8.

1 ALLOY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements where the main element is a metal.
Examples of alloy:
 Pewter is used to make souvenirs.
 Stainless steel is used to make cutlery.
 Steel is used to make the body of the car.
 Brass is used to make keys.
 Bronze is used to make medals.
 Duralumin is used to make the body of aeroplane.
Comparison of Properties of Alloy and Pure Metal
ALLOY PURE METAL
Shiny Surface Dull
Resistant to Resistance to Easily corroded
corrosion corrosion
Hard Hardness Less hard

Ductility of metals:
 Pure metal is made up of one type of atom.
 Same size and arranged in an orderly arrangement
 Layers of pure metal atoms can slide easily over one another
when force is applied.
 Therefore, metals are ductile (can be easily pulled into fine
wire.)
Malleability of metals:
 There are some empty spaces in the orderly arrangement of pure metal
atoms.
 With the same size of atoms, the layers of pure metal atoms can be
easily slide to fill the empty spaces when force is applied and form a
new structure.
 Therefore, metals are malleable (easily shape without cracking).

 Alloy is formed when foreign atoms are mixed with the pure metal.
 Foreign atoms added may be larger or smaller than the atoms of the
pure metal.
 The presence of foreign atoms that are of different sizes disrupt the
orderly arrangement of pure metal atoms.
 Layers of atoms in alloy become more difficult to slide over one another
when force is applied.
THE USES OF ALLOYS BASED ON THEIR COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES
Alloy Composition Properties Uses

Duralumin  93% Aluminium  Stronger than pure  Body of

 3% Copper aluminium aeroplane
 3% Magnesium  Low density  Electric cables
 1% Manganese  Does not rust  Racing bicycles

Bronze  90% Copper  Stronger than pure  Medals

 10% Tin copper  Monuments
 Does not rust  Trophies
 Shiny

Brass  70% Copper  Stronger than pure  Musical

 30% Zinc copper instruments
 Does not rust  Doorknobs
 Shiny  Keys

Steel  98% Iron  Also known as carbon  Structure of

 0.2-2% Carbon steel buildings
 Stronger and harder  Railway tracks
 Malleable  Body of cars
 There are three types of
steel, which are low-
carbon steel, average-
carbon steel and high-
carbon steel
Stainless  73% Iron  Stronger than pure iron  Cutlery
steel  18% Chromium  Resistant to corrosion  Sinks
 8% Nickel  Surgical
 1% Carbon instruments

Pewter  95% Tin  Stronger than pure tin  Decorative

 3.5% Antimony  Does not rust ornaments
 1.5% Copper  Shiny  Trophies
 Souvenirs
8.2 COMPOSITION OF GLASS AND ITS USES
The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2

Basic Properties of Glass

 Hard but brittle
 Chemically inert
 Transparent
 Waterproof
 Heat insulator
 Electrical insulator

Types of Glass
Type of Glass Composition Properties Uses
Fused silica  Very high melting point
Silicon dioxide, SiO2  Spectacle lenses
glass  Not easy to change its  Telescope len
shape  Laboratory glass
 Does not easily expand or rods
contact under great change
in temperature
 High transparency
 Highest resistance to
chemical attack
Soda-lime  Silicon dioxide,  Fragile  Bottles and jugs
glass SiO2  Transparent  Glass containers
 Sodium carbonate,  Easily shaped or moulded  Mirrors
Na2CO3  High chemical durability  Electrical bulbs
 Calcium  Low melting point due to  Window glass
carbonate, CaCO3 the presence of sodium
carbonate
 Does not withstand high
heat
 High thermal expansion
coefficient (expand a lot
when heated and contract
a lot when cooled.
Therefore, it easily cracks
when subjected to sudden
temperature change.)
Borosilicate  Silicon dioxide,  Chemically inert  Bowls and
glass SiO2  High melting point plates
 Sodium carbonate,  Resistant to thermal shock  Cookware
Na2CO3  Low expansion coefficient  Laboratory
 Calcium (expand and contract a glassware such
carbonate, CaCO3 little under extreme as boiling tubes,
 Aluminium oxide, temperature change. beakers and
Al2O3 Therefore, it does not crack conical flasks
 Boron oxide, B2O3 easily when subjected to  Oven glass
sudden temperature  Automobile
change) headlights
Lead crystal  Silicon dioxide,  High refractive index  Prisms
glass SiO2  High density  High reflective
 Sodium carbonate,  Soft and easy to melt lenses
Na2CO3  Softer and denser than  Fine crystal
 Lead(II) oxide, PbO borosilicate glass due to tableware
the presence of lead that  Decorative
replaces calcium glassware

8.3 COMPOSITION OF CERAMICS AND ITS USES

 A ceramic is a solid made up of inorganic and non-metallic substances.
 Ceramic produced through the proses of shaping and hardening by using
heating technique at a high temperature.
 Most ceramics contain metal compounds, non-metal compounds or semi-
compounds.
For example:
a) Metal compound – aluminium oxide, Al2O3
b)Non-metal compound – boron nitride, BN
c) Semi-metal compound – silicon carbide, SiC

Basic properties of ceramics

 High thermal resistant
 Break easily
 Chemically inert
 Electrical insulator
 Hard and strong
 Heat insulator
Types of ceramics
a) Traditional ceramics
i. Traditional ceramics are mainly made from clay
ii. Kaolin, a hydrated aluminosilicate, Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O is an example of clay.
iii. Generally, the main component of traditional ceramics is silicate, a
compound that contains silicon, oxygen and one or more metals.
iv. The common way of preparing traditional ceramics is by mixing clay with
water to produce a soft, mouldable mixture.
v. The moulded clay is then heated at a very high temperature and left to cool
for the hardening process.
vi. Ceramic that has been hardened cannot be melted again due to its extremely
high heat resistance.
vii. Examples of traditional ceramics include bricks, pottery, porcelain, tiles,
cement, and crockery.
viii. The table below shows the properties and uses of traditional ceramics:
Properties Uses Example of
traditional ceramics

Hard and strong Tiles, cement, bricks

Construction materials
Withstand high pressure Wall of the furnaces
and heat and nuclear reactors
Resistant to chemicals, Ornamental articles Pottery, plates, bowls,
do not corrode and vases, teapots, toilet,
long-lasting wall tiles, floor tiles
Good electric and heat Electrical appliances Insulation layer in
insulators ovens and toasters

b) Advanced ceramics
i. Advanced ceramics are made of inorganic substances such as oxides,
carbides, nitrides, silicides, borides and so on, and most important, the
chemical composition, crystal structure and grain size can be controlled
precisely.
ii. Examples of advanced ceramics include alumina, zirconia, silicon nitride,
silicon carbide, silicon dioxide, lithium-silicon oxide, tungsten carbide,
boron nitride, yttrium barium copper oxide and others.
iii. Advanced ceramics have other particular properties such as:
  Resistant to abrasion
 Withstand thermal shock
 Better chemical durability
 Has superconductivity properties
iv. The table below shows the properties and uses of advanced ceramics:
Properties Uses Example of advanced
ceramics
Hard and strong To make cutting-tools Tungsten carbide, WC
such as cutting discs Silicon carbide, SiC
Boron nitride, BN
Withstand thermal To make brake discs Silicon carbide, SiC
shocks and higher heat
resistance
Hard and resistant to To make tungsten Tungsten carbide, WC
abrasion carbide rings
Have semiconducting To make integrated Silicon dioxide, SiO2
properties and can store circuits in computer Alumina, Al2O3
charges microchips
Display high temperature To make Yttrium barium copper
superconductivity superconductors oxide (YBCO), YBa2Cu3O7
Hard, resistant to To make artificial limbs, Alumina, Al2O3
corrosion and chemicals bones and knee bones

Hard, resistant to To make dentures (teeth) Zirconia, ZrO2

corrosion and chemicals,
and withstand
compression

Ceramic Uses Application

Example Medicine  Zirconia ceramic is used in dental implants.
of  Alumina ceramic is used to make knee bone.
ceramic  Ceramic is used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
uses machines because it has superconductivity properties.

Transportation  Engine components in jet planes are made from

ceramics.
Energy  Ceramic is used to make electrical insulators in high
production voltage areas such as power stations.

8.4 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND ITS IMPORTANCE

 A composite material is a material made from combining two or more non-
homogeneous substances, that is matrix substance and strengthening
substance.
 The matrix substance surrounds and binds the strengthening substance
together.
 Both components of a composite material have different physical and chemical
properties. When combined, the composite material formed has better
properties than the original components.

Composite Materials and Their Uses

a)Reinforced concrete
i. Concrete is a material that consists of a mixture of stones, chips and sand
bound together by cement.
ii. Concrete is strong, can withstand high compression forces. It is brittle and
breaks if subjected to high stretching forces.
iii. Steel has high stretching strength.
iv. When steel bars or wire mesh (strengthening substance) are embedded in
concrete (matrix substance), it produces a very tough material with more
tensile strength called reinforced concrete.
v. Reinforced concrete is relatively cheap and can be moulded into any shape.
vi. It is used to build the bridges, buildings, reservoirs and dams, oil platforms
and highway.
b)Fibre glass
i. Glass is hard, strong, has high density but it is relatively brittle.
ii. Plastic is elastic, flexible, has low density but it is weak, soft and easily burnt.
iii. When plastic (matrix substance) is reinforced with glass fibres (strengthening
substance), a strong composite material called fibre glass is produced.
iv. It has high tensile strength, low density, can be easily coloured, moulded and
shaped. It can even be made into thin layers, yet very strong.
c) Optical fibre
i. An optical fibre consists of three layers. The innermost layer is the core that is
made up of silica glass fibres (strengthening substance). The core is encased in
a second layer or cladding that is made up of glass or plastic (matrix
substance). The outermost layer is made of plastic that acts as a protective
jacket (matrix substance).
 ii. It has high transmission capacity and chemical stability, but low susceptibility
to interference and not be influenced by electromagnetic disturbances.
Hence, it is used to transmit information and data in the form of light.
iii. Due to the different refractive indexes between the core and the cladding,
light travels through the core section via total internal reflection.
iv. It has replaced copper wires in video cameras and local area networks (LAN)
for computers. Besides that, it is also used in medical field as an endoscope to
examine the internal parts of the body, and in communication to transmit
voice and image in a digital format.
d)Photochromic glass
i. When silver chloride, AgCl and copper (I) chloride, CuCl crystals (strengthening
substances) are embedded in glass (matrix substance), photochromic glass is
produced.
ii. When photochromic glass is exposed to light, the chloride ions are oxidised to
produce chlorine atoms by releasing electrons.
Cl- (aq) Cl (s) + e-
iii. The electrons are transferred to silver ions. Silver ions are reduced by gaining
electrons to produce silver atoms.
Ag+ (aq) + e- Ag (s)
iv. Silver atoms cluster together and block the transmittance of light. The glass
darkens.
v. When silver atoms are converted back to silver ions, the glass becomes
transparent again.
vi. Photochromic glass is used in the spectacle lenses to protect the user from UV
rays, to make car windshields, camera lenses, optical switches and light
intensity meters.
e)Superconductors
i. A superconductor is capable to conduct electricity without any electrical
resistance when it is cooled to an extremely low temperature.
ii. Yttrium barium copper oxide ceramic (perovskites) with its superconducting at
a temperature of 95 K with zero resistance.
iii. Superconductors have low power dissipation, high-speed operation and high
sensitivity.
iv. Therefore, superconductors are used to make electromagnets, which are
superconductor magnets (supermagnets). These supermagnets are light and
have strong magnetic force. It is widely used in Maglev train nowadays.
 v. Superconductor magnets are also used in particle accelerators and involved in
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) machines and Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI) machines.

Comparison and Difference in Properties of Composite Materials and

Their Original Components
a) Reinforced concrete
i. Concrete is a mixture of cement, gravel, sand, water.
ii. The following are the properties of concrete and steel bars or wire mesh.

Properties of concrete:
 Strong but brittle
 Low stretching strength
 High compression strength
 Resistant to corrosion

Properties of steel bars or wire mesh:

 Easily rust
iii. Reinforced concrete has the
High followingstrength
stretching properties:
High compression strength
High stretching strength
Resistant the corrosion

b)Fibre glass
i. Plastic is weak, soft and easily burnt. The properties of plastic can be
improved when it is reinforced with glass fibres.
ii. The following are the properties of plastic and glass fibres.

Properties of plastic:
 Resistant to corrosion
 Tough and durable
 Low stretching strength
 Low heat and electrical conductivity
Properties of glass fibres:
 Low heat and electrical conductivity
 High stretching strength
iii. Fibre glass has the following properties
High stretching strength
Resistant to corrosion
Tough and durable
Heat and electrical insulator

c) Optical fibre (Fibre optic)

i. An optical fibre consists of a bundle of glass threads that are surrounded by a
glass or plastic cladding.
ii. The following are the properties of plastic and glass fibres.

Properties of plastic:
 High compression strength
 Flexible

Properties of glass fibre:

 Low compression strength
 Hard but brittle

iii. Optical fibre has

the following properties:
High compression strength
Flexible

d)Photochromic glass
i. Glass is transparent and does not absorb UV light. Silver chloride crystals
absorb UV light.
ii. When exposed to UV light, photochromic glass becomes dark because silver
ion, Ag+ has become silver atom and prevents the transmission of light.
iii. When in dark condition, copper (I) oxide assists in the conversion of silver
atom to silver ion, Ag+ and the glass turns transparent again.

Properties of glass:
 Transparent
Properties of silver chloride crystals:
 Transparent to visible light
 Absorbs UV light
 Sensitive to light intensity

iv. Photochromic glass

has the following properties:
Transparent but absorbs UV
Absorption of UV light depends on the intensity of the light

e)Superconductor
i. Superconductors can conduct electrical current without any resistance at very
low temperatures whereas its original components cannot.
ii. YCBO is a superconductor that is made up of a mixture of yttrium (III)
carbonate, copper (II) carbonate, barium carbonate and oxygen.
iii. Carbonate compounds originally has high electrical resistance at room
temperature.
iv. The superconductor produced is able to conduct electricity without resistance
at very low temperatures.