34 11.5 with lubricating oil or air.
CO2 23.7 71.2 Ammonia when mixed with air in
SO2 0.823 4.4 concentrations of 16 to 25% (ammonia) by
Freon-11 0.205 1.285 volume is explosive.
Freon-12 1.8 7.32 Some hydrocarbons such as propane, butane,
Freon-22 3.03 12.26 ethane, methane etc. are highly flammable.
However, widely used refrigerants are non
Coefficient of performance and power per ton. flammable
These two parameters are vital in selecting a Toxicity: Leakage of the refrigerant from the
refrigerant. The table below indicates the refrigeration system is inevitable. It is
value of these for some of the refrigerants. therefore desirable that it does not have any
adverse effect on the human beings. If the
Refrigerant Coefficient of refrigerant is toxic, it can cause serious injury
H.P/Ton
Performance resulting in death if its concentration in the air
NH3 4.76 0.989 is increased. Thus it is one of the most
CO2 2.56 1.84 important considerations in selecting a
SO2 4.73 0.995 refrigerant. Some refrigerants are in-toxic in
Freon-11 5.09 0.93 nature but become toxic when mixed with air.
Freon-12 4.70 1.00 Fluorocarbon group of refrigerants fall in this
Freon-22 4.66 1.01 category.

Effect on refrigerated products: Chemical Stability:

It is desirable that the refrigerants which are The refrigerants should be chemically stable
used in applications such as domestic at the temperatures and pressures normally
refrigerator or cold storage plants where encountered in the system. If the refrigerants
materials are stored for preservation do not decompose, non-condensable gases will be
adversely affect these products if by accident formed which would adversely decompose,
it comes in contact with these. non-condensable gases will be formed which
Most fruits and vegetables are acidic in would adversely effect the system as the
nature. If ammonia is used as refrigerant, it is condensing pressure will rise and vapour lock
likely to damage these products as it is highly may form which might choke the refrigerating
soluble in water. When dissolved in water, it piping. Some refrigerants decompose at high
becomes alkaline in nature. Thus the taste of temperatures such as SO2 decomposes at
fruits and vegetables becomes alkaline in 16000C and Freon group of refrigerants
nature. Thus the taste of fruits and vegetables decompose when temperature above 6000C
will be spoiled if ammonia comes in contact are encountered.
with them.
On the other hand SO2 becomes acidic in (iii) Physical Properties:
nature when dissolved in water and will
Leak-tendency: The refrigerant may either
therefore not affect fruits and vegetables
leak out of the system or air may leak in the
which are also acidic in nature. Freon group
system. The most common causes of leakage
of refrigerants have no adverse effect on the
are wearing out of joints or the materials used
products.
for the fabrication of the system. A dense
refrigerant will have fewer tendencies to leak
Non-Corosivity:
as compared to less density refrigerant.
The refrigerant should not affect the materials
Moreover the detection of leaks should be
used in the refrigeration system. Keeping in
easy to avoid loss of refrigerant. In systems
mind the refrigerant to be used for the system,
where ammonia is used as refrigerant, leakage
the materials are selected. NH3 in the
can be easily detected because of its distinct
presence of water reacts with copper, brass or
odor whereas the entire refrigerant may leak
cuprous alloys. Thus iron or steel is used in
unnoticed if Freon is used, as it is odorless.
the construction of refrigeration as long as
Leakage of Freon group of refrigerants is
water is not present.
detected by observing the color of alcohol or
A halogenated hydrocarbon reacts with zinc.
prestolite gas torch. Light blue flame of the
Freon group of refrigerants do not react with
detector lamp turns blue green in the presence
steel, copper, brass, zinc, tin but it is corrosive
of refrigerant. Electronic leak detector is also
to Magnesium and Aluminium. This group of
used for detection of leakage and it is very
refrigerants also reacts with natural rubber.
sensitive.
Thus the gaskets used in the system should
Viscosity: Viscosity of refrigerant both in
not be made of natural rubber but of synthetic
liquid and vapour state plays an important
rubber.
role as it determines the heat transfer rate in
evaporator and condenser. Lower the
viscosity better is the heat transfer rate.

37 Thermodynamics
Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity R114 (C2 Cl2 F4) – With rotary compressors.
also determines the heat transfer rate in R142 b – For Heat pump and high condensing
evaporator and condenser. Higher thermal temp. approximately
conductivity of refrigerant is desirable. R 502 – Large frozen food
Dielectric strength: The dielectric strength or F atom – Physiologically favorable.
electric resistance of the refrigerant is to be Cl atom – Depletion of O3 layer
considered while selecting refrigerant for H atom – Flammability.
hermetically sealed compressor where
refrigerant is in contact with the motor. The Designation of Refrigerants :
relative dielectric strength of refrigerant
(a) For saturated hydrocarbons
vapour is defined as the ratio of dielectric
R(m–1) (n+1) p
strength of N2.
Specific heat: As the specific heat of Refrigerant formula : CmHnFpClq
refrigerant in liquid and vapour state is
Condition : n + p + q = 2m + 2
different in order to get maximum
refrigerating effect it is desirable that liquid Where ,
refrigerant should have low specific heat to m = number of carbon atoms
increase the sub-cooling of liquid and vapour n = number of hydrogen atoms
refrigerant, high specific heat to decrease the p = number of fluorine atoms
super heating of liquid. The overall effect of q = number of chlorine atoms
this will be an increase in the refrigerating
effect.
Analysis Of Properties Of Refrigerant : (b) For Unsaturated hydrocarbon :
R1(m–1) (n+1) p
NH3– Used with Reciprocating compressors,
screw compressors, cold storages, Ice plants, Refrigerant formula: CmH2n
food refrigeration.
Condition: n + p + q = 2m
H2O--Used in water Lithium Bromide
absorption system and steam ejector system Refrigerant should be
only for A/C. Non Flammable
CO2–Used as solid CO2 or dry ice in NH3 + Air (16 – 25% by Volume) explosive
Transport refrigeration Propane, Butane, Ethane, Methane are
R11-(CCl3F)–Used with centrifugal flammable.
compressors in large capacity central A/C Non- Toxic
Plants. NH3 effects mucous membrane
R12 – (CCl2F2) – Used with reciprocating Non-Corrosive
compressors in small units, Domestic Chemically stable
refrigerators and water coolers. Leak Tendency is less for refrigerants of high
R22 – Used with reciprocating compressors density.
window A/C. Low temperature refrigeration NH3 detected by smell.
applications cold storages, Reciprocating NH3 in presence of sulphur candle gives
screw compressors. dense white fumes.
R113 (C2 Cl3 F3) – Centrifugal compressors for Freon group detected by prestolite torch.
A/C Light blue flame turns blue green.

Viscosity should be less for better heat The only connections to the compressor
transfer rate. housing are suction and discharge fittings and
Thermal conductivity should be high for good terminals of the motor.
heat transfer rate. In some compressors the cylinder heads are
Dielectric strength is considered for removable type. Such units are called semi-
hermetically sealed compressors. hermetic or semi-sealed compressors.
The relative dielectric strength of refrigerant
vapour is defined as the ratio of dielectric (ii) Condensers:
strength of N2 vapour to dielectric strength of Condenser is a heat exchanger where heat
N2 transfer takes place between the super heated
Relative Dielectric strength refrigerant received from the compressor and
CO2 < R22 < SO2 < R11 < R12. the cooling medium of the condenser. The
Specific heat should be low to get maximum refrigerant is first cooled to saturation and
refrigerating effect. High specific heat then condensed to liquid state.
decreases superheating. Air and water can be used as the cooling
Flouro Carbons have high density and low media in a condenser either individually or
boiling point. Latent heat is not high. collectively. The condensing temperatures of
Isentropic work is small due to the condenser may vary from 160C to 200C
- low value of specific heat above the temperature of entering air, if air is
- Small volumes of suction vapour. used as the cooling medium. Similarly, it
varies from 4 to 120C above the entering
water temperature in case water is used as the
Refrigeration Equipment: cooling medium.
(i) Reciprocating Compressors: The quantity of air varies from 25 to 35 cubic
When the compressor is coupled to a motor meter/min/ton of capacity whereas quantity of
externally by extending its crank-shaft water varies from 5 to 20 litres/min/ton.
through the housing, it is called open type The recommended air and water velocities in
compressor. two types of condensers are between 250 to
To prevent refrigerant from leaking through 325 m/min and 120 to 175m/min respectively.
the compressor. To prevent refrigerant from
leaking through the housing where crank- The condensers are classified on the basis of
shaft is extended or to prevent air coming cooling medium used in them :
inside due to difference in pressure, a seal is 1. Air cooled condensers
provided in the housing around the crank- 2. Water cooled condensers
shaft. 3. Evaporative condensers
However the leakage problem is not fully
overcome. To avoid it, the motor and the 1. Air Cooled Condensers:
compressor are enclosed in the same housing. Air is used as the cooling medium in the air
Such compressors are called hermetically cooled condensers. Heat transfer takes place
sealed compressors. by air convection around the condenser
The insulation of the motor in such cases surface. The air may be circulated either by
should be of special type as it is continuously natural convection or by forced convection.
exposed to the oil and the refrigerant. In the natural convection air cooled
condensers, large condensing surface area is

39 Thermodynamics
required as the circulated air quantity is less. These are suitable for applications above 100
These type of condensers are used in domestic tons capacity.
refrigerators, deep freezers and other small The condenser is named evaporative
capacity applications. condenser as it makes use of the principle of
In the case of forced convection condensers, evaporative cooling.
air is circulated by means of a fan or blower. The water evaporates when it comes in
These types of condensers are compact in contact with the refrigerant flowing in
design and are relatively more efficient. condensing coil.
High pressure Water is sprayed over the condensing coil
refrigerant vapour through which hot refrigerant vapour is
flowing.
A pump is utilized for this purpose. An
exhaust fan is fitted at the top of the
m
condenser and it sucks air from the side
opening.
Eliminators are provided in the condenser to
Receiver
prevent escaping of water particles with air.
High pressure liquid refrigerant Fan
Fig: Air Cooled Condensers Eliminator

2. Water Cooled Condensers: water plates
Water cooled condensers are preferred owing spray
to better heat transfer rate. Refrgerant
These can be recirculated system where Vapour In
sufficient quantity of water is available, the
Recalculated water
water is circulated through the condensers and Refrgerant
is disposed off. Liquid Out
However, in case of recirculated type Air
condensers, the same water is re-circulated Make up
water
after cooling it by some means.
Heater
Water cooled condensers are sub-divided into
the following: strainer
Sump
a) Shell and tube condensers Drain
b) Shell and coil condensers
c) Double pipe condensers Pump
Purge
Fig: Evaporative Condenser
3. Evaporative Condenser:
In this type of condensers, both air and water
are used as the cooling media. The air carries away the heat taken from the
These are used where there is scarcity of refrigerant by the water vapours. A make up
water, draining facilities are inadequate and water connection with float valve replenishes
the use of cooling tower is uneconomical. the loss in water due to evaporation.

Expansion Valves :
Adjusting screw
(a) Capillary tubes :
Capillary tube is the simplest form of the spring
expansion valve. It consists of a small bore Spring pressure
tube of fixed length and is installed between Bellows of
the condenser and the evaporator. diaphragm
The capillary offers high frictional resistance Needle and Evaporator pressure
owing to its length and small bore. It also seat out
restricts the flow of liquid refrigerant from
condenser to the evaporator. Due to these in
reasons, the pressure of liquid refrigerant strainer
Fig : constant pressure
decreases.
expansion valve
Capillary tube type expansion valve has the
limitation that once a particular bore and
length of capillary is selected for a particular It has the following limitations:
system, it cannot adjust to the variations in a) When the load falls, evaporator pressure is
discharge pressure, suction pressure and load. reduced, the valve moves to full open position
The requirement of an ideal refrigeration to bring evaporator pressure upto the pressure
system is that the compressor and the setting of the valve. This result in liquid
expansion valve must have such suction and Refrigerant flooding back the compressor,
discharge conditions that the compressor is thereby causing damage to it.
able to pump the same amount of refrigerant b) In case the load increases, the valve is closed
from the evaporator as the expansion valve is till the evaporator pressure is equal to the
feeding to the evaporator. pressure setting of the valve and thereby
Another disadvantage of the capillary tube is starving the evaporator.
that these are susceptible to clogging by On these accounts, its use is restricted to
foreign particles. small applications where constant load is
However their advantages have clear edge to encountered.
make them an ideal choice for all small
applications as they are simple in design, in (c)Thermostatic expansion valve:
expensive and have no moving parts. It is the most widely used expansion valve as
it is adaptable to any type of refrigeration
(b) Constant pressure expansion valve:
system. It has very feeler Bulbhigh efficiency
The constant pressure expansion valve
as well.
maintains a constant pressure at the inlet of
Though its name is thermostatic yet it is not
the evaporator. When the evaporator
actuated by the change in temperature of the
Diaphragm Adjustable screw pressure falls
evaporator. It is actuated by the superheat of
below the designed value, the valve opens
the refrigerant leaving the evaporator.
wider spring and partially closes when the
Its working is based on maintaining a constant
evaporator pressure increases.
degree of sufficient superheat at the
Its use is restricted to small systems. It has the
evaporator outlet. The evaporators remain
advantage that high suction pressures are not
filled with the refrigerant under all conditions
encountered since constant pressure is always
of load.
maintained at the inlet of the evaporator.

41 Thermodynamics
The principle of the thermostatic expansion The evaporators are classified depending on
valve is shown in fig. It consists of pressure the type of construction, natural or draft
bellows/diaphragm, a needle and the seat, a convection used, operating conditions, type of
feeler bulb and the adjustable spring. refrigerant control and application.
Some of the most widely used evaporators are
described below:
Sensing Bulb
and capillary tube (a) Natural convection evaporators :
These are useful for the applications where
Diaphragm
low velocities are desired. Such as
refrigerators, cold storages, water coolers etc.
Natural convection current is set up because
spring of the temperature difference between the
Internal evaporator and the area/substance to be
Equalizer cooled. The refrigerant from the expansion
ports valve is fed through coils. Due to the
Pan Low pressure liquid
Valve and
refrigerant temperature difference air flows over the
seat ` High
coils. The surface area of the coils is
Valve pressure increased by providing fins, due to which
body liquid effective rate of heat transfer increases.
This type of evaporators has the advantage
Fig: Thermostatic expansion valve that they do not occupy any space and trouble
free. However their use is restricted to smaller
The feeler bulb is fixed on the suction line at applications owing to poor heat transfer rate.
the outlet of the evaporator to sense the
temperature changes of the refrigerant. (b) Flooded evaporators :
The pressure of the feeler bulb liquid acts on The flooded type evaporators are always full
one side of the bellows/diaphragm as it is of liquid refrigerant and a float valve
connected to it by state of equilibrium maintains the constant liquid level.
because of the two opposing pressures. A schematic diagram of flooded evaporator is
The valve setting gets disturbed, when the shown in fig.
change in the degree of superheat is Suction line
encountered, thereby it moves in the direction
Accumulator
depending on which side the pressure is Baffle
Flash Chamber
higher.
Normally thermostatic expansion valves are
Liquid Line
adjusted for a 4.5 to 5.50C superheat
Evaporators:
An evaporator is a heat exchanger where
transfer of heat takes place between the
substance/area to be cooled and the
refrigerant. Fig: Flooded Evaporator

The liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator This type of evaporator is used when it is to
Flash chamber or surface drum through a float be installed at a distance, its use should be
valve expansion valve into the flash chamber avoided owing to the following reasons:
or surge drum and flows Liquid ref. down to a) The amount of refrigerant charged in the
the tubes. system is more
Due to the heat transfer, the liquid refrigerant b) There are more chances of refrigerant
boils and a mixture of vapor and liquid leakage on account of greater length of
refrigerant re-merges in the flash liquid from refrigerant piping.
the vapour. c) The performance of the refrigeration
The vapour is drawn by the compressor and system is badly affected because with the
the liquid remains in the evaporator. increased suction line, the pressure drop is
more.
(c) Dry Expansion type Evaporator:
Dry expansion type evaporators are used with (d) Double pipe evaporator:
smaller capacity refrigeration plants. The It consists of two tubes. The fluid to be cooled
expansion valve feeds the liquid refrigerant to passes in the inner tube. The refrigerant
the evaporator. passes in the outer tube in the opposite
In an ideal evaporator, the rate of feeding of direction.
refrigerant in the evaporator should be such These evaporators provide better heat transfer
that by the time the refrigerant reaches at the rate and are extensively used in petroleum
end of the evaporator, it should be completely industry for cooling oil etc.
converted into vapour.
(e) Plate surface evaporators:
Liquid The coil of the evaporator is welded on one
refrigerant
side of the plate. In some cases, the coil is
from receiver Expansion valve placed between two plates. These are
generally used in refrigerators, deep freezers,
ice cream plants etc.
Liquid Evaporator
vapour Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle:
Feeler
mixture
bulb Heating effect (QL)
Suction line to
Superheated vapour Condenser 2
compressor 3
refrigerant
Fig: Dry expansion type Evaporator
Compressor
Throttle valve
The expansion valve feeds the liquid
refrigerant at a rate depending on the 1
refrigeration load. This type of evaporator has
the maximum efficiency when the system is 4
Evaporator
fully loaded.
Cooling effect (QE)

43 Thermodynamics
Vapour compression refrigeration on different 1-2-3-4: Dry saturated compression cycle

planes: 1-2-3-4: Superheated compression cycle
1-2-3-4: Wet compression cycle
Note:
p1 2 2 2
3 Dry saturated vapour compression cycle is also
p s=c called as standard vapour compression cycle.
h=c
p2
1 Modification in reversed Carnot cycle with
4 1 1
vapour as a refrigerant
The reversed Carnot cycle with vapour as a
v
refrigerant can be used as a practical cycle
Fig: p – v diagram with minor modifications. The isothermal
processes of heat rejection and heat
2 absorption, accompanying condensation and
2
evaporation respectively, are nearly perfect
p1 processes and easily achievable in practice.
T 3 2
The isentropic compression and expansion
h=c
p2 processes, how ever have certain limitations
1
4 1 1 which are discussed below and are, therefore,
suitably modified.
S
Fig: T– s diagram Dry (Vs) Wet Compression:
The compression process shown in fig
p1 involves the compression of wet refrigerant
2
h 2 vapour at 1 to dry-saturated vapour at 2. It is
2 p2
called wet compression.
1
1 2 Pk
3 1
4 T Superheat
s 2 vapour
Tk 2
Fig: h– s diagram
Po
To
p 1 1
Q1 S
P1 3 2
Fig :Dry and Wet compression processes
WC
Q2 s=c
With a reciprocating compressor, wet
P2 compression is not found suitable due to the
1
4 following reasons:
i) First, liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the
h head of the cylinder and may damage the
Fig: p– h diagram compressor valves and the cylinder itself.

Even though the state of vapour at the end of Throttling versus isentropic expansion:
wet compression is theoretically dry-
Refrigerating machines are usually much
saturated, it is normal to expect some liquid
smaller devices compared to power plants.
droplets to remain suspended in the gas, as the
Thus the net work required by refrigeration
time taken by the compression process is
systems is quite small compared to the work
quite small compared to the time needed for
done in power-generating plants.
evaporation of droplets. For example, in a
Further, the positive work of the cycle,
modern high-speed compressor, say running
recovered during the isentropic expansion
at 2800 rpm, the time available in one
process, as shown by area 3-a-b-4’ in fig, is
revolution is only 0.021 second.
even smaller, as compared to the negative
ii) Secondly, liquid-refrigerant droplets may work of the cycle consumed during the
wash away the lubricating oil from the walls isentropic compression process, shown by
of the compressor cylinder, thus increasing area 1-2-a-b. This is evident from the
wear. expression for work, viz., –vdp. Thus for the
It is, therefore, desirable to have compression same pressure difference dp, the work
with vapour initially dry saturated at point 1 depends on the volume (v) of the working
as shown in fig. or even slightly superheated substance. In the expander, the refrigerant is
if a reciprocating compressor is used. Such in the liquid state, whereas, in the compressor,
compression is known as dry compression. it is in the gaseous state.
The state of the vapour at the end of The volume of the vapour is very large
compression will, therefore, have to be at 2, at compared to the volume of the liquid
pressure pk which is the saturation pressure of (vg>>vf). Hence, the positive work of
the refrigerant corresponding to the isentropic expansion is seldom large enough
condensing temperature Tk, instead of being at to justify the cost of an expander.
2”, which would be the state point if the On the other hand, the thermodynamic and
Carnot cycle were to be executed. It results in friction losses of an expander, if employed,
the discharge temperature T2 being higher may even exceed the gain in work. Moreover,
than the condensing temperature Tk.. there are practical difficulties in smoothly
Consequently, the refrigerant leaves the expanding a liquid of a highly wet vapour in
compressor superheated. The increased work an expander.
of the cycle due to the substitution of wet
compression by dry compression appears as P
the area 2-2–2, generally known as
superheat horn.
3 Pk Wet compression
Wet compression in some cases is indeed a 2
desirable, and also practicable with the use of Isentropic
a continuous flow machine like a centrifugal
or a screw compressor with no valves in place Isenthalpic
of a reciprocating compressor. b
4 4 Po 1
v
Fig: Comparison of Isentropic and Isenthalpic
process on P–v diagram

45 Thermodynamics
Accordingly, the isentropic expansion process It is observed that a decrease in evaporator

of the Carnot cycle may be replaced by a pressure results in:
simple throttling process or an isenthalpic i. Decrease in refrigerating effect from
process by the use of an expansion device
such as a throttle valve or a capillary tube. (h1 h4) to (h1  h4)
T
ii. Increase in the specific volume of suction
vapour from v1 to v1
iii. Decrease in volumetric efficiency, due to
Tk 3 increase in the pressure ratio.
iv. Increase in compressor work from (h2–h1) to
(h2–h1) due to increase in the pressure ratio as
To 4 4 well as change from steeper isentropic 1-2 to
flatter isentropic 1-2
c d S Effect of Condenser Pressure:

Fig: Comparison of Isentropic and Isenthalpic
process on T– s diagram P
The process is an irreversible one and is

accompanied by increase of entropy as shown Pk 3 2
in line 3-4 on the T-s diagram. Thus, the 3
substitution of the isentropic-expansion Pk 2
process 3-4 by the isenthalpic/throttling 4
process 3-4 would, theoretically result in a Po
4 1
loss of work represented by area 3-a-b-4 on qo
the p-v diagram and a decrease in the qo =(h1–h4)
refrigerating effect represented by area 4-c-d- Fig: Effect of condenser Pressure h
4 on the T-s diagram. It can be shown that on P-h diagram
both these areas are equal.
An increase in condenser pressure, similarly
results in a decrease in the refrigerating
Effect of Evaporator Pressure:
capacity and an increase in power
P consumption, as seen from the changed cycle
1-2-3-4
The decrease in refrigerating capacity is due
Pk 3 2 2 to a decrease in the refrigerating effect and
volumetric efficiency.
1 The increase in power consumption is due to
Po
4 increased mass flow (due to decreased
Po 1
4 refrigerating effect) and an increase in
Qo
specific work (due to increased pressure
Fig: Effect of Evaporator pressure h ratio), although the isentropic line remains
on P-h diagram unchanged.

Q '0 h 1  h '4   'v on the p-h diagram become flatter at higher

 temperature as they move away more and
Q h1  h 4 v
more from the saturated vapour curve.
W  COP  h 1  h 4   h 2'  h 1  An increase in specific volume decreases the
    capacity. On the contrary, an increase in
W COP   h 1  h 4   h 2  h 1  refrigerating effect will increase the capacity.
The net effect of superheating is to
Effect of Suction Vapour Superheat : theoretically reduce the capacity in ammonia
systems and to increase it in Freon 12
The effect of superheating of the vapour from systems. The ratio of the capacities with
t1 = t0 to t1 is as follows : superheating Q0 and without superheating Q0
i. Increase in specific volume of suction vapour can be written as
from v1 to v1 Q 0'  h 1'  h 4  v1 
  
ii. Increase in refrigerating effect from (h1-h4) to Q 0  h 1  h 4  v1' 
(h1 – h4)
An increase in the refrigerating effect
iii. Increase in specific work from (h2 – h1) to
decreasing the mass flow requirement and
( h2- h1)
hence work and an increase in the specific
work itself. The resulting work per unit
P
refrigeration may, therefore, increase or
decrease depending on the refrigerant and
3
operating temperatures.
2 2
The effect on work or power consumption per
v1 unit refrigeration is given by the ratio given in
to v1 equation.
4 1 1 W   h 1  h 4   h 2 '  h 1' 
  
W  h 1'  h 4   h 2  h 1 
Fig: Effect of suction vapour superheat h The COP of the cycle with superheat is given
on P –h diagram by
h  h4
It is to be noted that (h2 –h1) is greater than COP  1'
h 2'  h1'
(h2–h1). That is because, although the pressure
ratio is the same for both lines, the initial 
h1  h 4   h1  h1 
temperature t1’ is greater than t1 and the work 
h 2  h1   h 2  h1   h 2  h1  
given for example by the ideal gas expression.
  1  Effect of Liquid Sub cooling:
RT1  p 2     p 
w    1  f  T1 , 2 ,  
  1  p1    p1  It is possible to reduce the temperature of the
  liquid refrigerant to within a few degrees of
Work is a function of initial temperature T1, the temperature of the water entering the
pressure ratio p2/ p1 and exponent . Thus, we condenser in some condenser designs by
see that it increases with the initial installing a sub cooler between the condenser
temperature T1. That is why isentropic lines and the expansion valve.

47 Thermodynamics
The effect of sub cooling of the liquid from Providing a flash in a refrigerating circuit:
t3 to t3’ is shown in figure. It will be seen that
The flash chamber is provided between the
sub cooling reduces flashing of the liquid
throttle valve and evaporator and separates
during expansion and increases the
liquid refrigerant and vapour refrigerant and
refrigerating effect. Consequently, the piston
ensures only liquid refrigerant to enter the
displacement and horsepower per ton of
evaporator.
refrigeration are reduced for all refrigerants.
In this system as only liquid refrigerant enters
The percent gain is less pronounced in the
the evaporator, the size of the evaporator can
case of ammonia because of its larger latent
be reduced.
heat of vaporization as compared to liquid
specific heat. Condenser
t3
p t3
Throttle valve
Compressor
3 3 tk 2
Flash chamber
to
Evaporator
4 4 1
Q0
Providing a flash chamber in a refrigerating
unit has no effect on net refrigerating effect
h (NRE), power consumption (Wc), and
Fig: Effect of liquid subcooling
coefficient of performance (COP).
Normally, cooling water first passes through
the subcooler and then through the condenser. Providing accumulator in a refrigerating
Thus, the coolest water comes in contact with circuit:
the liquid being subcooled. But this results in Accumulator is provided between throttle
a warmer water entering the condenser and valve and evaporator; the accumulator
hence a higher condensing temperature and separates vapour refrigerant and liquid
pressure. Thus, the advantage of sub-cooling refrigerant before evaporation as well as after
is offset by the increased work of evaporation and ensures only dry vapour to
compression. enter the system.
This can be avoided by installing parallel
Condenser
cooling water inlets to the subcooler and
condenser. In that case, however, the degree
Throttling valve
of sub-cooling will be small and the added
cost of the subcooler and pump work may not Compressor
be worthwhile. It may be more desirable to
use the cooling water effectively in the
condenser itself to keep the condensing Accumulator
temperature of the cooling water inlet as
minimum as possible. Evaporator

Providing an accumulator has no effect on net When difference between condenser pressure
refrigerating effect (NRE), power and evaporator pressure is very high, we go
consumption (Wc), and coefficient of for cascaded system.
performance (COP).
Due to cascading:
Providing an expansion cylinder in a i. NRE increases
refrigerating circuit instead of a throttle valve : ii. Wc decreases
Compressor connects low pressure side to iii. COP increases
high pressure side where as expander iv. compressor discharge temperature
connects high pressure side to low pressure decreases, dryness fraction decreases
side. v. pressure ratio(rp) decreases
In a refrigeration circuit expansion starts on vi. volumetric efficiency(  vol ) increases
the saturated liquid line. Due to fluid friction
and eddy currents whatever gain in work is Bell Coleman cycle or Reversed Joule cycle:
there it is lost in friction. As a result the net
gain in work is less. T
2
Condenser HP-side P
3 2
3 1
3 2
Expansion 4
4 1
cylinder Compressor
v s
Basic processes in Bell coleman cycle are

1 1-2: Isentropic compression
4
Evaporator LP-side 2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection
Incorporating expander doubles the cost and 3-4: Isentropic Expansion
also increases vibration, hence use of 4-1: Constant pressure heat absorption
expander in refrigeration circuit is not V1
recommended. Compression Ratio (rk) =
V2
Multi-stage VCRS or Cascaded VCRS : V4

Expansion Ratio (re) =
V3
7 Condenser 6
P2 P3
Throttle Pressure Ratio (rk) = 
Compressor2
P1 P4
valve2
8 5
2 Using Liquid – Vapour Regenerative Heat

3
Exchanger :
Throttle Compressor1
valve1 If we combine superheating of vapour with
liquid sub cooling, we have a liquid-vapour
Evaporator regenerative heat exchanger.
1
4
49 Thermodynamics
A liquid-vapor heat exchanger may be h1  h 4   h1'  h1 

'

h 2  h1   h '2  h1'   h 2  h1 
installed as shown in figure. In this, the E c
refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is

superheated in the regenerative heat
exchanger with consequent subcooling of the In all the above expressions, both numerators
liquid from the condenser. The effect on the and denominators increase. The net effect,
thermodynamic cycle is shown in figure. whether positive, negative or zero, depends
Since the mass flow rate of the liquid and on the refrigerant used and the operating
vapour is the same, we have from energy conditions.
balance of the heat exchanger In practice, the suction volume per ton and
qn = h1 – h1 = h3 – h3 horsepower per ton are reduced for Freon 12.
The degree of superheat (t1 – t0) and the Calculations show a slight increase in the
degree of sub cooling (tk – t3) need not be the suction volume and horsepower per ton for
same as the specific heats of the vapour and Freon 22 and ammonia.
liquid phases are different. The effect on the Experiments show, however, that the
capacity, power requirement per unit volumetric efficiency of most reciprocating
refrigeration and COP is expressed as follows compressions improves with superheat.
In particular, it must be stated that
t3 tk superheating of the vapour in a liquid vapour
regenerative heat exchanger is preferable to
3 3 tk 2 2 superheating in the evaporator itself, as the
increased refrigerating effect (h1 – h1) due to
v1 v1 superheating place from temperature t0 to t1 is
p
1 transferred as (h4 – h4) at temperature t0,
4 4 t0 1 which is a lower mean refrigeration
temperature. Thus, we obtain the same
t1
increase in refrigerating effect at a lower
h temperature by the use of a liquid-vapour
(h4 –h4) (h1–h1) regenerative heat exchanger.
Fig; vapour compression cycle with liquid
vapour regenerative heat exchanger
Condenser
2
3 1
Liquid–vapour
Regenerative
Heat Exchanger
3
1
Evaporator
4

IC Engines
CLASSIFICATION AND SOME BASIC DETAILS OF HEAT ENGINES

Heat Engines
IC Engines EC Engines
Rotary Reciprocating Reciprocating Rotary
Open Cycle Wankel Gasoline Diesel Steam Stirling Steam Closed Cycle
Gas Turbine Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine Turbine Gas Turbine
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND TERMS OF 3. Swept volume or piston displacement : The

IC ENGINES volume swept away by the piston in one of its
strokes is called swept volume.
1. Bore: Internal diameter of the cylinder is
known as the bore of the engine cylinder. 4. Clearance volume: The volume included
2. Dead Centers: The corresponding positions between the piston and the cylinder head
occupied by the piston at the end of its stroke when the piston is at its top or inner dead
where the center lines of the connecting rod center position is called the clearance volume.
and crank are in a straight line, are called the Cylinder head
dead centers. Cylinder
(a) Top dead center: The topmost position T.D.C
Clearance
attained in the piston towards the cover end Vc volume
side of the cylinder is called the TDC position
Piston
(b) Bottom dead center: The bottom – most D Total
Swept
position attained by the piston towards the volume volume
Stroke length L
lower end side of the cylinder is called the Vs
BDC position. Connecting rod
(c) Inner dead center : The innermost position B.D.C
of the piston in the case of a horizontal engine Piston rings
towards the head side of the cylinder is called
the IDC position. Crank throw or r
(d) Outer dead center : The outermost position crank radius
of the piston towards the crank end side of the
cylinder in the case of a horizontal engine is
called the ODC position

51 Thermodynamics
5. Stroke length: The distance traveled by the 1. High temperature reduces the strength of the
piston from one dead centre to the other dead piston and cylinder liner.
center position (DCP) is called the stroke 2. Overheating may lead to burning of
length. This is always equal to twice the crank lubricants, thus there may be possibility of
throw or crank radius. i.e., L = 2r lubrication failure and metal to metal contact,
Where, L = stroke length, r = crank radius. thus more heat generation due to friction.
3. The overheating may cause uneven expansion
6. Compression ratio: It is the ratio of the total of the piston and cylinder that may lead to
volume of the cylinder to the clearance piston seizure.
volume, Referring to above figure, 4. The overheated cylinder or piston may lead to
Vs  Vc pre-ignition of charge in SI engines.
the compression ratio =
Vc 5. As temperature of the cylinder increases, the
Where, Vs = the swept volume, volumetric efficiency decreases, and hence
Vc = the clearance volume the power output of the engine is reduced.
For petrol engines, compression ratio varies
from 5 : 1 to 7 : 1 and for diesel engines Effects of Engine Undercooling :
varies from 14 : 1 to 22 : 1 The cooling system in an internal combustion
engine should provide adequate cooling but not
ENGINE-COOLING SYSTEM excessive cooling. However, the excessive
cooling is not as harmful as overheating. But
Necessity of cooling : undercooling is undesirable due to the following
The temperature of gases inside the engine reasons.
cylinder, due to combustion reaches a quite high 1. At low temperature, starting of the engine
value (more than 25000C) during a cycle. If an becomes difficult.
engine is allowed to run without external cooling, 2. At low temperature, there is poor vaporization
the cylinder walls, cylinder liner, and piston will of fuel, the combustion is not proper and the
tend to attain the average temperature of the hot engine runs erratically.
gases to which they are exposed, which may be of 3. At low temperature, the viscosity of
the order of 1000 to 15000C. If the cylinder wall lubricating oil increases, it offers more
temperature exceeds 2650C, the lubricating oil frictional resistance and thus the output of the
starts losing its viscosity, starts evaporating, thus engine decreases.
tending towards lubrication failure. Also, the high 4. Undercooling of the engine may change the
temperature may cause excessive stresses in some valve clearance and settings.
parts, making them useless for further operations. 5. Overcooling may reduce engine life due to
Therefore, the internal combustion engines are corrosion and carbon deposits.
provided with cooling arrangement, which keeps In general, undercooling affects the economy and
the engine temperature well within the safe life of the engine.
working temperature limits. There are two basic types of cooling systems used
in reciprocating engines to absorb and dissipate
Effects of engine Overheating: the heat from hot cylinders.
The following are the harmful effects of engine 1. Air-cooling system, and
overheating: 2. Liquid-cooling system.

Engine Lubrication: 7. Neutralization: The oil should not have a

The lubrication is the supply of oil between two tendency to form deposits by reacting with
surfaces having relative movement. The objects air, water, fuel or the products of combustion.
of lubrication are 8. Cleaning: The oil should act as cleaning
1. To minimize the friction between the parts agent inside the engine and should carry any
having relative motion. deposits with it. It should also have non-
2. To reduce the wear and tear of moving parts. foaming characteristics, low cost, and be non-
3. To cool the surfaces by carrying away the toxic.
heat generated due to friction.
4. To seal the space between bearings and other Parts of Engine Requiring Lubrication :
parts and consequently, reduce noise. The main parts of the engine which need
5. To absorb the shocks between bearings and lubrication are
other parts and consequently, reduce noise. 1. Main crank shaft bearings.
6. To act as cleaning agent and remove dirt, grit 2. Big end or crank pin bearings.
and any deposits that might be present 3. Gudgeon in bearings.
between the moving parts. 4. Piston rings and cylinder walls.
5. Timing gears.
Properties of Lubricants: 6. Cam shaft and cam shaft bearings.
A good lubricating oil should have the following 7. Valve mechanism.
characteristics: 8. Valve guide, valve tappets, rocker arms.
1. Suitable Viscosity: The viscosity of the oil 9. Governor.
should not be changed with temperature rise. 10. Water pump bearing.
2. Oilness: It ensures the adherence to the Lubrication Systems :
bearings and spread over the surface. This The various lubrication systems used for
property makes the oil smooth and very lubricating the above parts of an internal
important in boundary lubrication. combustion engine are classified as
3. Strength: The oil must have high strength to 1. Mist lubrication system,
avoid metal to metal contact and seizure 2. Wet sump lubrication system, and
under heavy loads. 3. Dry sump lubrication system.
4. Chemical Stability: The oil should not react
with surfaces and any deposit in the cylinder. FUEL AIR CYCLES & THEIR ANALYSIS
5. Pour Point: It should be low to allow the
flow of lubricant at low temperature to the oil VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEATS:
pump. All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an
increase in specific heat with temperature. In the
6. Flash Point and Fire Point: The lubricating temperature range (300K to 2000K) the specific
oil should not burn inside the cylinder, heat curve is nearly a straight line. Which is
otherwise it will leave heavy deposit and expressed in the form
poisonous exhaust. Therefore, the flash point Cp = a1 + k1T
and fire point of the lubricating oil must be Cv = b1 + k1T
high. Where, a1, b1 and k1 are constants. Now,
R = CP – CV = a1 – b1

53 Thermodynamics
Where, R is the characteristic gas constant. Enrichment beyond the chemically correct ratio
Cp = a1 + k1T + k2T2 will lead to incomplete combustion and loss in
Cv = b1 + k1T + k2T2 thermal efficiency. Therefore, it will appear that
thermal efficiency will increase as the mixture is
The value of  decreases with increase in made leaner. However, beyond a certain leaning ,
temperature due to variation of specific heats.
the combustion becomes erratic with loss of
During the compression stroke, the final
efficiency. Thus the maximum efficiency is
temperature and pressure would be lower if
within the lean zone very near the stoichiometric
constant values of specific heat are used. This is
ratio. This gives rise to combustion loop. This
shown in the below figure.
shown in below figure.
Fig: Loss of power due to variation of specific heat

Dissociation:
Dissociation process can be considered as the Fig: Sfc vs Mep at constant speed and
disintegration of combustion products at high constant throttle setting
temperature.
Effect of Operating Variable
The effect of operating variables on pressure and
COMPARISON OF AIR-STANDARD AND temperature are discussed in the following way.
FUEL-AIR CYCLES
It is seen from fig below that the efficiency ratio 1. Compression Ratio:
(fuel-air cycle efficiency/air-standard cycle The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with
efficiency) increases as the mixture becomes the compression ratio as shown in the (fig.1).
leaner an leaner tending towards the air-standard The variation of indicated thermal efficiency
cycle efficiency, it is to be noted that this, trend with respect to the equivalence ratio for
exists at all compression ratios. various compression ratios is given in (fig. 2).
The maximum pressure and maximum
temperature increase with compression ratio
since the temperature, T2, and pressure, p2, at
the end of compression are higher. However,
it can be noted from the experimental results
(shown in fig. 3) that the ratio of fuel-air
cycle efficiency to air-standard efficiency is
independent of he compression ratio for a
given equivalence ratio for the constant-
Fig: Effect of F/A ratio on efficiency ratio volume fuel-air cycle.

Fig 3: Variation of Efficiency with mixture strength

for a constant volume F/A cycle
Fig 1: Effect of compression ratio on efficiency
(ii) Maximum Power: Fuel-air ratio affects the
maximum power output of the engine. The
variation is as shown in figure5. As the
mixture becomes richer, after a certain point
both efficiency and poor output falls as can be
seen from the experimental curve( shown in
fig4 & fig5). This is because in addition to
higher specific heats and chemical
equilibrium losses, there is insufficient air
which will result in formation of CO and H2
during combustion, which represents a direct
wastage of fuel.
Fig 2: Effect of Mixture strength on thermal for various

compression ratios
2. Fuel-Air Ratio :
(i) Efficiency: As the mixture is made lean (less
fuel) the temperature rise due to combustion
will be lowered as a result of reduced energy
input per unit mass of mixture. This will Fig 4: Effect of mixture strength on thermal
result in lower specific heat. Further, it will (iii) Maximum temperature: At a given
lower the losses due to dissociation and compression ratio the temperature is slightly
variation in specific heat. The efficiency is rich, ie., around 6% or so (F/A = 0.072 or A/F
therefore, higher and in fact, approaches the = 14 : 1) as shown in figure6. At chemically
air-cycle efficiency as the fuel-air ratio is correct ratio there is still some oxygen present
reduced as shown in (fig. 4). because of chemical equilibrium effects a rich
mixture will cause more fuel to combine with

55 Thermodynamics
oxygen at that point thereby raising the (v) Exhaust Temperature : The exhaust gas
temperature. However, at richer mixtures temperature, T4 is maximum at the chemically
increased formation of CO counters this correct mixture as shown in figure7. At this
effect. point the fuel and oxygen are completely used
up, as the effect of the chemical equilibrium is
not significant. At lean mixtures, because of
less fuel, T3 is less and hence T4 is less. At
rich mixtures less sensible energy is
developed and hence T4 is less. However, the
behaviour of T4 with compression ratio is
different from that of T3 as shown in figure 7.
Unlike T3, the exhaust gas temperature, T4 is
lower at high compression ratios, because the
increased expansion causes the gas to do more
work on the piston leaving less heat to be
rejected at the end of the stroke. The same
Fig 5: Effect of F/A ratio on Power effect is present in the case of air-cycle
analysis also.
(iv) Maximum Pressure: The pressure of a gas
in a given space depends upon its temperature
and the number of molecules. The curve of p3,
therefore follows T3, but because of he
increasing number of molecules p3 does not
start to decrease until the mixture is some
what richer than that for maximum T3 (at F/A
= 0.083 or A/F 12 : 1), i.e., about 20 per cent
rich (shown in fig 6).
Fig 7: Effect of F/A ratio on exhaust gas temperature
(vi) Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) : The mean

effective pressure increases with compression
ratio. It is maximum at a fuel-air ratio slightly
richer than the chemically correct ratio as
shown in figure 8.
Fig 6: Effect of Equivalence ratio on T and P
Fig 8: Effect of F/A ratio on MEP

(iv) Crank case Dilution: Liquid fuel in the

SI Engine Fuels cylinder causes loss of lubricating oil (by
washing away oil from cylinder walls) which
Gasoline which is mostly used in the present deteriorates the quality of lubrication and
day SI engines is usually a blend of several tends to cause damage to the engine through
low boiling paraffins, naphthenes and increased friction. The liquid gasoline may
aromatics in varying proportions. Some of the also dilute the lubricating oil and weaken the
important qualities of gasoline are discussed oil film between rubbing surfaces. To prevent
below. these possibilities, the upper portion of the
distillation curve should exhibit sufficiently
(i) Volatility: Volatility is one of the main low distillation temperatures to insure that all
characteristic properties of gasoline which gasoline in the cylinder is vapourize by the
determines its suitability for use in an SI time the combustion starts.
engine. Since gasoline is a mixture of
different hydrocarbons, volatility depends on (v) Vapour Lock Characteristics: High rate of
the fractional composition of the fuel. The vaporization of gasoline can upset the
usual practice of measuring the fuel volatility carburetor metering or even stop the fuel flow
is the distillation of the fuel in a special device to the engine by setting up a vapour lock in
at atmospheric pressure and in the presence of the fuel passages. This characteristic,
its own vapour demands the presence of relatively high
boiling temperature hydrocarbons throughout
(ii) Starting and Warm up: A certain part of the the distillation range. Since this requirement
gasoline should vapourize at the room is not consistent with the other requirements
temperature for easy starting of the engine. desired in (a), (b) and (c), a compromise must
Hence, the portion of the distillation curve be made for the desired distillation
between about 0 and 10% boiled off have temperatures.
relatively low boiling temperatures. As the
engine warms up, the temperature will (vi) Antiknock Quality: Abnormal burning or
gradually increase to the operating detonation in an SI engine combustion
temperature. Low distillation temperature are chamber causes a very high rate of energy
desirable throughout the range of the release, excessive temperature and pressure
distillation curve for best warm-up. inside the cylinder adversely affects its
thermal efficiency. Therefore, the
(iii) Operating Range Performance: In order to characteristics of the fuel used should be such
obtain good vaporization of the gasoline, low that it resists the tendency to produce
distillation temperatures are preferable in the detonation and this property is called its
engine operating range. Better vaporization antiknock property. The antiknock property
tends to produce both more uniform of a fuel depends on the self-ignition
distribution of fuel to the cylinders as well as characteristics of its mixture and vary largely
better acceleration characteristics by reducing with the chemical composition and molecular
the quantity of liquid droplets in the intake structure of the fuel. In general, the best SI
manifold. engine fuel will be that having the highest
antiknock property, since this permits the use

57 Thermodynamics
of higher compression ratios and thus the the ignition lag increases, the amount of fuel
engine thermal efficiency and the power accumulated in the combustion chamber
output can be greatly increased. increases and when combustion actually takes
place, abnormal amount of energy is suddenly
(vii) Gum Deposits: Reactive hydrocarbons and released causing an excessive rate of pressure
impurities in the fuel have a tendency to rise which results in an audible knock. Hence,
oxidize upon storage and form liquid and solid a good CI engine fuel should have a short
gummy substances. The gasoline containing ignition lag and will ignite more readily.
hydrocarbons of the paraffin, naphthenes and Furthermore, ignition lag affects the starting,
aromatic families forms little gum content will warm up, and leads to the production of
cause operating difficulties such as sticking exhaust smoke in CI engines. The present day
valves and piston rings carbon deposits in the measure in the cetane rating, the best fuel in
engine, gum deposits in the manifold, general, will have a cetane rating sufficiently
clogging of carburetor jets and enlarging of high to avoid objectionable knock.
the valve stems, cylinders and pistons. The
amount of gum increases with increased (ii) Volatility: the fuel should be sufficiently
concentrations of oxygen, with rise in volatile in the operating range of temperature
temperature, with exposure to sunlight and to produce good mixing and combustion.
also on contact with metals. Gasoline Figure below is a representative distillation
specifications therefore limit both the gum curve of a typical diesel fuel.
content of the fuel and its tendency to form
gum during storage.
(viii) Sulphur Content: Hydrocarbon fuels may

contain free sulphur, hydrogen sulphide and
other sulphur compounds, which are
objectionable for several reasons. The sulphur
is a corrosive element of the fuel that can
corrode fuel lines, carburetors and injection
pumps and it will unite with oxygen to form
sulphur dioxide that, in the presence of water
at low temperatures, may form sulphurous Fig: Distillation curves of Diesel
acid. Since sulphur has a low ignition
temperature, the presence of sulphur can (iii) Starting Characteristics: The fuel should
reduce the self-ignition temperature, then help in starting the engine easily. This
promoting knock in the SI engine. requirement demands high enough volatility
to form a combustible mixture readily and a
CI Engine Fuels high Cetane rating in order that the self-
ignition temperature is low.
(i) Knock Characteristics: knock in the CI
engine occurs because of an ignition lag in the (iv) Smoking and Odour: The fuel should not
combustion of the fuel between the time of promote either smoke or odour in the engine
injection and the time of actual burning. As exhaust. Generally, good volatility is the first

prerequisite to ensure good mixing and Because of this non-linear variation, a new scale
therefore complete combustion. was derived which expresses the approximate
relative engine performance and the units of this
(v) Viscosity: CI engine fuels should be able to scale are known as the Performance Numbers,
flow through the fuel system and the strainers PN. Octane numbers, ON above 100 can be
under the lowest operating temperatures to computed by
which the engine is subjected to.
ON(>100)
(vi) Corrosion and Wear: The fuel should not 28.28A
cause corrosion and wear of the engine = 100 
1  0.736A  1  0736A  0.035216A 2
components before or after combustion.
These requirements are directly related to the Where, A is TEL in ml/gal of fuel,
presence of sulphur, ash and residue in the Or from the performance number, PN
fuel. PN  100
Octane Number  100 
3
Rating of SI Engine Fuels:
According to a standard practice, the antiknock Rating of CI Engine Fuels:
value of an SI engine fuel is determined by In compression-ignition engines, the knock
comparing its antiknock property with a mixture resistance depends on chemical characteristics as
of two reference fuels, iso-octane (C8H18) and well as on the operating and design conditions of
normal heptane (C7H16). Iso-octane chemically the engine. Therefore, the knock rating of a
being a very good antiknock fuel, is arbitrarily diesel fuel is found by comparing the fuel under
assigned a rating of 100 octane number. Normal prescribed conditions of operation in a special
heptane (C7H16), on the other hand, has very poor engine with primary reference fuels. The
antiknock qualities and is given a rating of 0 reference fuels are normal cetane, C16H34, which
octane number. is arbitrarily assigned a cetane number of 100 and
Octane Number: The Octane number of fuel is alpha methyl naphthalene, C11H10, with an
defined as the percentage by volume, of iso- assigned cetane number of 0.
octane in a mixture of iso-Octane and normal Cetane Number: Cetane number of fuel is
heptane, which exactly matches the knocking defined as the percentage by volume of normal
intensity of the fuel in a standard engine under a cetane in a mixture of normal cetane and -
set of standard operating conditions. methyl naphthalene which has the same ignition
The addition of certain compounds (e.g. tetraethyl characteristics (ignition delay) as the test fuel
lead) to iso octane produces fuels of greater when combustion is carried out in a standard
antiknock quality (above 100 octane number).The engine under specified operating conditions.
antiknock effectiveness of tetraethyl lead, for the Since ignition delay is the primary factor in
same quantity of lead added, decreases as the controlling the initial auto ignition in the CI
total content of lead in the fuel increases. engine, it is reasonable to conclude that knock
Furthermore, each octane number at the higher should be directly related to the ignition delay of
range of the octane scale will produce greater the fuel. Knock resistance property of diesel oil
antiknock effect compared to the same unit at the can be improved by adding small quantities of
lower end of the scale. For instance, octane compounds like amyl nitrate, ethyl nitrate or
number increases from 32 to 33 octane number. ether.

59 Thermodynamics
Air – Fuel mixtures: The carburetor should provide an A/F ratio in

An engine is generally operated at different loads accordance with engine operating requirements
and speeds. For this, proper air-fuel mixture and this ratio must be within the combustible
should be supplied to the engine cylinder. Fuel range.
and air are mixed to form three different types of
mixtures. Mixture Requirements at different loads and
i) Chemically correct mixture speeds :
ii) Rich mixture and The mixture corresponding to the maximum
iii) Lean mixture output on the curve is called the best power
Chemically correct or stoichiometric mixture is mixture with an A/F ratio of approximately 12:1.
one in which there is just enough air for The mixture corresponding to the minimum point
Complete combustion of the fuel. For example, on the bsfc curve is called the best economy
to burn one kg of octane (C8H18) completely mixture. The A/F ratio is approximately 16:1. It
15.12 kg of air is required. Hence chemically may be noted that the best power mixture is much
correct A/F ratio for C8H18 is 15.12:1; usually richer than the chemically correct mixture and the
approximated to 15:1. This chemically correct best economy mixture is slightly leaner than the
mixture will vary only slightly in numerical value chemically correct.
between different hydrocarbon fuels. It is always
computed from the chemical equation for Best power Stoichiometric mixture
Power output (kW)
bsfc (kg/kW h)
complete combustion for a particular fuel. Power output
Complete combustion means all carbon in the
fuel is converted to CO2 and all hydrogen to H2O.
A mixture which contains less air than the bsfc
stoichiometric requirement is called a rich
mixture (example, A/F ratio of 12:1, 10:1 etc.). Best economy
A mixture which contains more air than the 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Stoichiometric requirement is called a lean A/F ratio (kg of air/kg of fuel)
mixture (example, A/F ratio of 17:1, 20:1 etc.)
There is however, a limited range of A/F ratios in Carburetor
a homogeneous mixture, only within which
combustion in an SI engine will occur. Outside Compensating Devices:
this range, the ratio is either too rich or too lean to A mixture of constant air-fuel ratio is always
sustain flame propagation. This range of useful required for wide range of speed of an engine for
A/F ratio runs from approximately 9:1 (rich) to economic operation. This required condition
19:1 (lean) as indicated in the figure cannot be fulfilled with a single jet carburetor as
it gives richer mixture with increasing speed. A
Excess fuel Excess air number for devices are used to fulfil the above
Too rich
requirement. The increased richness of the
Combustible Too lean
to burn range to burn
mixture with increasing speed can be reduced
either by supplying more quantity of air
9 15 19 (proportionately increased) or reducing the
Fig: Air - fuel ratio
quantity of fuel supplied (proportionately

decreased) and A : F ratio of the mixture supplied To engine

to the engine is maintained constant at all normal
running speeds. These devices used to maintain Throttla
the A:F ratio constant irrespective of speed of the
engine are known as compensating devices. The
Auxullary air
commonly used compensating devices are listed valve
below: Float Butterfly
(a) Auxiliary Air Valve valve
(b) Compensating Jet
(c) Air bleed jet Float chamber
(d) Automatic choke
(e) Pressure Reduction in the Float Chamber
From atmosphere
The arrangements of different systems and their
Fig: Auxiliary Port Carburetor
working are described below:
(b) Compensating jet or Double jet
(a) Auxiliary Air Valve: The vacuum near the The principle of compensating jet device is to
venture increases with the increasing speed of make the mixture learner as the throttle opens
the engine and this causes the valve spring to progressively. In this method, as can be seen
push the valve down supplying additional air from Fig. in addition to the main jet, a
and prevents the mixture from becoming over- compensating jet is incorporated. The
rich. The opening of the valve is proportional compensating jet is connected to the
to the speed of the engine. compensation well. The compensating well is
Additional quantity of air is admitted by also vented to atmosphere like the main float
opening of the butterfly valve as shown. The chamber. The compensating well is supplied
opening of the butterfly valve is directly with fuel from the main float chamber
proportional to the engine speed. This method through a restricting orifice.
is generally used in air craft carburetor for
altitude compensation.
To engine
Throttla Auxullary air
valve
Valve
spring
Float Extra air
Float chamber
From atmosphere
Fig: Auxiliary valve Carburetor
Fig: Compensating jet device

61 Thermodynamics
With the increase in air flow rate, there is the main jet and the air bleed jet will be filled
decrease of fuel level in the compensating well, with fuel. When the engine starts, initially the
with the result that fuel supply through the fuel starts coming through the main as well as the
compensating jet decreases. The compensating jet air bleed jet (A). As the engine picks up, only air
thus progressively makes the mixture leaner as starts coming through the air bleed and mixes
the main jet progressively makes the mixture with fuel at B making a air-fuel emulsion. Thus
richer. The sum of the two tends to keep the fuel- the fluid stream which has become an emulsion
air mixture more or less constant as shown in of air and liquid has negligible viscosity and
below Fig. The main jet curve and the surface tension. Thus the flow rate of fuel is
compensating jet curve are more or less augmented and more fuel is sucked at low
reciprocals of each other. suctions. By proper design of hole size at B
compatible with the entry hole at A, it is possible
to maintain a fairly uniform mixture ratio for the
entire power range of the operation of an engine.
If the fuel flow nozzle of the air-bleed system is
placed in the centre of the venturi, both the air-
bleed nozzle and the venturi, are subjectd to same
engine suction resulting approximately same fuel-
air mixture for the entire power range of
operation.
Fig: Effect of Compensating jet device on F/A ratio
(d) Automatic Choke:
It is necessary to provide a very rich mixture
(c) Air bleed jet: during starting of the engine in cold weather.
This is accomplished by providing starting jet
and a valve in the air-passage on the air
stream side of the venturi. This valve is
known as choke valve.
The choke valve is kept almost closed during
starting in cold weather. This creates the high
vacuum around the fuel jet and causes extra
flow of fuel through the jet and enrich the
mixture.
(e) Float Pressure Reduction Method: A valve

Fig: Air bleed jet V is placed in a large vent line. When the
Figure illustrates a principle of an air-bleed valve is wide open, the pressure on the fuel
system in a typical modern down-draught surface in the float chamber is atmospheric
carburetor. As could be seen it contains an air- (p1) and the pressure difference causing the
bleed into and main nozzle. The flow of air flow through fuel jet is (p1-p2). When the
through this bleed is restricted by an orifice and valve is completely closed then pressure on
therefore it is called restricted air-bleed jet which the fuel level in the float chamber is equal to
is very popular. When the engine is not operating the pressure near the venture throat (p2) and

the pressure difference causing the fuel flow mono-oxide emission. The enrichment E, due
is zero and therefore there will be no fuel to density variations closely follows the
flow. By adjusting the control valve, any relationship
desired pressure difference can be maintained 0 PT
causing the flow of desired fuel rate. E 1  0
 P T0
Where subscript ‘0’ refers to the calibration
conditions.
Control valve To engine
Small vent
V
line Firing Order :
Every engine cylinder must fire once in every
cycle. This requires that for a four-stroke four-
cylinder engine the ignition system must fire for
2 2 every 180 degrees of crank rotation. For a six-
cylinder engine the time available is only 120
degrees of crank rotation.
Float chamber
The order in which various cylinders of a
multicylinder engine fire is called the firing order.
Large vent line
1 1 The number of possibilities of firing order
From atmosphere depends upon the number of cylinders and throws
Fig: Pressure reduction method of compensation
of the crankshaft. It is desirable to have the power
impulses equally spaced and from the point of
ALTITUDE COMPENSATION view of balancing this has led to certain
conventional arrangements of crankshaft throws.
 An inherent characteristic of the conventional Further, there are three factors which must be
float type carburetor is to meter air and fuel considered before deciding the optimum firing
by volume and not by weight which is the order of an engine. These are :
basis of calculating combustible air-fuel ratio. 1) Engine vibration
 The weight of one cubic metre of air 2) Engine cooling
decreases as altitude increases. Most 3) Development of back pressure.
automobile carburettors are calibrated at
altitudes near sea level and similarly The firing order for some multicylinder engines
production carburettors are flow tested and are given below.
adjusted in a controlled environment.
 When the atmospheric conditions are different Number of cylinders Firing order
from those at which the carburettor was 2-cylinder engine 1, 2
calibrated, density of air changes. If the 3-cylinder engine 1, 3, 2
vehicle is driven at an altitude lower than the 4-cylinder engine 1, 3, 4, 2 or
calibration altitude a lean mixture is obtained 1, 2, 4, 3
which results in poor driveability. 6-cylinder engine 1, 5, 3, 6, 2, 4 or
1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5
 At altitudes higher than the calibration
8-cylinder engine 1, 6, 2, 5, 8, 3, 7, 4
altitude a rich mixture is supplied which
Or 1, 8, 7, 3, 6, 5, 4, 2
causes increases in hydrocarbon and carbon

63 Thermodynamics
Valve Timing Diagram of Two - Stroke EPO before 60 BDC

Engines EPC after 60 BDC
FVO before 15 BDC
FVC after 20 BDC
Valve Timing Diagram of Four-Stroke Engines

The effect of the intake valve timing on the
engine air capacity is indicated by its effect on the
air inducted per cylinder per cycle, i.e., the mass
of air taken into cylinder during one suction
stroke.
Fig: Valve timing diagram for 2-stroke

Petrol engine
Fig: Valve timing diagram 4-stroke SI engine
Fig shows representative intake valve timing for

both a low speed and high speed SI engine.
Fig: Valve timing diagram for 2-stroke The intake valve starts to open 10 before TDC. It
Diesel engine may be noted from Fig. that for a low speed
engine, the intake valve closes 10 after BDC,
The valve timing values for a two stroke Petrol
and for a high speed engine, 60 after BDC.
engine is as follows
TPO before 35 BDC At low engine speeds, the charge is moving into
the cylinder relatively slowly, and its inertia is
TPC after 35 BDC
relatively low.
EPO before 45 BDC
EPC after 45 BDC If the intake valve were to remain open much
Spark ignition before 20 TDC beyond BDC, the up-moving piston on the
compression stroke would tend to force some of
The valve timing values for a two stroke Diesel the charge, already in the cylinder back into the
engine is as follows intake manifold, with consequent reduction in
volumetric efficiency.
TPO before 45 BDC
TPC after 45 BDC

Hence, the intake valve is closed relatively early Valve Timing Diagram of Four-Stroke Diesel
after BDC for a slow speed engine. High speed Engines
engines, however, bring the charge in through the The valve timing values for a four stroke CI
intake manifold at greater speeds, and the charge engine is as follows
has greater inertia. As the piston moves up on the IVO up to 30 before TDC
compression stroke, there is a “ram” effect IVC up to 50 after BDC
produced by the incoming mixture which tends to EVO up to 45 before BDC
pack more charge into the cylinder. EVC up to 15 before TDC
For either a low speed or a high speed engine
operating in its range of speeds, there is some
point at which the charge per cylinder per cycle
becomes a maximum, for a particular valve
setting.
If the revolutions of the low speed engine are
increased beyond this point, the intake valve in
effect close too soon, and he charge per cylinder
per cycle is reduced.
If the revolutions of the high speed engine are
increased beyond this maximum, the flow may be
chocked due to fluid friction. These losses can
become greater than the benefit of the ram, and
the charge per cylinder per cycle falls off.
The timings of the exhaust valve also affects the
Fig: Valve timing diagram high speed 4-stroke Diesel engine
volumetric efficiency. The exhaust valve usually
opens before the piston reaches BDC on the
expansion stroke. This reduces the work done by
the expanding gases during the power stroke, but
decreases the work necessary to expel the burned
products during the exhaust stroke, and results in
an overall gain in output.
During the exhaust stroke, the piston forces the
burned gases output at high velocity. If the
closing of the exhaust valve is delayed beyond
TDC, the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to
scavenge the cylinder better by carrying out a
greater mass of the gas left in the clearance
volume, and results increased volumetric
efficiency. Consequently, the exhaust valve is
often set close a few degree after TDC on the
Fig: Valve timing diagram low and medium speed
exhaust stroke, as indicated in Fig. 4-stroke Diesel engine

65 Thermodynamics
 The second law of thermodynamics

Interview Questions distinguishes between reversible and
irreversible physical processes. It tells
01. What is the cause of backfire in boiler ? how this shows the existence of a
Ans: Higher pressure in furnace or failure of mathematical quantity called the entropy
balanced draught. of a system, and thus it expresses the
irreversibility of actual physical
02. What are the percentage of Makeup water in processes by the statement that the
a standard thermal power plant (Steam entropy of an isolated macroscopic
turbine)? system never decreases. Equivalently,
Ans: 5% or more or less? perpetual motion machines of the second
kind are impossible.
03. In order to ensure constant pressure and  The third law of thermodynamics
constant flow rate of compressed air what concerns the entropy of a perfect crystal
should we put between the compressor and at absolute zero temperature, and implies
end user? that it is impossible to cool a system to
Ans: Turbine is used in between compressor and exactly absolute zero, or, equivalently,
end user that perpetual motion machines of the
third kind are impossible
04. Steam is a vapour or a gas ?
Ans: Vapour 06. What is work done in a throttling process?
Ans: Work done in throttling process is zero.
05. Laws of thermodynamics?
Ans: 07. Why we maintain turbine rpm always more
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics than what we need to run generator in
recognizes that if two systems are in thermal power plant ?
thermal equilibrium with third system Ans: In thermal power plant we use to maintain
separately then they are also in thermal the same rpm what the generator need
equilibrium with each other. because we have a tolerance in frequency of
 The first law of thermodynamics 50Hz so no where we use to maintain the
distinguishes between two kinds of higher RPM in turbine if it so there will be a
physical process, namely energy transfer speed reducer gear through which the
as work, and energy transfer as heat. It turbine shaft is connected to generator shaft
tells how this shows the existence of a
mathematical quantity called the internal 08. What is latent heat?
energy of a system. The internal energy Ans: Latent heat - It's the heat transfer that
obeys the principle of conservation of causes a change in the phase but not the
energy but work and heat are not defined temperature.
as separately conserved quantities. Generally, people get confused with
Equivalently, the first law of sensible and latent heat.
thermodynamics states that perpetual Sensible heat - It's the heat transfer that
motion machines of the first kind are cause a change in temperature in the system.
impossible.

09. What is compressor? 15. Why is cooling chamber used in a gas

Ans: Compressor is a devise to compress the turbine? Why can't we use exhaust hot air in
atmospheric air, liquid, gases to use for the compressor?
different works. Ans: Cooling chamber is used in the turbine to
control it's exhaust temperature and in this
10. What is the difference between air- way to increase it's efficiency by 2-3%
conditioner and cooler? almost. Also it is used to protect the
Ans: Air cooler deals with only circulating cool damaging of the turbine blades as high
air irrespective of heat loads in room.. temperature currents flow upon them after
Whereas AC is a system which deals with combustion.
maintaining temperature, humidity, quality
(purity) and circulation of air in the room 16. What is possible maximum efficiency of a
taking into account the heat loads of the diesel engine and a petrol engine?
system. Ans: The max possible efficiency of a diesel
engine is around 40%
11. What is the difference between COP and
efficiency? Why COP of heat pump is 17. Why efficiency of combine cycle power
greater than that of refrigerator? plant is more in winter than summer ?
Ans: For engine i.e heat engine the end result is Ans: In Rankine cycle , lower temperature is of
termed as output but for refrigerator /heat condenser which is constant in both
pump end result is not output but the desired seasons, then how efficiency increase ?
effect (heating or cooling) it produces, so what effect on brayton cycle ?
here comes the COP which is desired
18. Two boilers producing 10 ton/h steam. One
refrigeration effect/work required to
has 8 bar and second has 5 bar. Which will
produce that effect.
consume more fuel and why?
(COP)Hp = 1 + (COP)Ref
Ans: The boiler with 8 bar consumes more fuel,
because the fuel consumption increases with
12. Why zeroth law is call zeroth law of
the amount of pressure required.
thermodynamics ?
Ans: The invention of this law happen after the 19. Can we achieve condenser Vaccum more
third law. The scientiest think that this law than 1 bar?
should be at the first law but they have Ans: No
already given named the first law. so they
named the same as ZEROTH law of 20. What is continuous-emission monitoring
thermodynamics (CEM) System?
Ans: First of all it is an statutory requirement of
13. What is c.c in automobile? Govt. of India. It is mandatory to instally
Ans: Cubic capacity or stroke volume CEMS on the stack of your power plant.
CEMS is a system of online monitoring of
14. Can a power plant work without condenser? the constituent gases coming out of your
Ans: Yes, it can work, but still capacitor banks boiler. Quantity of SOX,NOX,CO,CO2,N2
are required to provide the lagging water and O2 as well as exit temperature is
demands at the peak hours measured on a continuous basis.

67 Thermodynamics
CEMS is vital to ascertain the performance will more and also speed of vehicle vice
of the boiler e.g excess O2 emission infers versa.
that you are supplying excess air which
would cool your boiler. In order to heat this 26. How many types of engine?
excess air you will be supplying extra fuel. Ans: 2 types, i.e internal and external combustion
Thus decreasing the efficiency of boiler. engine.
Similarly the qty of CO would mean less air
and thus incomplete combustion in the 27. Why shaft eccentricity is not monitored in
boiler. SOX and NOX are measured for gas turbines?
environmental reasons. Ans: Eccentricity is usually measure in steam
Hope this bird's eye description of CEMS turbines as the turbine shaft is much longer
satisfies your query. than gas turbine and the chances of
displacement of shaft from its central
21. What is meant by excess air? rotational axis very low that's why it is not
Ans: It is the extra amount of air which is require considered in case of gas turbine.
for the combustion of fuel in an engine
because mixture of air and fuel is not 28. Define boiler parts, types and working.
homogenous. Ans: Boilers are usually installed to produce
steam which ultimately is used in Power
22. Why is steam-water separation equipment Plants, and for other processing units. There
so important in good boiler operation? are different type of Boilers based on the
Ans: To get final steam temperature as per applications. Some of them are listed below.
Design. If water is present in the steam, 1. Atmospheric Fluidised Bed Combustion
super heating of steam will suffer. Boiler
2. Pulverized Fluidised Bed Combustion
23. Major purposes of the steam drum? Boiler
Ans: Steam drum separates steam and water. 3. Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion
Boiler
24. The Length of the Divergent Cone is about 4. Travelling Grate Boiler
3 to 4 times than that of the Convergent 5. Waste Heat Recovery Boiler.
Cone why?
Ans: In the divergent cone fluid expands with The General Parts include as mentioned
high pressure and high velocity this causes below.
the damage of the pipe line. To compensate 1. Steam Drum (Heart of the Boiler where
this divergent cone is always 3 to 4 times steam and water is segregated)
the convergent cone. 2. Furnace (Water Wall) is a closed system
where combustion takes place
25. What is the effect of changing in C.C of the 3. Economiser (Nothing But Pipes of size
engine? 50 NB (varies depending on the size of
Ans: In I. C engine C.C is actually cubic capacity the boiler) to preheat water by the flue
of engine that is required for producing gas produced during the combustion
power of engine. So when C.C of engine 4. Evaporator, Superheater coils,
will more then its power producing capacity 5. Air Preheater

6. Bunker and Fuel Feeding Systems Ans: Generally the steam turbine is shown in
7. Dosing Systems, Sample Coolers horizontal V-shape position which indicate
8. ID, FD, PA & SA Fans that the blades will be smaller for high
9. Bed Ash Coolers pressure side and slight big for medium
10. Valves, Fittings etc. pressure and bigger for low pressure this to
Normally Boiler capacity is mentioned in compensate the expanded volume of a
tph (tonnes per hour) i.e. how much steam is steam in a turbine
produced in an hour. Normally to produce so small size blade = high pressure
an electricity of 1 MW, 4 to 5 tonnes of medium size blade = medium pressure
Steam per hour is required. Accordingly long size blade = low pressure
Boilers are designed. It is a closed pressure
vessel. 34. What is the material composition in IBR
tubes?
29. What are the three methods of the heat Ans: Copper, brass and steel tubes
transfer? Give example for each.
Ans: Conduction, convection and radiation. 36. What is the purpose of inter cooler in
Ex: heated rod, flow over heated plate, sun multistage compressor?
radiation. Ans: During compression the temperature of
compressed air goes up and this intercooler
30. How to produce vapour on steam turbine is provided to cool this compressed air to
main oil tank? It is a closed vassel little safe value. Intercooler is nothing but a heat
amount of water is present in purification exchanger which cools the compressed air
how? so that it can be compressed again and again
Ans: Reducing pressure depending on requirement.
31. 1st law of thermodynamics ? 37. What is the purpose of fusible plug in boiler
Ans: 1st law is the change in the internal energy and where it is located?
of a system is equal to the amount of heat Ans: Fusible plug is fitted to the fire box. It’s
supplied to the system, minus the amount of object is to put off the fire in the furnace of
work performed by the system on its the boiler when the level of water in the
surroundings. boiler falls to an unsafe limit and avoids the
explosion which may takes place due to
32. If saturated temp of water is 99.8oC at overheating of the furnace
atmospheric pressure, then how the water of
sea is evaporated at normal temp 71oC ? 38. Differentiate between VAM and CHILLER.
Ans: Sea water contains NaCl which bring down Ans: In VAM there is no requirment of electrial
boiling temp of water therefore it is energy, but in chillers electrical energy
evaporated at temp 71 place critical role.
33. If you have three steam turbine blades, how 39. How does a turbine work ?
will you find which blade is for low Ans: It works by giving steam pressure at high
pressure, high pressure and medium pressure and temperature that expands
pressure? through the turbine.

69 Thermodynamics
40. What is a blow down valve? 49. What is the lower part of connecting rod?
Ans: Scum valves Ans: Crankpin
42. State the purpose of air heater. 50. What is flashpoint?

Ans: The function of air heater is to increase Ans: It is a temperature at which a fluid just gives
temperature of air before it enter into the a momentary flash
combustion chamber hence less heat is
required while combustion. 51. What is pour point?
Ans: It is a temperature at which the fluid has the
43. Give the purpose of nozzle in impulse ability to flow
turbine.
Ans: In impulse turbine only kinetic energy is 52. What is the purpose of piston rings?
available at the inlet. Now using nozzle we Ans: Piston rings in piston is used to avoid
can increase the velocity and hence k.e leakage of combustion gases into the
(k.e=m*v*v/2) at inlet of turbine increases crankcase in engine. it also used for
and hence power developed will be more. lubricating purpose for reducing the rough
or tight relative movement between the
44. Kind of refrigerant used in a refrigerating cylinder and piston.
system.
Ans: Organic refrigeration 53. Why R12 refrigerant is restricted to
 Saturated atmosphere?
 Unsaturated in organic Ans: Once leaked it will cause damage/depletion
Ex: NH3 of ozone layer in the atmosphere
45. "In steam boiler, what are the various tests 54. Name the refrigerant that is used on
in water boiler?" domestic refrigerators.
Ans: 1- Sample cooler test Ans: R134a , R12
2- a test for the safety valve
3- Ph test 55. Name the refrigerant that is the replacement
of R12.
46. Give five boiler mounting valves. Ans: R12 is seldom used now since it has about
Ans: 1- safety valves 5% of ozone depletion potential as it is a
2- blowdown valves partially halogenated refrigerant. hence the
3- check valves chlorine free R-134a has been recently
4- knife valves developed to replace R12.
5- gate valves
56. Name two types of leak detectors and the
48. What will be the cause of the loose method of application for each.
compression in a cylinder? Ans: For freon refrigeration system leak hallide
Ans: Weak compression may be due to wornout torch is used. For halogenated refrigerants
piston rings or wornout piston and wornout electronic leak detectors are used.
cylinder or all of these.

57. How to determine the capacity of the coils and that air become chilly and
refrigeration system? How we use flows out the vents.
condenser coils, compressor, capillarity, 62. "In refrigeration, why during operations is
compressor? running low pressure at the suction side?"
Ans: To determine the refrigeration system by Ans: Before coming to suction side of the
test of COP and use the condenser coils, compressor, refrigerant passes expansion
compressor, capillarity, based on the valve which reduce the pressure of the
properties refrigerant then to evaporator.
58. What is meant by one ton Air conditioner? 63. Diagram of refrigeration?
How fast it cools a room ? Ans: Compressor(Refrigerant is gaseous)-->
Ans: 1 ton refrigeration means extracts condenser
210kJ/min heat from the system. (Refrigerant is liquid)---> expansion valve
(Low pressure liquid)-----> evaporator
59. Why we cannot cool the room by opening (Refrigerant, is liquid)---> compressor.
the refrigerator ?
Ans: Because in case of opened refrigerator, the 64. What is the hottest part of refrigerant in the
refrigerator takes the room heat but also refrigeration system?
emits the motor heat (during working) so Ans: Compressor outlet is the hottest part of the
due to that refrigeration system
Total Heat in Room = Room Heat +
Refrigerator Motor Heat. 65. What is the effect if your refrigeration
 So over all the refrigerator cannot cool system has an air?
the room but it will slightly increases the Ans: Medium of refrigerant is not applicable
room temperature.
66. Give the different ways of detecting leaking
60. Why is Air Conditioner capacity measured refrigerants.
in ton, like 1.5 ton ? Ans: 1-Halide Torch Method (Halogen Selective
Ans: 1 ton of refrigeration is 3.5167kW heat Detectors)
absorbing capacity refer amount of 2-Soap Bubble Test
refrigeration effect produce by melting of 3-stand Hold Test
2000 pounds ice maintaining at 32oF in 24 4-Ultrasonic Leak Detectors
hrs 5-Electronic Leak Detectors(R-22 nitrogen
test mix)
61. Give the function of evaporator. 6-Nitrogen Isolation Test
Ans: The evaporator coils are used to transform 7-Fluroscent Dyes (leak detection dyes)
the refrigerant from a liquid to a gas. It is
the last device in the cooling system. To 67. What will happen if there is moisture in
accomplish this, the evaporator allows the refrigeration system?
fluid refrigerant to expand with lower Ans: Refrigeration systems are very sensitive to
pressure in the coils. As the liquid expands, moisture in the refrigerant side of the
it loses heat. A fan blows warmer air over system. If moisture gets into the system,
failure may occur due to:

71 Thermodynamics
Ice formation in expansion valves, capillary 09. When crude oil is heated, which hydro carbon
tubes or evaporators, comes first?
Corrosion of metals, 10. Explain, why re-heater is used in gas turbine?
Copper plating,
Chemical damage to insulation in hermetic 11. Why there is concern for setting nuclear
compressors or other system materials. power plant?
12. Where did nuclear disaster take place?
68. Kinds of refrigerants and their properties.
13. How nozzle work?
Ans: Freons
natural refrigerants 14. Explain the difference between projectile
hydrocarbons motion and rocket motion?
15. Tell us boiler thickness formulae’s
69. Give five parts inside the centrifugal pump
16. What are the effects of boiler scale for
and explain each.
mation?
Ans: 1- Impeller
2- Shaft 17. How pressure cookers work ?
3- Mechanical seal 18. Draw the p-v diagram of Rankine cycle?
4- wear rings
5- black plate 19. Why Throttle valve is used in stream engine?
20. What is the effect of reheater in the gas
turbine?
Interview Practice Questions 21. Why Entropy decreases with increase in
temperature?
01. Working & advantages of four stroke IC 22. What is the difference between Fan and
engine. Blower?
02. What is the calorific value of CNG, ethylene? 23. Difference between Performance and
03. Explain two stroke and four stroke engine. Efficiency?
04. Who invented a four stroke engine? 24. How a Diesel Engine works as Generator?
According to you which one is more efficient 25. Compare Brayton Cycle and Otto Cycle?
four stroke engine and a two stroke engine
and why? 26. Types of refrigeration and where they are
used?
05. Why heavy vehicles are made by diesel
engine? 27. Difference between refrigerator and a air
conditioner?
06. What are the order of firing in 4-cylinder
engine? 28. Difference between induced draft cooling
tower & natural draft cooling tower?
07. Draw the diagram of diesel cycle.
29. What is mean by specific steam consumption?
08. What are the Advantages and Disadvantages
of using LPG in car? 30. Why water is used as a working fluid in
Thermal power plant?


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INTERVIEW

Open system :  In a state of equilibrium the properties of a

Path and process: A system undergoes a process 3. Isothermal Expansion or Compression :

Criterion for Reversibility Examples of Irreversible Process :

2. Frictionless Adiabatic Compression or

1. Liquid in glass thermometer :- Specific Heat at Constant Volume:

transferred as heat from the liquid to the

which a finite quantity of energy can be added as Carnot Cycle:

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale:  The second law of thermodynamics provides

 It represents mathematical expression to the

because work is a path function. Work is not a

Law of Degradation of Energy: Exergy destruction:

in  out  destroyed  system

This can also be expressed in the rate form as, Theory:

f 50 bar Sub Cooled (or) compressed liquid state (‘a’) :

Vapour phase regions.

 It is the point of intersection of sublimation Fusion Curve

Enthalpy- entropy ( Mollier)diagram : Clausius -Clapeyron Equation

The Ericsson cycle :

working medium are the same as those of air P4 4

QS Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles :

 At a given temperature and pressure the dry P=Psat

Enthalpy of moist air: (ii) Sensible cooling:

(a) For heating process : DBT-Constant

(v) Heating and humidification:

(iii) Humidification: T H2O > (DBT)air

moisture. As the air comes in contact with (ix) Chemical Dehumidification:

Sensible Heat Factor (SHF): 5

(ii) Back work ratio: Carnot Vapour Power Cycle:

liquid and condensation of the vapour.

T1  T2 Effect of operating variables on the

As boiler pressure increases: (iii) Decreasing condenser pressure:

Various losses in steam turbines: h

Regenerative cycle: Gas Turbines

Comparison between Brayton Cycle and Otto

4  The air-fuel ratio should be sufficient to

Refrigeration (COP) R reversible  T2

Q1=Q2 + W (ii) Evaporative refrigeration.

 Evaporation cooling may be defined as the

i) Throttling expansion of a liquid with

Effect on refrigerated products: Chemical Stability:

High pressure liquid refrigerant Fan

Fig: Air Cooled Condensers Eliminator

adjusted for a 4.5 to 5.50C superheat

Vapour compression refrigeration on different 1-2-3-4: Dry saturated compression cycle

Accordingly, the isentropic expansion process It is observed that a decrease in evaporator

c d S Effect of Condenser Pressure:

The process is an irreversible one and is

Q '0 h 1  h '4   'v on the p-h diagram become flatter at higher

Basic processes in Bell coleman cycle are

Multi-stage VCRS or Cascaded VCRS : V4

2 Using Liquid – Vapour Regenerative Heat

A liquid-vapor heat exchanger may be h1  h 4   h1'  h1 

refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is

CLASSIFICATION AND SOME BASIC DETAILS OF HEAT ENGINES

Rotary Reciprocating Reciprocating Rotary

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND TERMS OF 3. Swept volume or piston displacement : The

Engine Lubrication: 7. Neutralization: The oil should not have a

Fig: Loss of power due to variation of specific heat

Fig 3: Variation of Efficiency with mixture strength

Fig 2: Effect of Mixture strength on thermal for various

(vi) Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) : The mean

Fig 6: Effect of Equivalence ratio on T and P